An Information Policy Handbook for Southern Africa · An Information Policy Handbook for Southern...

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An Information Policy Handbook for

Southern Africa

Editor Tina James

Contributors: Neil Butcher Tracy Cohen Daniel Espitia Anriette Esterhuysen Alison Gillwald Tina James Michael Milazi Jonathan Miller Gordon Oyomno Yokow Quansah Claire Sibthorpe Johannes Mowatshe Tselanyane Leo Van Audenhove Kate Wild

Reviewers: Michael Jensen Nigel Motts Sean O Siochru

IDRC

4C it C A N A D A

Funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)

Material in this report is produced as submitted. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the international Development Research Centre or the Development Bank of Southern Africa. Mention of a proprietary name does not constitute endorsement of a product and is given only for information.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), P O Box 8500, Ottawa, ON Canada K1G 3H9.

© International Development Research Centre, 2001

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This book is available on www.dbsa.org/pub//cat/ons//ctpo/sa/ and www. a pc. org/books/ictpo/Sa/

ISBN 1-919692-60-6

A Message from the South African Acacia Advisory Committee (SAAAC)

The South African Acacia Advisory Committee was established in 1999 to advise and support the IDRC in the implementation of its Acacia Project.

Acacia set out to empower sub-Saharan communities with the ability to apply ICT to their own social and economic development. Amongst its objectives was fostering the development of ICT policy to promote access for disadvantaged communities. Further, the advisory committee pledged to support the dissemination of outcomes and lessons learned in respect of ICT and development.

Recent years have seen numerous policy interventions in the sphere of ICT, both within South Africa and across the Southern African region - ranging from telecommunications reform, through e-commerce policy development, to the formulation of IT industrial strategies. Similar initiatives have been undertaken in both Mozambique and Namibia.

Some aspects of these interventions have been more successful; others less so. Collectively they represent an extensive and valuable body of practice and experience. A thorough examination of their strengths and successes, together with a frank appraisal of their weaknesses and failures, is an essential guide to future interventions. This handbook aims to achieve precisely such an analysis, empowering us to apply the lessons learned and implement appropriate models of best practice.

It is therefore with great pleasure that the South African Acacia Advisory Committee lends its support to this extensive work of research and evaluation undertaken by the National Information and Communications Project (NICP). We hope that by making it available, not only in printed form, but also over the Internet and via CD-ROM, its lessons will be widely disseminated and its learnings applied.

We applaud the NICP for undertaking this valuable work. We commend the work of the editor, Tina James, ably supported by a strong editorial collective. We are grateful to the Development Bank of Southern Africa for agreeing to transform the document into Web / CD-ROM format, and to host (along with the Association for Progressive Communications) the website.

We hope that its publication will contribute to a greater understanding of the policy interventions that shape how ICTs can (and cannot) be applied to empower communities in their social and economic development. We are confident that you, its readers, will share our high opinion of its value.

May it inspire and guide you.

Stephen Mncube Chairperson South African Acacia Advisory Committee

Information Policy Handbook v

Foreword This Information Policy Handbook for Southern Africa is the last activity supported by the Canadian International Development Research Centre's (IDRC) National Information and Communication Project (NICP).

The National information and Communication Project

The project began in 1995 as a three-year effort to reinforce South Africa's capacity to make policy changes that would apply information and the new technologies more effectively to the development needs of the newly democratic country, and align it more closely with the emerging global information society. Given the explosion of interest in the links between information and communication technologies (ICTs) and development, and the pace of globalisation, it is perhaps not surprising that the project's scope expanded to address some key issues on a regional basis and that project staff were called upon to support initiatives outside South Africa's borders. These diversions provided the resources that allowed the project to be extended in South Africa for close to three more years.

The project has been involved with numerous activities identified by key actors on the broad stage of information and communications development in South Africa, including many of the policy processes identified in this Handbook. Involvement has taken the form of direct participation by project staff, the provision of Canadian expertise and financial support. The South African Department of Communications has been a particularly close

partner, but the project has also worked with other government departments and with non- governmental organizations. It has also initiated a number of research projects and policy processes funded by other IDRC programmes, in particular Acacia: Communities and the Information Society in Africa.

An early output of the NICP was a publication on universal service and access that proved particularly popular and useful: Universal Service, Policy and Regulation: A selective review of experience internationally, Sean O'Siochru, Nexus Research, 1996. This book contributed substantially to the debate on universal service that surrounded the telecommunications reform process in South Africa and that gained regional prominence through the 1996 conference, "Information Society and Development (ISAD)". We hope that this Handbook will make a similar contribution to current debates on information policy.

An Information Policy Handbook for Southern Africa

While universal access is still at the centre of the information policy and development debate, a number of other issues are now clamouring for attention. These are shaped on the one hand by the challenges that have been faced by regulators and operators in their attempts to balance social and economic goals, and on the other by the opportunities and constraints to the application of ICTs in key development sectors. The debate has gained global prominence because of the economic value that the new technologies add to information and knowledge through increased productivity. This has led in turn to recognition that the gap between developed and developing countries could widen unless there is specific and concerted attention to bridging the digital divide.

Information Policy Handbook iii

This Handbook does not attempt to cover all information policy terrain. Its content is shaped by the work that the IDRC has supported, particularly in South Africa but also in Mozambique and elsewhere in the SADC region - supplemented by a desktop study of the SADC countries in which we have not been active. The Handbook focuses on information policy initiatives, including telecommunications policy, and the two application areas of education and e-Commerce. A particularly notable omission is a chapter on tele-medicine and tele-health, emphasising perhaps applications that support people living with HIV/AIDS,

contribute to the exchange of information and data and facilitate the implementation of treatment programmes. There is much justification for a similar document dealing with the health aspects of ICT policy.

South African experience inevitably takes a prominent place in the Handbook because of the number of initiatives that have been undertaken here.

The Handbook points to lessons learned from the various policy processes completed or underway. The IDRC does not necessarily support all the conclusions it contains. One lesson,

however, seems to be particularly clear. Good policy must be visionary and widely owned by

society; but it must also be capable of implementation - and implementation is constrained by scarcity of skilled human resources, perhaps particularly so when the new ICTs are in play. The Handbook therefore argues for flexible, simple policies that allow the implementers to adapt to the concrete situations in which decisions must be made.

A web version will be available at: www.dbsa.org/pub//cations/ictpo/sa

The Handbook Team'

I would like to thank the South Africa Acacia Advisory Committee which has been an active partner in many of the endeavours described in this Handbook and which supports its

publication. Thanks are also due to the entire team that contributed to the Handbook by drafting

sections, participating in a workshop or reviewing interim versions. Members have contributed to the most comprehensive review to date of information policy initiatives in Southern Africa and their insights will prove valuable as the debates and actions continue. Tina James deserves particular thanks for orchestrating the team and contributing substantial sections of the document. Claire Sibthorpe - who left the IDRC in January 2001 - helped conceptualise the document and carried out much of the early research.

Information policy research skills are scarce in the region but institutions are springing up to redress this - the LINK Centre at the University of Witswatersrand in Johannesburg and the Centre for Informatics at the University Eduardo Mondlane in Maputo are two examples. We hope that when the next version of this handbook is written it will benefit from a larger and more diverse base of local research capacity.

Kate Wild Senior Advisor: Information and Communications IDRC's Regional Office for Southern Africa Johannesburg

23 May 2001

' Brief biographies of the Handbook team are provided in Appendix 14.

iv information Policy Handboo

Table of Contents PAGE

Foreword by the IDRC ..................................................................................................................iii A Message from the South African Acacia Advisory Committee ...............................................v List of Tables and Figures .............................................................................................................ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................................................................................xi Editor's Introduction to the Handbook ....................................................................................xiv

1. Information Policy in Context ..........................................................................................1

1.1 Definition and Scope of Information Policy ..................................................................1

1.2 Issues to Consider in the Development of Information Policy .....................................4 1.2.1 The Information Economy and National Economic Development ...................4 1.2.2 The Move towards Globalisation in the Telecommunications Sector ..............6

1.2.3 Reform and Regulation of the Telecommunications Sector within a Global and African Context ............................................................................6

1.2.4 Governance of the Internet ..............................................................................10 1.2.5 Convergence and the Development of Relevant Content, Services

and Applications ................................................................................................12 1.2.6 Developing Human Resource Capacity .............................................................13

1.2.7 Integrating Equity and Freedom of Expression in Information Policy ........... 16

2. An overview of Information Policy Initiatives in Southern Africa .......................19

2.1 Information Policy Trends within SADC: An Assessment of the Status Quo ..............................................................................................................19

2.1.1 Southern African Development Community (SADC) .......................................19

2.1.2 The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) ................23 2.1.3 National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI)

Initiatives .............................................................................................................24

2.2 Problems and Issues Emerging from the Southern African Experience -

What Lessons Can We Learn? .......................................................................................32

3. An Analysis of Information Policy in South Africa ...................................................37

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................37

3.2 Presenting an Overview of ICT Policy in South Africa ................................................38

3.3 The Transition Period (1989 - 1994) .............................................................................40

3.3.1 Broadcasting .......................................................................................................40

3.3.2 The Reconstruction and Development Programme and ICTs ..........................41

3.4 The Transformation Period: 1994 - 1997 ......................................................................43

3.5 The Implementation Period: 1997 - 2000 ....................................................................61

3.6 The Evaluation and Policy Reformulation Period: 2000 - present .............................79

3.7 Problems and Issues Emerging from the South African Experience -

What Lessons Can We Learn? .......................................................................................87

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Educational Technology Policy in Southern Africa ....................................................92

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................92

4.2 Where Technologies Can Most Effectively Support Education ..................................93

4.3 What Policies Affect the Use of ICTs in Education? ....................................................95 4.4 The Southern African Policy Environment ...................................................................97

4.4.1 Range of Policy Approaches ..............................................................................97

4.4.2 Predominance of Donor-Funded Initiatives .....................................................99

4.4.3 Focus on Schooling .............................................................................................99

4.4.4 Working Off a Low Technological and Skills Base .........................................101

4.4.5 Southern African Implementation Environment ...........................................103 4.5 Educational Technology Policy in South Africa .........................................................106

4.5.1 The TELI Process ................................................................................................107

4.5.2 The Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education (CETDE)..110

4.5.3 SchoolNet SA ....................................................................................................112

4.5.4 South African Broadcasting Policy relating to Education .............................113

4.5.5 The Vision of a National Educational Network .............................................117

4.5.6 The ICT Forum ..................................................................................................121 4.6 Emerging Lessons ........................................................................................................121

4.6.1 Uncharted Territory ..........................................................................................121

4.6.2 Regulatory Frameworks and Complexity .......................................................122 4.6.3 Macro and Micro-level Models ........................................................................126

4.6.4 Technology-driven Educational Solutions do not Work ................................128 4.6.5 Technologies as a Catalyst for Transformation or as a

Mechanism for Maintaining the Status Quo ..................................................129 4.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................130

5. Policy Mechanisms for Stimulating e-Commerce ....................................................131 5.1 Background ..................................................................................................................131

5.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................133 5.3 Preconditions for Establishing an e-Commerce Policy Process .................................134 5.4 Key Factors Enabling e-Commerce .............................................................................135 5.5 Why the Need for an e-Commerce Policy? ................................................................137 5.6 e-Commerce Practice and Policy in Africa .................................................................138

5.6.1 e-Commerce in Practice ...................................................................................138

5.6.2 Regional e-Commerce Policy Initiatives ..........................................................141

5.6.3 Country-level e-Commerce Policies and Strategies in the SADC Region...... 145

5.7 South Africa's e-Commerce Legislative Process .........................................................146 5.7.1 Perspectives on the South African e-Commerce Policy Process ....................149

5.8 Problems Encountered in e-Commerce Initiatives in

Southern Africa - What Lessons Can We Learn? .......................................................151

Information Policy Handbook vii

Conclusions .......................................................................................................................156 6.1 Emerging Lessons for Policy Development in Southern Africa ................................156 6.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................161

Appendices ..........................................................................................................................162 Appendix 1: A Brief Overview of Global and Regional Trends in

Telecommunications Infrastructure ................................................................163 Appendix 2: The African Information Society Initiative (AISI) ...........................................168 Appendix 3: Key ICT-related Institutions in Mozambique .................................................170

Appendix 4: Key ICT-related Institutions in Namibia ..........................................................172

Appendix 5: Key ICT-related Institutions in South Africa ...................................................173 Appendix 6: Selected Regional ICT-related Institutions in Africa ......................................181 Appendix 7: The Info.com Programme of the Department of Communications -

South Africa .....................................................................................................183 Appendix 8: National Telecommunications Forum (South Africa) ....................................184 Appendix 9: National Information Technology Forum (South Africa) ..............................185 Appendix 10: The South African National Qualifications Framework and the

Development of ICT .........................................................................................187 Appendix 11: ICT Research Priorities for the South African National

Research Foundation .......................................................................................192 Appendix 12: An Overview of e-Commerce Policy and Practice in SADC countries ........... 197

Appendix 13: References on Information Policy in Southern Africa ...................................210 Appendix 14: Contributors .....................................................................................................220

Viii Information Policy Handbook

List of Tables and Figures PAGE

List of Tables Table 1. Key SADC Institutions Dealing with ICTs .........................................................20

Table 2. Overview of Internet Usage and International Bandwidth for Southern African Countries (Jensen, 2001) ....................................................................139

Table 3. Number of Domains and Websites in SADC Countries .................................139

Table 4. Outcomes and Recommendations of Regional Policy Initiatives .................142

Table 5. Global Increase in Infrastructure for 1991-1996 and Forecast for 2001......163

Table 6. Infrastructure Growth and Access per 1 000 people for High-income Countries (HIC) and for Low and Middle-income Countries (LMIC)

1990-1998 (Source: World Bank) ....................................................................164

Table 7. Regional Comparison for Infrastructure Development ................................165

Table 8. The Implementation of the Info.com Programme up to Mid-1999 .............183

List of Figures

Figure 1. Rowlands' Three Hierarchical Levels for Information Policy ............................2

Figure 2. Policies for Shaping an Integrated ICT Structure ..............................................3

Figure 3. Overview of ICT Policy Processes in South Africa ............................................39

Figure 4. Overview of Education Technology Policy Processes in South Africa .......... 107

Figure 5. A Possible Systemic Cycle for Policy Development ........................................125

Figure 6. International Internet Bandwidth Comparison .............................................166

Information Policy Handbook ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms ABRT African Business Round Table ABT WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications ACACIA IDRC Initiative for Communities and Information Society in Sub-Saharan Africa ADF African Development Forum - organised by the UN Economic Commission for Africa AFRALTI African Advanced Level Telecommunications Institute, Kenya AIF African Internet Forum AISI African Information Society Initiative ANI African Networking Initiative APC Association for Progressive Communications ARCC African Regional Centre for Computing ATU African Telecommunications Union AUSAID Australian Agency for International Development BA Business Agreement BEE Black Economic Empowerment BIS Bank for International Settlements BITF Black IT Forum BTC Botswana Technology Centre BTC Botswana Telecommunications Corporation CALS Centre for Applied Legal Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa CDITP Centre for the Development of Information and Telecommunications Policy CEO Chief Executive Officer CETDE Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education CFTC Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation (Commonwealth Secretariat) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIO Chief Information Officer CIUEM Centro de Informatica, Eduardo Mondlane University COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COMTASK Task Group on Government Communications (South Africa) COMTEL COMESA Regional Telecommunications Initiative COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CPROST Centre for Policy Research on Science and Technology, Canada CRTP Center for Research on Telecommunications Policy, United States of America CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa CSSA Computer Society of South Africa CTO Commonwealth Telecommunications Organization DACST Department of Arts, Science, Culture and Technology (South Africa) DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DBSA Development Bank of Southern Africa DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications DFAIB Department of Foreign Affairs, Information and Broadcasting, Namibia DFID Department for International Development, UK DoC Department of Communications (South Africa) DOCWIL Department of Communications Web Internet Laboratories (South Africa) DOD Department of Defence (South Africa) DOE Department of Education (South Africa) DPRU Development Policy Research Unit, University of Cape Town (South Africa) DPSA Department of Public Service and Administration (South Africa) DPTB Department of Post, Telecommunications and Broadcasting (South Africa) DRC Democratic Republic of Congo DSTI OECD - The Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry DTI Department of Trade and Industry (South Africa) ECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ECASA e-Commerce Association of South Africa EIF Electronic Industry Federation

X Information Policy Handboo

ENF Edward Nathan & Friedland, South Africa EPG Eminent Persons Group ESKOM Electricity Supply Commission (South Africa) ESMT UEcole Superieure Multinationale de Telecommunications, Dakar (Senegal) ESTC Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission EU European Union FET Further Education and Training FIPR Foundation for Information Policy Research, UK GCIS Government Communication and Information System, South Africa GEAR Growth, Employment and Reconstruction (South Africa) GET General Education and Training GITO Government Information Technology Officer GNU Government of National Unity (South Africa) GTZ Gesellschaft fOr Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH HDIs Historically Disadvantaged Institutions (South Africa) HRF Human Resources Fund (South Africa) IBA Independent Broadcasting Association, now part of ICASA ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ICASA Independent Communications Authority of South Africa ICC IMIO Journal - Industrial and Corporate Change ICT Information and Communications Technology IDRC Canadian International Development Research Centre IETF Internet Engineering Task Force IIA Internet Initiative for Africa IIC International Chamber of Commerce IICD International Institute for Communication and Development IISA Information Industries of South Africa ILO International Labour Office IMIO Institute of Management, Innovation and Organization at the University of

California, Berkeley INCM Instituto Nacionale de Mozambique (National Telecommunications

Regulator) INTECH United Nations University, Institute for New Technologies, the Netherlands IPR Intellectual Property Rights IPRUSA ICT Policy Research Unit for Southern Africa IS Information Systems ISAD Information Society and Development Conference, 1996 ISCTEM Instituto Superior de Ciencias a Tecnologia de Mozambique ISETT SETA Information Systems, Electronics and Telecommunications Technologies Sector

Education Training Authority ISOC The Internet Society ISP Internet Service Provider ISPA Internet Service Provider's Association (South Africa) ISPAN Internet Service Provider's Association of Namibia ISPU Instituto Politecnico a Universitario, Mozambique IT Information Technology ITA Information Technology Association ITU International Telecommunication Union ITUC IT Users Council (now consolidated with the ITA) KARI-ODA Kenyan Agricultural Research Institute -Overseas Development Agency MAAC Mozambique Acacia Advisory Committee MACRA Malawi Communications Regulatory Authority MCDE Malawi College of Distance Education MFN Most Favoured Nation

Information Policy Handbook xi

MIS Management Information System/s MITI Research Institute - Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Japan MNC Multinational Corporate/s MPCC Multipurpose Community Centres (also referred to as Multipurpose Telecentres-

M PTCs)

MPTB Minister of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting MTIT Mauritius Ministry Telecommunications and Information Technology NCC Namibian Communications Commission NCST National Centre for Software Technology (Bombay), India NDP National Developing Plan (Botswana) NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NICI National Information and Communications Infrastructure NIED National Institute for Educational Development, Namibia NII National Information Infrastructure NITF National IT Forum (South Africa) NRF National Research Foundation (South Africa) NTF National Telecommunications Forum (South Africa) NTPP National Telecommunications Policy Project (South Africa) OAU Organisation for African Unity OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OSP Online Service Providers PATU Pan African Telecommunications Union (now the African Telecommunications Union) P&DM School for Public and Development Management,

University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg PICTA Programme for Information and Communication Technologies in Africa PiTs Public Internet (Information) Terminals POTWA Post Office and Telecommunications Workers Association PPPs Public-private Sector Partnerships PRC Presidential Review Commission (South Africa) PSTN Public Switched Telecommunications Networks PTC Pacific Telecommunications Council PTN Private Telecommunications Network PTO Public Telecommunications Operator PTT Post, Telegraph and Telecommunication Administration R&D Research and Development RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme (South Africa) RNG Resource Network Group (Namibia) ROSA IDRC's Regional Office for Southern Africa RTR Regional Telecommunications Restructuring Programme (USAID-funded project,

terminated 1999) S&T Science and Technology SA South Africa SAAAC South African Acacia Advisory Committee SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation SAGS Southern African Cultural Information Systems, SADC SACP South African Communist Party SACS South African Communications Services SADC Southern African Development Community SAIDE South African Institute for Distance Education SAITIS South African Information Technology Industry Strategy Project SAMDI South African Management Development Institute SANPAD SA-Netherlands Research Programme on Alternatives in Development SAPOS South African Post Office SAPS South African Police Services SATA Southern African Telecommunications Authority

All Information Policy Handbool

SATCC Southern African Telecommunications Co-ordinating Commission SATRA South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (now called ICASA) SCU Sector Co-ordinating Unit (SADC) SEP Strategic Equity Partner SIDA Swedish International Development Agency SITA State IT Agency SLA Service Level Agreements SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises SMMEs Small, Medium and Micro-enterprises SPRU Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, England STI Science, Technology and Innovation STIMAP Science and Technology and Innovation Systems Policy Information Map TAD Telematics for African Development THRIP Technology and Human Resources for Industry Programme, National Research

Foundation, South Africa TDM de Mozambique TELI Technology Enhanced Learning Investigation TIPS Trade and Industrial Policy Secretariat tld Top Level Domain (Internet) TRASA Telecommunication Regulators Association of Southern Africa TTT Technical Task Team UCT University of Cape Town UEM Universidado Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique UNCSTD United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UNISA University of South Africa USA Universal Service Agency (South Africa) USAID United States Agency for International Development USF Universal Service Fund USO Universal Service Obligations VANS Value Added Network Services VOIP Voice over Internet Protocol (IP) VPN Virtual Private Network WK World Wide Web Consortium WAITRO World Association of Industrial and Technological Research Organizations WCO World Customs Organisations WITS University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization WORLD World Links for Development WTO World Trade Organization ZPTC Zimbabwe Posts and Telecommunications Corporation

Information Policy Handbook xiii

Editor's Introduction to the Handbook The Information Policy Handbook for Southern Africa arose out of the need to document the processes and lessons learnt from the various information policy initiatives that have taken place in Southern Africa since the beginning of the '90s. The need to learn from our past experiences and build on those experiences (both positive and negative) for future actions, has determined what content was eventually included in this Handbook.

The Handbook is intended to be a resource book for various audiences:

Those in decision-making positions in government who have to deal with the complex policy environment relating to information and communications technologies (ICTs), and increasingly other sectors where ICTs are likely to have an impact;

Students of ICT and information policy in Southern Africa (and Africa) who may find a

distinct lack of African resource materials to support their studies; and

African and international specialists who are required to provide inputs to governments and other institutions in the public and private sector regarding information policy.

The Handbook covers the period 1994 to 2001, and focuses on three broad areas: ICT, ICTs in education and e-Commerce policy in Southern Africa. The approach to information policy adopted here was informed by the various initiatives that the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) has supported in its programmes in Southern Africa, and specifically those countries in the region in which it has been active during the past seven years: South Africa, Mozambique and Namibia. Experiences from other SADC countries are incorporated, where such experiences are relevant, available and where examples of best and worst practice have emerged. In this way it is hoped that lessons learnt from policy development and implementation initiatives in one country, could be shared with others who may be considering similar policy processes.

The IDRC began supporting information policy development in South Africa, and later Southern Africa, during the period preceding the establishment of the new South African government in 1994. This took the form of several exploratory missions in the areas of science and technology, and Information Society development. As an outcome of these initiatives the National Information and Communication Policy Project (NICP) was established. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and IDRC funded the project jointly. The project's first investment was in the South African telecommunications policy reform process, and it established links with a broad range of stakeholders to lay the groundwork for identifying other project opportunities. Subsequent activities in South Africa included support for broadcasting policy development, preliminary research on the development of an Internet policy, followed eventually by support for an e-Commerce policy formulation process.

The IDRC's policy programme intensified after the approval of the Acacia Initiative' in 1997 and spread beyond South African borders. Information policy development has been a

major component of Acacia in Mozambique, and the IDRC (through its Regional Office for Southern Africa in Johannesburg) has participated in policy discussions throughout the region and has followed closely the policy components of the programmes of regional organisations - for example the UN Economic Commission for Africa. The termination of the

' The Acacia Initiative: Empowering Communities in the Information Age - one of the four pillars of which was support for information policy in Mozambique, Uganda, Senegal and South Africa.

xiv Information Policy Handboo

NICP in early 2001 offers the opportunity to reflect on the lessons learned from a variety of ICT-related policy processes and to consider the policies themselves, and their relevance for South Africa and other African countries.

Chapter 1 presents a broad definition of information policy, providing the necessary background against which information policy development can be undertaken. It briefly discusses the various types of information-related policies, and the interrelationships between these. A selected number of priority areas for information policy development are presented, including aspects such as the need to balance equity and economic growth in developing countries, globalisation in the telecommunications sector, reform and regulation in the telecommunications sector, governance of the Internet, freedom of expression, and developing human resource capacity. Key global and regional structures, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) and the African Telecommunications Union (ATU) are discussed briefly.

Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of the status of information policy initiatives in the 14

countries that are members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) -

Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. The chapter summarises ICT-policy related initiatives that have taken place; identifies common elements relating to policy formulation and development, institutional mechanisms, and policy implementation; and concludes with some perspectives on the lessons that have been learnt from ongoing policy processes and their implementation. Subregional initiatives within SADC and COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa) are included.

Chapter 3: The multitude of ICT-policy related activities that have taken place in South Africa since the 1994 democratic elections, and the many lessons relating to policy formulation and implementation that have emerged subsequently, justify the inclusion of a

separate chapter in this Handbook on the South African experience. The country, with its parallel developed and developing components, presents an interesting case: ICT policy has to address the needs of a dynamic business sector and ICT industry with increasing pressures to compete globally. At the same time it is confronted by the societal inequities left behind by the apartheid regime, which threaten to exclude many people from the information Economy.

Chapter 3 covers a historical overview of ICT developments since 1994; it briefly introduces major events in terms of policy and implementation initiatives and puts them into perspective; provides an overview of policy formulation, both formal and informal, which draws some conclusions on the basis of the content of policy itself; and an overview of the institutional mechanisms and structures that were put in place to implement policy. It looks at the mandates of new institutions, their internal operations, their implementation efforts and the way in which these correspond with the goals set out in formal policy.

Finally it looks at some of the problems encountered and lessons that can be learnt from the South African experience. Specific areas that are covered include telecommunications policy, broadcasting policy, and policy and institutional experience in promoting universal service and universal access. Specific aspects of establishing an independent regulator (and later a combined broadcasting and telecommunications regulator) are discussed.

Information Policy Handbook xv

Chapter 4 examines the difficult (and often controversial) area of educational technology policy development, particularly as it refers to the use of ICTs in schools. Given the challenges facing many African countries in providing even the most basic facilities to support education, the significance (or not) of introducing ICTs is debated. Very little policy development has been undertaken in Southern Africa, and where it does exist, it is usually consolidated into a broader ICT policy framework. The chapter presents a number of examples linking policy decisions with implementation strategies, and addresses some of the areas that require attention in ensuring future successful implementation of ICTs. Emphasis is given to the South African Technology for Enhanced Learning Initiative (TELI), a

framework within which several provincial ICT-enhanced learning initiatives have taken place. The chapter illustrates that most educational technology policy processes have concentrated on the school level, with little initiative in tertiary education. The chapter therefore presents Southern African experience with school networking projects, and the possible establishment of SchoolNet Africa to support such projects throughout Africa.

Chapter S. The rapid growth of e-Commerce worldwide, and the far slower adoption of e-Commerce on the African continent, has led to several Pan-African initiatives to establish mechanisms for accelerating e-Commerce activities. This chapter examines the status quo of e-Commerce policy activity in Southern Africa, with particular emphasis on South Africa. The chapter includes a section on enabling conditions for e-Commerce, e.g. technical, financial, logistical, infrastructural and human resource factors that will ensure the success of e-Commerce ventures. The chapter includes an overview of e-Commerce policy and practice in Southern Africa, with a separate table outlining details of activities in SADC countries. An in-depth analysis of the South African e-Commerce policy process is presented, and lessons that can be drawn from these experiences have been included.

In Chapter 6, the main lessons learnt from the examples in the Handbook are summarised. The key conclusion that can be drawn is that successful policy formulation and implementation are largely dependent on national vision and leadership, underpinned by policy processes that are inclusive and participative. Further, the need to focus more strongly on policy implementation, and to ensure that the realities of on-the-ground development challenges are kept in mind during the policy formulation stage, is stressed. Good intentions and strong policy development processes cannot be regarded as successful measures if ultimately the resulting policies are unimplementable. The need for increased emphasis on strengthening African policy capacity in research, formulation and particularly implementation, will be necessary prerequisites to ensure that Southern African countries will be in a position to exploit the opportunities offered by the new information Economy.

xvi Information Policy Handbool

Information Policy in Context

Information Policy in Context Chapter 1 presents a broad definition of information policy, providing the necessary background against which information policy development can be undertaken. A brief discussion of the various types of information-related policies is presented, together with the interrelationships between these. A selected number of priority areas for information policy development are presented, including aspects such as the need to balance equity and economic growth in developing countries, globalisation in the telecommunications sector, reform and regulation in the telecommunications sector, governance of the Internet freedom of expression, and developing human resource capacity. Key global and regional structures, such as the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), and the African Telecommunications Union (ATU) are discussed briefly.

1.1 Definition and Scope of Information Policy The term "information policy" has been used to refer to policy initiatives that promote the use of tools and concepts associated with the "global information society", with a view to realising their potential in achieving national, social and economic development goals. In many cases, integration of the national economy with the global knowledge-based economy is one of these goals.

This means that information policy approaches will differ from country to country. This is reflected in how information policy has developed in Southern Africa, and along with other variables such as level of economic development and historical context, contributes to the difficulty in finding replicable common denominators in the regional policy environment.

Rowlands' states that there is no such thing as a single information policy but rather that policies address specific issues, and that effective compromises have to be made between competing interests. Policies should be "flexible, dynamic and responsive to changing circumstances".

Information policy is also not just about information technology. Mansell and Wehn4 state that

"Good policy with regard to the building of the Information Society must rely not only on sufficient technical and material resources (the networks) and skills, but also be coherent with other societal policies. "

s Rowlands, 1996: 14-15 Mansell and Wehn, 1998

Policy approaches will differ from country to country, and the challenge is

to find replicable common denominators that can be applied in a

regional context.

Information policy not only shapes events but also responds to prevailing environmental conditions and needs.

Information Policy Handbook 1


Rowlands also makes the point that information policy not only shapes events (proactive information policy), but also responds to events (reactive information policy). To illustrate, the rapid development of e-Commerce in many countries and regions of the world has led to different responses from governments. These range from full-blown participative policy processes, to implementation strategies involving rapid formulation of legislation to accommodate digital signatures, changing tax structures, and the security risk surrounding online business transactions.

In contrast, proactive policy-making processes can be seen, for example, in the areas of science and technology policy, where countries have based their innovation strategies on the need to be more competitive. This has involved "foresighting" and the development of national goals and priorities in targeted technologies, and addressing the matching need to develop a

suitable skills base.'

Three levels of information policy

can be differentiated:

Infrastructural

policy that deals with the

development of national

infrastructures Vertical

information policies that address

sectoral needs Horizontal

information policies that impact on broader aspects

of society such as

freedom of information.

Three hierarchical levels for information policy are proposed by Rowlands:

Infrastructural Policies Apply across society and affect the

information sector both directly and indirectly

Vertical Information Horizontal Information Policies Policies

Apply to a specific part of the Apply across society and information sector for a affect the information sector both

particular application directly and indirectly

Figure 1: Rowlands' three hierarchical levels for information policy

Infrastructural Policies would deal with the development of national (or more recently also regional) infrastructures required to support an information society. The absence of infrastructural policies and implementation strategies would make it virtually impossible to deliver on any other vertical or horizontal ICT-related policies' . It is thus a prerequisite for progress in other areas. Policy development in Southern Africa' reflects this reality in that generally telecommunications policies are the first to be revised, followed by a focus on separate policies in areas such as education, e-Commerce, freedom of information, universal service, etc.

5 In South Africa, a Foresight exercise was undertaken in 1998/99. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. ' Although it does appear that demand from other sectors will increasingly raise the profile of infrastructure development at national and regional levels. Refer to Chapter 2 for a more detailed discussion.

2 Information Policy Handbook


Vertical Information Policies would include sectoral policies such as education, tourism, manufacturing, health, etc.

Horizontal Information Policies refers to those policies that impact on broad aspects of society, e.g. policies relating to freedom of information, tariffs and pricing, and the use of ICTs by government internally and in its relationships with citizens, business, labour, academia, etc.

The need for integrating national ICT strategies' overlaps with four well-established policy fields: technology, industry, telecommunications and media (Figure 2). Sectoral policies such as

education, employment, health, welfare, etc. are increasingly having to address issues relating to ICTs and the growing interdependence between the development of ICT policies and sectoral policies. Experience to date has shown that, in the absence of an existing national ICT policy, the tendency is towards the creation of sector-dependent policy that addresses only its own ICT needs. These policies become firmly entrenched within the sector and later attempts to integrate them into a broad all- encompassing ICT policy become difficult.

Sectoral Policies

Media Policy Telecommunication Policy

ICT POLICY Needs to redefine sectoral policies,

boundaries, institutions and regulations

Technology Policy Industrial Policy

Figure 2. Policies for shaping an integrated ICT Structure (Mansell and Wehn, 1998)

The figure above implies that countries intent on pursuing the development of an integrated ICT policy will have to develop mechanisms for ensuring that there is a high level of collaboration from all relevant government departments, and from the much larger group of stakeholders impacted by, and impacting on ICT policy. As is documented later in this Handbook, failure to provide integrative mechanisms for addressing ICT policy formulation, and implementation, has been one of the major stumbling blocks in many countries.

s Mansell and Wehn, 1998: 230-231



In developing countries the

emphasis is often on infrastructure policy development, while

neglecting dimensions of

human resource development and

information-content issues.

1.2 Issues to Consider in the Development of Information Policy

Maintaining an integrated approach in ICT for development interventions is essential to ensure that the overall goals are achieved for empowering communities, improving people's quality of life, and creating more equal, open societies in the region.

This applies to policies, and to policy making. The key challenge is to consider the longer-term use and the role of ICTs in society while making policies intended to support infrastructure development. Often, in a developing country, the focus is on the infrastructure development dimension of policy, while neglecting dimensions that relate to the development of human resource capacity, and to the production, exchange and dissemination of information content. What is presented below is therefore a brief overview of some of the aspects that should be debated during any information policy formulation process.

In addition it is important to develop a phased approach that looks at the various immediate actions that can improve the situation, while taking into consideration longer-term strategies that anticipate the impact of new technical developments.

1.2.1 The Information Economy and National Economic Development

The term "Information Economy" refers to

"a new global economic structure, wherein the production of information goods and services dominates wealth and job creation, and is underpinned by the use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) and a global information infrastructure "9.

Countries that do not participate in

the digital revolution may find

themselves with declining economic

growth and increased isolation in

an increasingly globalised economy.

The information economy and society are driven by the global interrelationships of ICTs with economic, political, social and cultural forces.

The prediction by many in the developed and developing world is that countries which fail to get on board the digital revolution, or are late starters, face loss of competitive economic strength and market share, as well as possible decline in national income. This, in turn, could lead to fewer available resources to address national development issues. Although international assistance and technical cooperation may be available to developing countries, what is most needed is a national vision, underpinned by coherent strategies and actions at the national level.

Many African countries may ask why participation in the global information economy can have any significance when there are so

9 ADF '99. Paper presented by Derrick Cogburn on "Globalization and the Information Economy: Challenges and Opportunities for Africa" www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/pub.htm



many basic challenges to address: poverty alleviation, adequate health care including the HIV/AIDS epidemic, employment creation, and national and regional security issues.

"One of the most important areas of impact in this globalizing environment is the impact that this transformation is having on national development objectives and paradigms. Many development agencies and donor countries are reassessing what it means to pursue development during this particular period. Trade is being seen increasingly as a more critical component of development than aid. This means that the corresponding importance of the private sector in African countries, especially of Small, Medium and Micro-Sized Enterprises (SMMEs), is increasing."

Derrick Cogburn, ADF'99

Resources needed for these priority areas are vying for attention with the demands from a globalised economy that require heavy capital investment in the development of information and communications infrastructure, huge demands on developing a different (and ICT-literate) skills base and managing employment creation in the new economy, while dealing with worldwide job losses in the industrial sector. Africa's weakening position in the world economy is an additional burden.

There are, however, several benefits to ICTs that can address both participation in the global information economy as well as the developmental needs of African countries. For example, even where export opportunities in the ICT sector prove elusive, gains from access to the technology it generates can promote jobs and entrepreneurship in such industries as data processing and call centres. In Senegal, liberalisation of telecommunications regulations has spawned a host of "telecentres" providing access to telecommunications and creating thousands of jobs. And in South Africa, the growth of such telecentres has provided public access to the broader range of ICT services and government information.

ICT can also be made relevant to the objective of poverty alleviation, not just through its effect on economic growth, but also by improving access to health care, education and other social services. Public and/or private assistance to community-based organisations to provide access tailored to the needs of poor persons is one place to begin.

The application of ICTs to traditional industries such as

agriculture and fisheries could result in important efficiency gains through improved access to market information and to existing and new markets. Access to better information on farming and fishing methods, models to optimise yields, and meteorological information to determine planting cycles, could also be used to good effect.

Governments increasingly have to juggle the need for developing an enabling and supportive environment for locally owned and controlled IT businesses (and especially medium and small enterprises) while considering options that will attract much- needed foreign investment into the ICT sector. Ensuring that the telecommunications and other ICT-related policies can meet both needs is one of the major challenges facing African decision-makers.

Countries have to balance the need for stimulating the local ICT sector, while attempting to attract much-needed foreign investment for telecommunications rollout.



1.2.2 The Move towards Globalisation in the Telecommunications Sector

Governments worldwide increasingly recognise the significance of ICTs and their applications in achieving economic, social, health and education objectives. As a result, governments have shifted the emphasis of their policies. Monopoly telecommunications operators have become passe with countries - industrialised and developing - that are embracing the global trends of deregulation and liberalisation as keys to expanding existing telecommunications networks and developing information technologies.

Governments are under pressure from global forces, specifically the World Trade Organization (WTO) and, to a lesser extent, regional blocks, to change policies to accommodate global trading and commerce activities. Telecommunications is increasingly a

part of or at the centre of such activities. Telecommunications infrastructure, historically considered a national asset, now forms the backbone of an interconnected world economy that requires speed and efficiency of information transfer, hence the impetus to restructure.

Governments worldwide, in facilitating this restructuring of the sector, are encouraging foreign and domestic private-sector participation to inject the capital, and technical and managerial skills, needed for this large-scale infrastructure rollout. Other means used by governments to secure finance for network development include the listing of telecommunications on equity markets and auctions of spectrum. To mitigate the loss of network control inherent in privatisation, country regulators use policy instruments such as universal service, stressing development of social capacity through the use of information age tools.

Thus, the global telecommunications sector has experienced a

drastic shift from transnational regulatory institutions such as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to the operation of the WTO's open market framework. The first global shift has been one from closed domestic markets to open competition. This changing environment has to be considered when policies are formulated. Countries also have to take cognisance of the implications of international agreements to which they might be signatories, and ensure that their telecommunications policies support the requirements of such agreements.

1.2.3 Reform and Regulation of the Telecommunications Sector within a Global and African Context"

The swing towards a worldwide liberal ICT regime demanded the shift to a different regulatory regime. Any new regulatory response required separate regulation and delivery of service functions by monopoly operators. Consequently, during the 1990s a

telecommunications reform wave arose, seeing many countries creating independent and transparent regulators, and regimes to

° See also Chapter 2 of this Handbook, which deals in more detail with information policy aspects in Southern Africa.



manage transitions to a competitive market. At the same time these regulators addressed the need for optimal licensing, interconnection, appropriate tariff structures, numbering and other key policies in open-competitive markets.

Historically the coordination of the old monopoly essential service providers in telecommunications was handled through national member states at the ITU. This, the oldest of the UN

bodies, was established to ensure the necessary interoperability of the world's various telecommunications systems, to manage the complexity of the international tariff system and effective use of frequency spectrum. International telecommunications trade was based on bilateral agreements managed by the ITU.

The decline of this international regulatory order based on monopoly provision of essential services and protection of local markets saw its replacement with a supranational multilateral system based on open market access and international investment. This shift from a protectionist to an access approach to telecommunications trade would allow non-state players to partake in a non-discriminatory way, requiring a level playing field and an end to cross-subsidisation. This tended to adversely affect prospects for universal service, and shifted the burden of tariffs from business to domestic users. Markets were opened up through corporatisation, privatisation and liberalisation. This led to increased competition between firms and countries in international services and increased foreign direct investment, strategic alliances and joint ventures.

The World Trade Organization (WTO)"

The WTO has become the most important institution within the global telecommunications market. The organisation's trade rules on telecommunications regulation and licensing are singularly applicable across the widest range of national boundaries - some 140 countries12. Two agreements in this respect have become most significant, the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and the 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications (ABT).

The central principles upheld in the rules of these two agreements are consistent with the overarching objectives of the WTO, namely an evolution towards liberalised trade in global markets. For signatories the general obligations and disciplines of the GATS bind all members of the WTO. These obligations are uniformly applicable principles that govern the manner in which WTO member countries conduct trade with each other. Consequently, when dealing with each other WTO member states will have to:

"Accord Most Favored Nation (MFN) treatment - This means that domestic licensing regimes must grant foreign operators that are WTO members, market access no less favourable than the terms applicable to operators from any other country, (Article ll, GATS) "

" See also www.wto.org As at 30 November 2000. WTO Secretariat fact file

There has been a

worldwide trend towards establishing independent national telecommunications regulators.

Regulators assume responsibility for licensing, interconnect guidelines, tariff structures, spectrum planning and numbering issues.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) has set rules for telecommunications that extend across 140 countries.

Underlying the WTO agreements is the move towards global liberalised trade, included liberalised telecommunications markets.



The International Telecommunication

Union (ITU) has as its main purpose the harmonisation of

standards and rules to facilitate

communications.

Its three focus areas are radio-

communications, telecommunications standardisation and telecommunications

development.

"Apply Transparency - All laws, and rules affecting trade in services, must be published, i.e. a publicity principle will apply to laws and rules. " (Article ill, GATS)

"Barriers to Trade-licensing requirements must not constitute unnecessary barriers to trade. " (Article IV, GATS).

These provisions form the cornerstone of the opening up of telecommunications markets, although the ABT and GATS contain a number of other general provisions on open telecommunications markets.

However, the commitment given in terms of the pace and focus of opening up varies greatly from one country to another. A few are going for virtually total liberalisation within a definite timescale. Most are holding back on some services, for instance the date of liberalisation and the extent of foreign ownership. The real import of the WTO Agreement is that there is no going back - a

ratchet effect is introduced whereby heavy sanctions can be imposed on any country attempting to roll back its commitment. At the same time, the powerful countries bring various bilateral and multilateral pressures to bear to force reluctant countries to accelerate the process.

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the oldest of the United Nations specialised institutions. Established in 1865 as

the International Telegraph Union the ITU has undergone several changes in its roles over the years but its main purpose has always been to harmonise standards and rules in order to facilitate communications.

The ITU was founded on the principle of cooperation between governments and the private sector. The policies and strategic direction of the ITU are determined by its broad membership, which includes telecommunications policy makers, regulators, network operators, equipment manufacturers, hardware and software developers, regional standards-making organisations and financing institutions.

Primary membership is still the formal administration responsible for tele-communications in the various nation states. Private sector membership is also permitted, though non-profit membership is still not formally permissible and has been an ongoing issue for NGOs and groupings in civil society without the resources to pay the high annual private membership fees.

While the ITU has evolved constantly, some of the most dramatic developments have occurred over the last 20 years. Tele- communications has grown from a tool that facilitated person-to- person communications to the foundation of international trade and national development.



At the same time, the ITU's client base has evolved due to changes in the way telecommunications services are delivered and the convergence of traditionally distinct communications sectors. As the telecommunications sector in many countries has shifted from state monopoly provision to privatised operators and liberalised markets, traditional ITU members have looked to the ITU

to provide new services which place greater emphasis on policy development and regulatory guidance.

The ITU offers its services to what has become a US$1 trillion industry worldwide, through three sectors within the ITU:

Radiocommunication (ITU-R);

Telecommunication Standardisation (ITU-T); and more recently,

Telecommunication Development (ITU-D).

It is within the Development Bureau (BDT) that much of the developmental work has taken place and where such initiatives as

the Task Force on Gender issues are housed. Together the bureau's activities cover all aspects of tele-

communication, from setting standards that facilitate seamless interplay of equipment and system on a global basis, to adopting operations procedures for the fast-growing array of wireless services, and designing programmes to improve telecommunication infrastructure in developing countries.

African Telecommunications Union (ATU)

On the African continent, the largest organisation in the telecommunications sector is the African Telecommunications Union (ATU), which was established in December 1999 as the successor to the Pan-African Telecommunications Union, the specialised telecommunications agency of the Organization of African Unity (OAU).

"The vision of the Union is to make Africa an equal and active participant in the Global Information Society. The mission of the Union is to promote the rapid development of info-communications in Africa in order to achieve universal service and access, in addition to full inter-country connectivity, in the most effective manner.""

The restructured ATU has placed emphasis on encouraging partnerships between the public and private sector, particularly in light of the global trend towards greater private-sector led investment in the telecommunications sector. The ATU allows membership by OAU-member states but also allows associate membership by interested parties active in the sector. The Union thus provides for membership by governments, regulators and service providers.

13 www.atu-uat.org/

The restructured African Telecommunications Union is placing increased emphasis on public/private- sector partnerships for telecommunications infrastructure development.



The African Connection Secretariat, based at the Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA), is a project of the ATLI funded by the World Bank and InfoDev to promote information exchange and investment in the sector leading to the rollout of infrastructure in rural areas.

Objectives of the African Telecommunications Union

Promote the development and adoption of appropriate African telecommunications policy and regulatory frameworks;

Promote the financing and funding of telecommunications development;

Promote programmes for the development of the African Information Society;

Prepare special programmes for Africa's Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and rural telecommunications development;

Promote human resources development in the field of info-communications;

Promote the establishment of info-communications industries;

Coordinate the strategies and positions of Member States in preparation for and at international meetings;

Promote regional coordination in areas of value-added services, equipment certification, technical standards and harmonisation of tariffs;

Seek to harmonise the actions of Member States and Associate Members in the telecommunications sector;

Foster cooperation and partnership between and among Member States and Associate Members;

Promote and encourage the exchange of information, expertise and technology relating to info-communications for the benefit of all Member States and Associate Members;

Undertake studies in the field of info-communications for the benefit of Member States and Associate Members; and

Undertake all such activities not defined above which may assist in achieving the mission and vision of the Union.

1.2.4

Standards-setting for the Internet needs

to favour openness and consensus. The

needs of developing countries, civil

society and emerging

entrepreneurs also need to be considered

Governance of the Internet'"

Setting technical standards requires the work of technical experts, but involves wider issues than just technical ones. Standards can relate to political and economic issues, and act as a means of protection, domination and exclusion.

Internet standards were initially set by small groups of people. When neither commerce nor governments paid too much attention to the governance of the Internet, standards-setting took place within a culture that favoured openness and consensus. Nevertheless, standards reflected the dominance of Internet users and developers from North America and Europe, and for many years only Latin characters could be accommodated by Internet protocols.

° See also www.apc.org/english/rights/governance/index.shtml, and "ICANN for Beginners", www.icannwatch.org



The rapid expansion of the Internet has required the development of new standards. Increasingly, a view of the Internet as a lucrative e-Commerce market place is influencing standards- setting. In the process the interests of large corporations and powerful governments are receiving far greater consideration than those of developing countries, civil society, and emerging small and medium e-enterprises in the south.

There are three major Internet standards bodies, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Each of these is discussed below in more detail.

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

The IETF sets the underlying technical standards for the Internet. It describes itself as a "loosely self-organised group of people who make technical and other contributions to the engineering and evolution of the Internet and its technologies". Membership of IETF

working groups is open to anyone who chooses to participate via e-mail. These working groups develop technical specifications based on "rough consensus and working code". The Internet Society (ISOC) has played a prominent role in overseeing IETF

activities, but with ISOC having lost much of its early strength, its ability to play this role in the future is uncertain.

In recent times the IETF has come under increasing pressure from commercial organisations complaining that its policy of reaching wide consensus makes it too slow, and from governments and law enforcement agencies wanting to impose legal obligations on it to incorporate such elements as wiretapping facilities and traceability of users into its standards.

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

WK sets standards for the World Wide Web (accessibility, user interface, architecture, etc.). Its structure differs fundamentally from the IETF in that participation is restricted to member organisations willing to pay annual membership fees or to "invited experts". The WK has maintained relatively open standards, partly as a result of the powerful participation of one individual, Tim Berners-Lee, the "inventor" of the World Wide Web, who sees it as

a place for open and free information exchange. The sustainability of this "benevolent dictatorship" is

questionable. There are great pressures on WK to introduce ways of filtering out "harmful" content. Such mechanisms could potentially be used by governments to restrict content that criticises their policies. At the same time, commercial interests and law enforcement bodies are demanding standards that will enable collection of data on users, and make it possible for the publishers and users of content to be easily traced.

The Internet Engineering Task

Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) are both bodies that set standards for the Internet.

The IETF has an open e-mail membership structure, whereas the WK is restricted to paying member organisations or invited experts.



Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)

ICANN is the international organisation

responsible for the Internet Domain

Name System.

The control of domain names needs

to be transparent.

The multimedia phenomenon has

blurred the boundaries between telecommunications,

software and hardware. The convergence of technologies is

making traditional definitions redundant.

As the Internet expanded, the need to review the process of managing Internet domain names, which have to be unique, was recognised by both users and domain name administrators. These administrators were often voluntary. ICANN was set up in 1998 as a

US not-for-profit organisation to administer the Internet Domain Name System. It is intended to increase efficiency and coordination in the management of domain names, and the creation of new top- level domains to join the existing com, org, ac, edu, net, etc.

But, attempting to increase efficiency without clear accountability has resulted in open controversy. Many have questioned ICANN's decision-making and governance processes. Some of the recent decisions made by ICANN in response to applications for new top-level domains (tld), such as union, have proved very controversial. In fact, the process of applying for a new tld itself is suspect, requiring a non-refundable fee of US$ 50 000. Principles of information management receive little consideration, while the ability to pay for the application, travel to ICANN meetings, and prove convincing commercial interests in owning a

tld are taken very seriously. Information policy makers need to be aware of ICANN, and

attempt to influence its decision making. ICANN has laid down guidelines for national country code top-level domain registries, and it has the semblance of being "international", but, unless its structure and governance are transformed, ICANN could undermine free and easy access to Internet domain names. The process of assigning domain names, and the control of those domains, need to be transparent and accessible. Administrators of a domain name can remove the name from the servers that administer names, and that can in effect make the content held under that name unreachable15.

1.2.5 Convergence and the Development of Relevant Content, Services and Applications

Alongside the shift towards liberalising the global telecommunications sector has come the challenge of an appropriate regulatory response. Governments, used to focusing on network development, must now develop the policy capacity to establish frameworks and manage transitions in a volatile and unstable information environment.

The salient characteristic of this regulatory challenge is the issue of convergence. Expanding applications, and an accelerating complexity of platforms sees a telecommunications sector with entertainment houses, software companies, cellular companies and Internet service providers creating new techniques for distributing

There is a famous example of ex-President Milosovic instructing domain-name administrators in Serbia to "delink" the domain names of websites that published the opinions of his political opponents.



a multitude of services and content over varied ICT infrastructure -

the multimedia phenomenon. Multimedia advances and the Internet have opened a Pandora's Box of questions. For example, the Internet's surging popularity and recent advances in Internet telephony make redundant the traditional definitions of a basic telecommunications service.

A second question arises as to whether Internet Service Providers should be treated as telecommunications carriers, and charged the access fees to Public Switched Telecommunications networks (PSTNs). A general response by numerous global regulatory frameworks to such challenges has been to focus on trying to ensure delivery of a wide variety of services, at the best quality, most economically and efficiently to the widest range of customers. Such realities meant that the global and historic domination of telecommunications sectors by states with monopoly telecommunications operators had to end.

This development will continue in the present decade with an added focus on services, the development of the global "infostructure" and the development of a knowledge-based society. The challenge for developing countries will be to ensure that the needs of its citizens and communities are not neglected. These needs include information, content, applications and services that can support citizens and communities at various levels, e.g. participation in political processes; employment; and access to public services such as health, education, pensions, etc.

Decision-maker/s on the African continent have to recognise the need for policies that enable innovation of applications to address the needs of, and exploit the markets constituted by, people who are not literate, who often live in low-teledensity areas, and who are more likely to be using public access than privately owned ICT

facilities. These policies in turn have to be based on the realities (and challenges) of policy implementation.

The challenge will be to develop each country's infostructure and knowledge systems, based on its collective intelligence. This represents added investments that all countries must undertake in order to remain competitive, and which need proper institutional mechanisms in place, such as regulatory, private-sector investment and banking capacity and in particular, improved educational infrastructure.

1.2.6 Developing Human Resource Capacity

One of the major areas of concern that is increasingly raised in African and international dialogues is the lack of human resource capacity on the African continent. This scarcity of skills is even more critical in the area of ICTs, and more particularly in ICT-related policy development. Information policies therefore have to give priority to the development, and retention, of valuable ICT skills if such policies are to be implementable.

The challenge for African countries will be to develop their own "infostructure", ensuring that their collective knowledge remains a national asset.

Policies need to be developed to enable citizens and communities at all levels to have access to relevant applications and services.



The brain drain of African ICT skills to

Western countries is

a reality that needs to be addressed

through innovative policies and

strategies.

One of the most critical areas of concern on the

African continent is

the scarce human resource capacity in

ICTs, and more specifically in ICT

policy research.

Increasing the pool of available ICT skills

should be a key component of any ICT-related policy.

Attention should also be given to

gender to ensure that there is

equitable access to ICTs, and the

benefits they can offer.

Increasing the pool of available ICT skills

Many developed countries have established immigration-friendly policies that allow the easy movement of skilled ICT professionals to address their own needs. The result for the African continent has been an accelerated 'brain drain' and an increased African Diaspora now present in many Western countries. In turn, South Africa is also becoming a potential cause of 'brain drain' in Southern Africa, as it has identified the acquisition of foreign ICT skills as a way of increasing its own pool of resources16. According to a recently completed report by the international Labour Office (ILO)", countries are advised to develop policies that encourage retention or repatriation of their highly skilled workers. It also notes that countries should not neglect the development of their domestic workforce.

Training a broader base of ICT professionals

A characteristic of the worldwide ICT skills base is that it is very young and mobile - it is probably the first time in human history that knowledge is in the hands of the youth who are connected and wired, and ICT-literate. This in itself challenges existing societal norms regarding age and wisdom, with the result that the average middle-aged person in Africa (and elsewhere for that matter) might well find the new information and communications technologies perplexing and the cause of technophobia. Policies should therefore include an emphasis on more retraining for older workers and in particular to provide new learning opportunities for such workers in the information economy18.

Encouraging girls and women to use and produce ICTs

According to the ILO Employment Report "Girls lag in educational attainment in most countries and, even in wealthy ones, their enrolment in the core courses of the technologies is a small share of boys' enrolment." Existing international data on the available ICT skills base also indicate that males still generally dominate this arena. Reasons for this skewed distribution of skills can be explained by a number of factors such as access to schooling, societal expectations on the role of girl-children versus boys, content bias in available material on the Internet, and the lower chances of women being exposed to ICTs in their schooling or home environment.

Existing labour market policies and labour laws may also not take adequate account of the fact that ICTs affect the life at work of women and men differently.

6 South Africa is presently revising its migration policy to allow for easier entry for skilled workers, including ICT professionals.

" ILO: World Employment Report 2001: Life at Work in the Information Economy, www.ilo. org/public/eng/ish/support/pub//wer/index2. htm

e Organisations such as the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) are giving serious attention to training of high-level decision-maker/s through their Information Technology Centre for Africa (ITCA) in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.



To address existing gender inequities in ICTs, policies across a

number of fronts should include gender aspects and the need for increased emphasis on the education and training of girls and women, e.g. labour policies, education policies at all levels (primary, secondary, tertiary), universal service/access policies, e-Commerce policies encouraging women entrepreneurs, etc.

Encouraging the use of ICTs to increase access to lifelong learning

Distance education learning, supported by the increased use of ICTs, is becoming a valuable substitute for classroom instruction. This could be particularly so in developing countries, where the one-teacher one-classroom model is becoming less viable, and where many are unable to complete formal schooling. Through public/private partnerships as well as investments of human and financial resources, it may be possible to accelerate the number of learners that are reached. Education policies will thus have to ensure that an enabling environment is created that will allow for the establishment, and sustainability of, such partnerships.

Increasing research capacity in ICT-related policy

The research capacity available on the African continent is very scarce, and as documented elsewhere in this Handbook, it is of concern that many policy processes in African countries are supported, if not driven, by experts from developed countries, frequently with little or no local capacity building of local researchers. Much of the research in ICTs has also been driven by initiatives originating outside of Africa. This seems to be a major gap that will have to be addressed by African training institutions so that more is done to further indigenous knowledge and accelerate the research process. Science and technology education, and the financing of this education at tertiary level, need to be integrated into all facets of policy and implementation.

To quote from the ILO's Employment Report

"A passive policy stance that leaves to markets alone the direction of change will reinforce divides. It is also the case that the quality of life and work for women and men will be exposed as much to the potential for negative outcomes as positive ones. For all these reasons, social choices and the social institutions through which such choices are moulded are essential to the digital era. "79

" ILO World Employment Report 2001: Life at Work in the Information Economy, Overview Section - Conclusions. www.ilo.org/public/english/support/pub//wer/lndex2.htm



Different countries will need to develop

different responses to the issue

of freedom of expression in their

policies. This will depend largely on whether there are

other mechanisms in place to enshrine

such freedom of expression.

Governments need to ensure that

ordinary people have access to public

information, and that marginalised

groups can share in the benefits of Internet access.

1.2.7 Integrating Equity and Freedom of Expression in Information Policy 20

Organisations campaigning for freedom of expression in ICTs are increasingly faced with the question of whether ICTs should be governed by policy and regulatory frameworks that are distinct from the frameworks governing radio, the print media, television, and other emerging communications technologies.

A strategic response to this question could differ in different countries. In South Africa basic freedoms are enshrined in the Constitution and there is a process for dealing with rights violations. It can therefore be argued that in South Africa it is not necessary to create specific policies, but rather to ensure the effective integration of different types of policies, and that the regulators have the capacity to manage this integration.

However, in a country where basic freedoms are not enshrined, for example in Swaziland, it can be strategic to try and incorporate them "from below". In other words, to try and include freedom of information clauses in regulations and policies that govern the Internet specifically.

In general the most feasible approach appears to be one which relies on general policies to enshrine freedom of expression, information and association, but to ensure that at the regulatory level, the specificity of the ICTs is taken into account, for example by addressing encrypted electronic communications, interception of private e-mail messages, etc.

Several elements should be considered when formulating information policy:

The right to communicate

The right to communicate is a fundamental human right. Rights related to access and use of the Internet and electronic communication infrastructure are equally fundamental if ordinary people are to have their voices heard. Governments need to ensure that public information is disseminated through the Internet in a

way that is accessible to users of low-end technologies and people without access to fast connections. Access to the Internet in the workplace must be permitted for the purposes of organising, protecting workers' rights, and education.

The development of information infrastructure and user interfaces should ensure access for marginalised groups, for example migrant workers, disabled people, those who are not fully literate, minorities, and people living in rural areas or poor urban settlements without basic infrastructure. Access targets and efforts should be informed in particular by the need to protect and

° This section draws on a recent APC (Association for Progressive Communications) workshop on Internet Rights (Prague, 18-21 February 2001) that identified themes and principles that need to be considered in ICT policy and rights discussions.



advance gender equality. Liberalisation of the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors may have the potential to reduce costs and limit government control over communications and media, but it does not absolve the public sector from its responsibility to ensure that all citizens have affordable access.

Legal and regulatory frameworks

Legal and regulatory frameworks that govern ICTs should be integrated with frameworks governing other media to ensure compatibility and to secure the rights of citizens and organisations to access all forms of information and communication technologies.

Freedom of expression and information exchange

The Internet is a medium for both public and private exchange of views and information. People must be able to express opinions and ideas, and share information freely when using the Internet. Organisations, communities and individuals should be free to use the Internet to organise and engage in public or political protest.

Diversity of content, ownership and control

Countries in the SADC region are concerned with the use of ICTs to support education, local culture and content. It is therefore essential that policies consider regulation of ownership. Operational or technological control of ICTs should also aim to achieve content diversity and limit monopoly. Policy and regulation should promote ICTs as a space and vehicle for distributing local content to preserve and reinforce local ethnic and cultural identity.

The general assumption is that all technological innovation is

beneficial. Governments and regulatory agencies should evaluate advances in technologies within a framework that permits potential positive and negative impacts to be assessed.

The licensing and control of intellectual property

Policy and regulation that govern public access and dissemination of public information should consider the implications of using proprietary solutions. Governments that use proprietary systems are encouraging others to purchase legal licenses or violate intellectual property regulations. This can also discourage local innovation and learning. Open systems should be encouraged.

Applications and services should be subject to systems that manage consumer standards, and product reliability and guarantee.

Privacy

Personal information held by private or public bodies should be protected from any unauthorised disclosure. Policies need to define how, and under what circumstances, authorisation can be

Policy should consider the following aspects relating to freedom of expression:

The right to communicate Legal and regulatory frameworks Ability to express opinions and ideas, and share information freely Regulation of ownership Licensing and control of intellectual property Privacy Governance structures Informing people of their rights.



obtained. Individuals and institutions should be able to communicate via the Internet without the threat of surveillance and interception and have the right to use tools, such as

encryption, that ensure secure communication. Groups that feel their security and privacy are threatened by

Internet-based content, for example content related to trafficking in women and children or neo-Nazi activities, should have access to mechanisms to take action against the producers and publishers of such content.

Global, regional and national governance of ICT infrastructure

Transparency and accessibility: All decision-making processes related to the governance and development of ICTs, for example assigning of telephone numbers, certification authorities, domain names and numbers, should be open and accessible, at global, regional and national levels.

ICT governance and standard-setting bodies must be open to participation.

Rights awareness and realisation of rights

When information policies are developed, they need to take into account their implementability. This involves public education to inform people of their rights when using ICTs, and mechanisms to address rights violations. National, regional and global governing bodies must make information available on rights and procedures relating to information and communication technologies and infrastructures.

Individuals and organisations also need free, public access to effective and accountable mechanisms for addressing violations of rights.


ICT Policy in Southern Africa

An Overview of Information Policy Initiatives in Southern Africa Chapter 2 provides an overview of the status of information policy initiatives in the 14 countries that are members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) - Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. This chapter summarises ICT-

policy related initiatives that have taken place; identifies common elements relating to policy formulation and development, institutional mechanisms, and policy implementation; and concludes with some perspectives on the lessons that have been learnt from ongoing policy processes and their implementation. Subregional initiatives within SADC and COMESA (Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa) are included. South African ICT policy is dealt with separately in Chapter 3.

2.1 Information Policy Trends within SADC: An Assessment of the Status Quo

2.1.1 Southern African Development Community (SADC)

The Southern African Development Community (SADC)Z' has devoted increasing attention to the development of policies and strategies relating to telecommunications, and more recently, broader ICT-related issues. SADC has a complex structure with a

variety of specialised "Sector Coordinating Units" and Commissions.

A number of these bodies are involved, in one way or another, with ICT-related activities:

SADC Secretariat, based in Gaborone, Botswana;

SADC Human Resources Development Sector, based in Swaziland;

Southern African Transport and Telecommunications Commission (SATCC) based in Maputo, Mozambique;

Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa (TRASA);

Southern African Telecommunications Association (SATA); and

Other Sector Coordinating Units with ICT components such as

Culture, Information and Sport, Trade and Investment, and Distance Education.

Z' The 14 SADC member states include: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) has several bodies involved in ICT-

related activities, most of which deal with telecommunications.

Through SATCC and TRASA a Model Telecommunications Bill has been formulated, although this has not been widely applied by member states.



SATCC was responsible for drafting the Model Regulatory Framework for Telecommunications (SATCC-TU 98), with TRASA developing the SADC Model Telecommunications Bill.

Table 1: Key SADC Institutions Dealing with ICTs

Institution"

SADC Human Resources Development Sector (Swaziland)

SATCC - CU

(Mozambique)

Sector for Culture, Information and Sports: Southern African Cultural Information Systems (SACIS) -

Regional Co-ordinating Unit (Mozambique)

Southern African Telecommunications Authority (SATA) Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa (TRASA) (Botswana)

Focus areas

SADC Protocol on Education and Training was signed in 1997 to address various aspects, including curriculum development and training. The specific clause referring to ICTs states:

"...to promote and coordinate the formulation and implementation of policies, strategies and programmes for the promotion and application of science and technology including modern information technology, and research and development in the Region;"

Responsible for infrastructure, including transport.

Basic actions include: Advice on upgrading of infrastructure and bandwidth

Maintaining statistics on telecommunications infrastructure in SADC

Interconnect guidelines, e.g. tariffs

Liberalisation / privatisation / restructuring of telecommunications operators.

Established in 1996 and based in Maputo.

Major activity is the SACIS Data Bank Catalogue on Cultural Information - mainly Zimbabwe and Zambia.

SADC committee of public telecommunications operators in the region. SATA now includes the private sector and cellular operators. SATA successfully obtained agreement on the GSM standard for SADC countries.

Works on the basis of bilateral actions and overall coordination. SATA handles issues such as:

Technical standards

Tariffs

Subregional Information Infrastructure (SRII), an important SADC project

Cross-border investment (satellite technology)

Public/private partnerships.

SADC is currently undergoing restructuring. The new structure will comprise five core clusters instead of the current 21 sectors, with countries in SADC each taking responsibility for one or more sectors. The core clusters will be established at the Secretariat in Gaborone, with national committees providing input to the Directorates. The clusters will be: trade, industry, finance and investment; infrastructure and services; food, agriculture and natural resources; social and human development; and special programmes.



Institution

Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa (TRASA) (Botswana)

Focus areas

Relationships are government to government - includes all regulators. Developed the Model Telecommunications Bill, holds regular information exchange meetings among national regulators.

TRASA aims to:

Coordinate regulatory matters on telecommunications in Southern Africa;

Promote the establishment and operation of efficient, adequate and cost-effective telecommunications networks and services;

Facilitate a uniform level of understanding in regulatory matters;

Maximise the use of scarce resources in specialist areas of telecommunications, e.g. radio frequency spectrum and numbering.

TRASA was responsible for developing guidelines on interconnection, tariffs, and the frequency band plan for the region.

At the end of 1998, six Southern African independent regulators were TRASA members; any newly created independent regulators of the remaining eight nations are likely to join. Current members are South Africa, Mozambique, Malawi, Botswana, Namibia and Zambia.

TRASA organised a three-day workshop in Swaziland in February 2001 to address the issue of universal service in SADC. A draft guideline document was tabled addressing areas such as universal service and access, licensing policy, implementation strategies for SADC, and interestingly, a proposal for setting performance indicators for universal access and service. Some SADC milestones include:

Publication of the SADC Protocol on Transport, Communications and Meteorology (March 1998)

This protocol includes a chapter on telecommunications with a

section on the need for developing a harmonised regional telecommunications policy. It includes guidelines on universal service, broadcasting, network provision and maintenance, regional cooperation, regulatory framework, responsibilities of national regulatory bodies, technical standards, human resource development, and international cooperation. The governments of 12 SADC member states have signed the protocol.

Lusaka - 1999 Theme Document - The Challenges and Opportunities of IT for SADC in the New Millennium

With support from USAID, SADC drafted its bi-annual theme document on IT with the above title for consideration at the bi- annual Ministers' meeting. The Ministers at that meeting officially adopted the document.

SADC is giving attention to universal services and access in 2001 - a draft policy is

currently being formulated under TRASA's leadership.



Concerns have been expressed, including by SADC itself, that

progress in ICT-

related transformation has

been too slow to keep up with

international trends. Few countries are

adopting the protocols and

guidelines proposed by SADC and

implementation has

been slow.

SADC IT / MIS Workshop (Gaborone, Botswana - January 2000 )

A joint follow-up workshop was conducted by the SADC secretariat to examine strategies for implementing the IT Theme Document's recommendations and to consider the recommendations of the earlier study on implementing a SADC-wide Management Information System (MIS). The participants proposed that the rate of implementation of the recommendations emerging from the 1999 Theme Document be accelerated. The high-level recommendations relating to ICT policy that emerged from the Theme Document are as follows:

Regional: 1) Develop a regional ICT policy and identify linkages with the

existing SADC protocols and Model Legislation; 2) Ensure harmonisation of IT national policies to support

regional policies; 3) Investigate the potential of shared regional activities; 4) Ensure regional standardisation of information networks,

customs, trade and other transaction networks; 5) Ensure timely and responsive regional information and data

gathering for each sector / Sector Coordinating Unit.

National: 1) Develop the mechanism and process for carrying out an

integrated National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) planning process;

2) Increase the use of ICTs within government; 3) Establish IT capacity building at national level within the

educational system; 4) Identify regional or national "centres of excellence" which can

provide technical training for policy makers; 5) Carry out awareness-raising programmes to improve public

understanding of the application of ICTs;

6) Ensure close collaboration and coordination with electricity and transport networks in the rollout of infrastructure;

7) Reduce import duties on ICT products to increase investment in ICTs;

8) Develop ICT-based governance and ensure community participation;

9) Identify and eliminate key policy barriers to increased use of e-Commerce; and

10) Investigate the use of ICTs for joint purchasing systems.

The follow-up workshop also made a number of procedural recommendations. Of significance is the recommendation that an IT Technology Committee be established, consisting of Heads of Member States and focal IT institutions that will be assisted by technical staff. Some of their responsibilities will include the



compilation, amendment and assistance with implementing the SADC IT policy; information sharing in the region and beyond; facilitating IT-related research in areas of need; and facilitating the development of national IT committees. In addition, it was recommended that the Commission and Sector Coordinating Units (SCUs) formulate IT sector-specific policies23.

Formulation of an ICT strategy document (2000 / 2001)

Actions are underway to combine telecommunications, broadcasting and IT policy to allow for the formulation of an ICT policy. A draft version is available but the final version has yet to be released. More effort is being placed on strengthening the IT component.

Four countries are playing a lead role in this process: Mauritius, South Africa, Botswana and Mozambique.

2.1.2 The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)

The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) comprises 21 member states - Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Demo- cratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The list shows that several of these countries therefore have membership of both COMESA and SADC. This in itself has resulted in diffused efforts and in some cases conflicting initiatives in the ICT arena.

COMESA identified the importance of ICTs at its Third Summit for Heads of State in 1998, "Information - A Tool for Increased Trade and Investment in COMESA".24The COMESA Treaty25 clearly outlines the need for collaboration among member states in providing information so that the provisions of the Treaty can be implemented. The Treaty also emphasises the need to adopt an information policy that will set standards in hardware, software and the methodologies to be used to link the member states.

COMESA has in the past few years:

Actively undertaken an Information and Networking Initiative to ensure that the Secretariat will have electronic communications with its members26;

Tabled a Model Telecommunications Bill;

Initiated an ambitious venture to establish a regional telecommunications infrastructure (COMTEL)Z', largely driven by the need for accelerated rollout and the inability of many of its members to raise

21 With the proposed restructuring of SADC, it is not known how such recommendations will be effected or whether any actions will result.

24 Final communique of the Third Summit of the COMESA Authority of the Heads of State and Government, www.comesa.intlnewslcommunique.htm

25 www.comesa.intlbackgrndlbacktrty.htm 26 See also www.itu.intlafricainternet2000/Documentsldoc50_e.htm and www.comesa.int 21 www.comesa.intlcommslcomtelb.htm



The Economic Commission for

Africa is focusing on four areas in ICTs - education, health,

e-Commerce and ICT

policies and strategies,

the large amounts of capital for such projects on a national level. The COMTEL concept was developed after a feasibility study on network interconnectivity and tariff harmonisation was conducted by Telia Swedtel for COMESA. A business plan was developed in 1998, and by May 2000 a company had been registered in Mauritius with all the prerequisite organisational structures and agreements put in place. Further efforts to secure strategic equity partners are now underway;

Designed a project to facilitate regional trade and to help member states produce accurate, timely and reliable trade data. Intraregional trade flows must be facilitated and promoted to increase investment, production and growth. The project is known as the COMESA ASYCUDA - EUROTRACE Regional Project" and is

funded by the European Development Fund. ASYCUDA is

UNCTAD's Automated System for Customs Data and Management and is provided free to member states through COMESA; and

COMESA has also recently convened an e-Commerce workshop to help define the areas in which it should be active.29

2.1.3 National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) Initiatives

Since the launch of the African Information Society Initiative (AISI) in 199630, ICT policy and strategy issues have been discussed by hundreds of experts through various national and international initiatives. There have also been concrete steps to deal with ICT at a policy level. A milestone in the overall process was the first African Development Forum in October 1999 on the Challenge to Africa of Globalisation and the Information Age (ADF'99)31. Among many other things, ADF '99 reported on national information and communications infrastructure (NICI) progress throughout the continent. Building on that progress, the AISI and ADF process has now resulted in consensus on a development strategy for the continent that exploits ICTs.

The strategy directs action toward four critical areas:

Youth and education;

Health;

Business and commerce; and

Policy and regulatory change to create an enabling ICT policy environment.

This Handbook is not the place to elaborate on each of these areas. With regard to ICT policy, however, the strategy stresses the need for African countries to commit to policy and regulatory change, to develop an enabling ICT environment for development applications

° www.unicc.org/unctad/en/pressref/mtlhome.htm 9 www.comesaec,org ° See Appendix 1 for an overview of the AISI " For full references, consult the website www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/pub.htm



and in particular to improve the availability and reduce the cost of access to telecommunications infrastructure. Policy change and increased collaboration are needed not only to extend access within countries, but also to facilitate both subregional and regional cooperation, to enhance the capacity of African countries to respond to the global challenges of the emerging new economic order, and finally to participate fully in defining what that new order should mean for Africa. Trade issues and international agreements such as the WTO agreements also have to be considered if Africa is not to be excluded further from the global economy.

In relation to NICI plans, ADF proposes that national information and communication policies and strategies address:

The deployment and use of ICTs within the economy and society;

The development of a local ICT industry to facilitate the production, manufacturing, development, delivery, and distribution of ICT products and services;

The development of the human resource capacity in ICTs to meet changing demands of the economy;

The development of the national information and communications infrastructure;

The development of the legal, institutional and regulatory framework and structures and their capacity building; and

The development of standards, practices and guidelines to support the deployment and exploitation of ICTs.

Prior to the launch of AISI and its programme of work, several developed countries, notably the United States, Canada, Japan and European countries, were all launching programmes to develop their own National Information Infrastructures (Nlls). AISI in turn called for the preparation and implementation of NICI processes for all African countries, supported and facilitated by the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), together with its partners, such as the IDRC. However, there are very limited resources within the ECA to undertake these activities, and generally they are restricted to providing technical advice through consultation and workshops. This is done on request by national governments to the ECA.32

At least 22 African countries have undertaken activities relating to the development of national ICT infrastructure plans. Some of these, as in the case of South Africa and Mozambique, have been undertaken outside ECXs NICI framework. In Namibia, however, the support provided by the ECA has been instrumental in helping the country to develop an ICT policy and regulatory framework.

32 Detailed background information on the ECA and the NICI initiative can be found at www.bellanet.or/partners/aisi. This includes guidelines for the formulation of NICI policies, plans and strategies, which are not repeated here.

The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) has recommended that African countries prioritise policy and regulatory change to improve the availability and reduce the costs of access to telecommunications infrastructure.

The Economic Commission for Africa, through the National Information and Communications Infrastructure (NICI) component of the AISI initiative, is

providing advisory support to African countries that wish to initiate such national projects. This is usually in the form of assistance during workshops and consultations with national governments and key stakeholders.

Namibia is one of the countries in which the NICI

process, with ECA

support, has been a

key instrument in developing an ICT

policy.



The status within the SADC region is indicated below.33 In the SADC region, the most active ICT processes are occurring

in South Africa, Mozambique, Namibia, Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania. In most cases, the emphasis has been on developing telecommunications policy rather than broader information policy, although the definition of information policy adopted in this Handbook (as outlined in Chapter 1), suggests that the ongoing policy processes in both Namibia and Mozambique would fit the category of Information Policy.

Angola: The continuous civil war has resulted in very poor telecommunications infrastructure. Angola Telecom is the sole supplier. There are no immediate plans to establish an independent regulatory body or to liberalise the telecommunications sector. However an active process is underway to modernise the telecommunications infrastructure and the 4th Workshop on the Angolan Telecommunications White Paper, which describes the strategy for the telecommunications sector until 2004, was held in early 1998.

Botswana is placing increasing emphasis on positioning itself

as the "financial hub" of Southern

Africa.

Botswana: Botswana has an established National Development Planning (NDP) process (NDP8 runs from 1997- 2003), but presently there is no national ICT strategy. NDP8 does define a strategy for ICT deployment in central government's "IT Vision 2003", with increasing investment on ICT in the public sector. The government's emphasis on strengthening its financial services sector is likely to accelerate the need for both ICT and e-Commerce related activities. The government has also adopted a form of universal service policy whereby it will subsidise the cost of providing telecommunications access to ensure that all villages of 500 people or more have a

telephone. The government's Computer Centre has also recently initiated an IT policy focusing on standards.

Democratic Republic of Congo: There has been little ICT policy activity in the Democratic Republic of Congo, which has the least- developed telecommunications infrastructure in the region. The Office Congolais des Postes et des Telecommunications (OCPT) is

the public telecommunications operator, which was converted from a government department to a corporation in 1968. OUT is

accountable to the Ministere des Postes et Telecommunications, which is currently responsible for regulating the telecommunications sector, as an independent regulatory authority has not yet been established. A plan for privatisation of the national telecom was expected by the end of 1997 to attract the necessary capital investment, but this has never been realised.

See also Chapter 5, where an overview of e-Commerce activities is outlined for the SADC region.



Lesotho: The government has embarked on an ambitious policy geared to developing an info-communications framework, to improve service delivery and access to the widest user-community possible. A telecommunications policy has been developed, which sets out the guidelines within which operators, users, and service providers should function. This was followed by the drafting and tabling of a Telecommunications Bill. The Bill has now been enacted into law, and establishes among others, a regulatory authority called the Lesotho Telecommunications Authority, which is mandated but not limited to the licensing of service providers, levelling of the playing field to ensure ease of entry for new entrants and creation of an investor-friendly climate. The government recently sold a majority share in the Post, Telegraph and Telecommunication administration (PTT) to a consortium of foreign investors and has also established a universal service fund.

Last year, with support from USAID's Leland Program, a series of sectoral e-committees were established to chart the way forward, notably in education, health and justice. In addition a government IT Unit is being established to centralise ICT functions within government. Ministers have also received training in the use of the Internet as part of the Program and the committees are in the process of formulating project proposals.

Malawi: Malawi began developing a NICI plan with an initial workshop, held in October 1999. The Ministry of Information, Broadcasting and Communications is the lead institution in the NICI

process. The workshop brought different stakeholders together and has made a series of recommendations in policy formulation, content development, applications and infrastructure building. The ECA will be working with Malawi to strengthen the policy process.

A Telecommunications Sector Policy Statement was produced by the Malawian government in 1998, although the "provision of telecommunications services to rural areas was deliberately not spelt out".34 The Malawi Communication Regulatory Authority (MACRA) has subsequently initiated the formulation of a rural telecommunications policy35, to be completed in May 2001. This will be followed by an initial pilot project later in 2001/2002.

The Rural Telecommunications Policy will include the development of a National Development Perspective, a revised telecommunications sector policy, a rural telecommunications sector policy, and a national implementation plan.

The Government of Malawi, through the Department of Information Systems and Technology Management Services in the Ministry of Finance, recently instituted a national IT Policy Task Force comprising all sectors of Malawi, including the Ministry of

" Unpublished presentation by the Malawi Communication Regulatory Authority (MACRA), TRASA Workshop on Universal Service / Universal Access, February 2001. The policy formulation project is being undertaken by Telenor Consult A/S of Norway, with funding provided by the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA).

The Lesotho government has

embarked on an ambitious policy to develop an info- communications framework.

e-Committees have been formed to chart direction in the areas of education, justice and health.

Malawi created a

Rural Telecommunications forum (RTF) to allow stakeholder participation in the policy formulation process and beyond.

A Rural Telecommunications Development Fund is

to be created to promote the expansion of services into rural areas.



Mauritius has instituted several

moves to ensure that it is regarded as an

ICT-enabled country - through creating

enabling e-Commerce

legislation, its Freeport, and a

strategy to stimulate growth of the ICT

sector. ICT skills development forms

an important component of the

strategy.

Information. The IT Policy Task Force has met several times and has come up with an IT Policy Framework paper. With the assistance of international experts, Malawi is planning to develop a draft policy document and action plans for legislation next year.

Mauritius: In June 1997, the government created the Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology (MITT), tasked with formulating and implementing government policies in the Telecom and IT sectors. The government's objectives for the telecommunications sector are outlined in a White Paper on the Telecommunications Sector Fostering the Info-Communications Society, published in December 1997, and a Policy Paper released by MTIT in October 1999. These objectives are to:

provide access to the most modern telecommunications services possible at fair prices;

improve Mauritius' position and competitive edge in the global marketplace;

enhance the economic and social life of the nation;

progressively divest government's interest in Mauritius Telecom by adopting an appropriate privatisation strategy within a liberalised marketplace;

establish an employee shareholding scheme;

ensure that essential national interests are protected; and

create propitious conditions for Mauritius to become an info- communications hub in the region.

Moreover, the Mauritian government is committed to the WTO to fully liberalise the telecommunications sector by 2004. Terminal equipment has been liberalised for some years. Government has also expressed its intention to provide additional licences for ISPs

this year. The Copyright Act of 1997, which aims to create a framework to

keep pace with development in the IT sector, includes software as

intellectual property. In 1998 the IT Act made provision for the legal admissibility of electronic documents. The IT Act also introduced legislation with respect to data protection and computer misuse. The government will soon introduce legislation for electronic transactions, to foster the development of electronic commerce.

In 1997, under the auspices of the National Computer Board, the government decided to develop a national strategy plan for the IT sector. Formally established by the government in November 1998, it is currently under implementation. The objectives of the National IT Strategic Plan are to move the country towards an information-based economy, improve civil service efficiency and effectiveness, develop skilled and trained manpower, and grow the service sector and Freeport (free trade zone). The goal of the plan is to raise the turnover of the IT Industry to US$280 million by 2005.



The strategies to achieve the goal are:

increase the pool of IT professionals;

make more strategic use of IT in government;

increase IT exploitation in all the economic sectors; and

raise home ownership of PCs.

Mauritius is also the only country in the SADC region that has

created legislation to support e-Commerce through its Electronic Transactions Act (ETA)."

Mozambique: The National Information Policy formulation process started in 1996 when the government of Mozambique held an international workshop to address the need to develop such a

policy. A formal process was established in 1997, with approval from the Cabinet.37 Included as part of this process was the introduction of IT training for Ministers, carried out by the University of Eduardo Mondlane's Institute for Informatics (CIUEM).

The draft policy paper was officially launched by the government on 26 and 27 July 2000. Cabinet approved the final policy in December 2000. An English version of the draft policy document is available on the ICT Policy Commission's website,38 as

is the Portuguese version of the final document.

The focus areas of the policy include:

ICTs for Communication and Education

ICTs for Human Resource Development

Universal access

Health

National Infrastructure for ICTs

ICTs for agriculture, natural resources, the environment and tourism

ICTs for government

ICTs and public protection

ICTs, e-Commerce and security

ICTs and creation of a National Research Institute.

A study of IT resources and skills in the country was also launched during June 2000. This will provide baseline information to monitor progress on the ICT policy implementation.39

ae Details of the e-Commerce environment in Mauritius are included in Appendix 12. The IDRC has provided support for the ICT policy process.

8 www.infopol.gov.mz 3s A summary of ICT-related institutions is included in Appendix 3.

All Ministers were required to undergo ICT training to raise awareness.

A similar approach was adopted in

Namibia.

The ICT Policy commission created a website, in Portuguese and English, to present documentation on the ICT policy.

Baseline data on ICTs

was gathered during 2000. This should prove usefulin assessing the impact of implementation of the ICT Policy.



In Mozambique, the ICT Policy process was led from the

Prime Minister's office, a decision

that led to streamlining of the

policy process across ministries.

The creation of an ICT Policy

Commission ensured continued support

for the ICT

policy process.

Combining the original Department of Information and

Broadcasting with the Department of

Foreign Affairs (DFAIB) has been

regarded as

problematic in

Namibia and is

currently under discussion.

DFAIB has, however, spearheaded the

development of a

national ICT policy to be completed by

April 2001.

What is of significance is the coordinated approach that has been adopted towards policy formulation:

The process was spearheaded by the Prime Minister;

An ICT Policy Commission was created, which is situated outside any particular line government department, and which was created to provide support for the policy process; and

High levels of commitment from Ministers, to the point that several Ministers were involved in promoting the policy discussion document to the provinces.

The Telecommunications Regulator (INCM) was established in 1996, but under the new Telecommunications Act drafted in December 1999, it has been given more power to oversee the activities of fixed-line and cellular operators. A tender for a second cellular operator was to be issued early in 2001. This licence will need to address telecommunications service in rural areas.

At this stage, there are some concerns about areas that have not been addressed in detail in the existing policy document. These include areas such as e-Commerce and the protection of intellectual property rights. ICT issues will also have to be covered adequately in sectoral policies to ensure that they are addressed. The challenge will also lie in converting policy into action; a process is currently underway to formulate an implementation strategy.

Namibia: Namibia is an active participant in the ECA's NICI process. In line with the African Information Society Initiative (AISI), Namibia held a three-day NICI workshop in May 1998. Topics included the telecommunications infrastructure, global trends, human resource development and implications for NICI strategy and policy. A follow-up workshop took place in September 1999.11

It identified 13 constraints to the development of ICT in Namibia and made five recommendations:

Create a Task Force comprising several Ministries, Telecom Namibia, the University of Namibia and the ISP Association. The Task Force was to draft Terms of Reference and suggest the composition of a National Information and Communication Resource Network for Namibia.

Put in place a national information and communications policy by 2001.

Establish multipurpose community centres in each of Namibia's 13

regions by 2004. Telecom Namibia has installed Wireless Local Loops in a few of the intended regional locations.

Move towards liberalising the telecommunications industry and the introduction of a second cellular operator.

Have Telecom Namibia increase bandwidth and reduce costs.

40 The IDRC provided some financial support for the workshop.



Subsequently the Task Force was convened and transformed into the proposed Resource Network Group, with representation from the Ministries of Higher Education, Basic Education, Agriculture, Information and Broadcasting, Telecom, ISPAN, University of Namibia, NamPower, National Economic Policy Research Unit, the Namibian NGO Forum, the Polytechnic, SchoolNet and others. The Network then met and set about drafting Terms of Reference for creating an ICT Policy. A call for proposals to develop a National ICT Policy was released in July 2000, a contract awarded to a

combined Namibian / South African team, with project completion date by the end of April 2001.

A related process began in 1995, namely to define a

Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Framework for Namibia. This process proceeded under the direction of the Namibian Communications Commission, with support first from Sweden and subsequently from the Netherlands. The Policy and Regulatory Framework was published in 1999, taking into account SADC protocols, the Model Regulatory Framework produced by the SATCC-TU, and the NICI workshops. The new ICT Policy will supersede, but incorporate with modification, the Telecommuni- cations Policy and Regulatory Framework.

The main NICI application to be implemented by the Government of Namibia in collaboration with the UNDP is to set up a countrywide public Intranet to link government offices. There are also several educational initiatives underway, which are described in Chapter 5.41

South Africa: Since the establishment of the post-apartheid government in 1994, South Africa has instituted a number of ICT-related policy initiatives and legislation. A full analysis of the information policy process is included in Chapter 3, the education policy aspects in Chapter 4 and e-Commerce in Chapter 5 of this Handbook.41

Swaziland: There is currently no national ICT policy in place, nor any body assuming responsibility for promoting IT at the national level. The ECA was asked to help formulate a policy in late 2000 and the UNDP has since been involved in the process as part of its Internet Initiative for Africa (IIA).

Tanzania:The ECA's NICI process started in Tanzania in 1997 with a workshop facilitated by the Tanzanian Planning Commission. The recommendations called for structures to draft an ICT policy and plan, but this recommendation has yet to be realised. Nonetheless there has been other policy-level activity, including an IICD National ICT Roundtable in 1998, which reinforced the need for policy initiatives and also identified five pilot projects. A further workshop was held in October 1999, which proposed the development of a national ICT infrastructure plan during 2000.

" See also Appendix 4, which lists key ICT-related institutions in Namibia. 41 See also Appendix S, which lists key ICT-related institutions in South Africa.

A Resource Network Group was formed in Namibia comprising broad representation from government, the private sector, and civil society.

One of the outputs of this group was the development of a Terms of Reference for a new ICT Policy, due at the end of April 2001.

The status of ICT-

related policy activities varies greatly across SADC member states -

from little to intensive activity in countries such as Mauritius and South Africa.



The Zambian government,

through the Communications

Authority, is

undertaking feasibility studies to

determine telecommunications needs in rural areas.

Zambia: Assisted by the International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD), and with the support of the Ministry of Communications and Transport, Zambia conducted a National ICT Roundtable in November 1998. Five project ideas emanated from the Roundtable, as well as recommendations for ICT policy that included provision for adequate training and capacity building, public awareness activities and activities that encourage public participation. An Information Society Policy paper was planned for November 2000. There is currently no Universal Service Policy in place but feasibility studies were undertaken to determine the need in rural areas, and the Communications Authority aims to design a Policy Framework that will benefit consumers.

Zimbabwe: A Postal and Telecommunications Bill was adopted by Parliament in March 2000, although little public debate was involved in its formulation. The new Act will:

SADC is concerned about the slow

implementation of policies and

strategies by SADC and its member states.

SADC is presently

undertaking an organisational restructuring

exercise to encourage

accelerated

transformation within its own

structures. It hopes that this will also

accelerate its ability to keep up with the rapid changes in the international arena.

This is particularly relevant in the ICT

environment.

Create a regulatory authority which will handle operator issues and facilitate investment by new entrants;

Transform the Zimbabwe Post and Telecommunications Commission into successor companies that run commercialised business entities to pave the way for privatisation; and deregulate the telecommunications sector to allow competition in the provision of value-added services.

The next phase of the sector reform process, which is now being implemented, introduces a shift from commercialisation to privatisation. This will involve the search for and identification of strategic partners in the fixed telecommunications and cellular service areas.

2.2 Problems and Issues Emerging from the Southern African Experience - What Lessons Can We Learn?

Regional Structures43

The slow pace of development of ICT-related policies has been a

major hindrance in the region - opportunities to harmonise regional policies and exploit economies of scale in infrastructure rollout have been considerably delayed. Some SADC member states, as well as SADC itself, have raised concerns that member states have been very slow to adopt those protocols and model guidelines that have been put in place.

Implementation of policies appears to be the major stumbling block at regional level. When policies are formulated, stronger emphasis needs to be placed on the implementability of the policy.

Some of the views expressed in this section were gathered from key stakeholders in Namibia, Mozambique and South Africa for an IDRC-supported study to determine the feasibility of establishing ICT-policy research support mechanisms in Southern Africa. The unpublished report was prepared by Tina James and Jonathan Miller for the IDRC in August 2000.



in addition, increased emphasis should be placed on action- oriented research and pilot studies that will deepen the technological base and allow feedback into the policy formulation and amendment process. Far stronger emphasis could be placed on skills development to strengthen local capacity in areas such as

project management. SATCC's capacity to coordinate and monitor ICT policy processes should be strengthened.

There is general consensus that a number of initiatives are underway within SADC, and particularly within TRASA. However, the leadership structure and current organisational structure and function of the various Sector Coordinating Units could be strengthened, thereby speeding up the transformation of the telecommunications sector in the subregion. This would also address the need for more integrated structures that are a

prerequisite of any ICT policy.

Varying levels of telecommunications development are evident within SADC:

Eleven of the 14 SADC countries have independent regulators, or are in the process of moving towards such status;

Liberalisation of the telecommunications industry varies from being in an advanced stage (Tanzania), to partial liberalisation (South Africa, Namibia, Mauritius) to no liberalisation (Angola);

Few SADC member states have implemented policies and strategies addressing universal service, although some are in progress (Malawi, Namibia, South Africa and Mozambique);

Large variations in wireless data regulations exist, e.g. freely available in Angola, Tanzania and Mozambique, but not elsewhere.

There has been no movement on the harmonisation of data interchange standards or e-Commerce regulations, both of which will be a major hindrance in allowing the development of e-Commerce within the SADC region."

Integrative Structures and Participation in Policy Formulation

Some countries have created integrative structures to ensure participation during policy development, e.g. the creation of Mozambique's ICT Policy Commission, and driving the process from the Prime Minister's office, which has encouraged higher levels of synergy and integration between government departments. Namibia created a Resource Network Group (RNG) comprising a broad cross-section of representatives from government, the private sector, NGOs and civil society. Mauritius has driven many of its ICT-related initiatives through the National Computer Board.

See also Chapter 5 and Appendix 12 in which e-Commerce developments in SADC are presented.

There has been increased progress in

SADC countries towards liberalisation of the telecommunications sector.

Universal service, particularly in rural areas, is still a major problem in all countries in the region. It is,

however, a priority area in countries such as

Mozambique, Malawi, Namibia and South Africa.



Most of the countries that have

undertaken ICT

policy development have instituted

varying degrees of broad participation

in the policy formulation process.

This is generally regarded as good

practice in ensuring that the ICT policy

covers the depth and range of issues

required for successful

implementation.

In all cases where ICT

policies have been successfully

undertaken, the presence of a

champion (either an individual or a lead institution) can be

identified.

Leadership and commitment are

critical success factors in successful

ICT policy development and implementation.

Policy processes have involved varying levels of broad participation in the formulation process, whether it be the formation of a Rural Telecommunications Forum (as in Malawi), or the broad participative process adopted in Mozambique, where various Ministers were assigned the responsibility of presenting the ICT policy to key stakeholders. In Namibia, the three-year lead- up to the ICT policy formulation process involved several workshops with key stakeholders to obtain inputs for the ICT

policy. The NICI process also encourages broad participation. These participative approaches during the policy formulation

stage lay the groundwork for synergy and integration in the later stages of policy implementation. It is only then, however, that the strength of these integrative and participative approaches can be proved.

Leadership

Creating an apex in government, at the highest level possible, during the ICT policy process will eliminate many of the problems generally encountered, such as rivalry between ministries, policy processes slanted towards the needs of one department at the expense of another, etc.

The role of an "ICT champion" cannot be understated. In all cases where policy processes were initiated successfully, the strong presence of such leadership was evident. In the case of Mozambique, this is evidenced through the role of the CIUEM (and its leadership now and in the past). In the case of Namibia, the leadership has been achieved through the creation of a Resource Network Group under the auspices of the Department of Foreign Affairs, Information and Broadcasting.

Universal Service

Rural rollout plans have had limited

successin Southern Africa.

Policies and appropriate

implementation strategies have to be

developed to address universal

access.

Most countries in Southern Africa have identified the limited and slow rollout of telecommunications, and the inhibition by dominant telecommunications operators, as the largest stumbling blocks towards creating increased universal service and access.

Several countries in the region have included universal access as a

priority area in their policies (Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Malawi). However, without the necessary reform in the telecommunications sector (and the policy that underpins it), little is likely to happen to achieve greater teledensities.

Most countries, except for South Africa, do not yet have rural telecentre rollout plans. Most activities have been centred on a

number of pilot projects, but none have been taken to the macro- level, as is for example the case in Senegal, with its many thousands



of telecentres in urban and rural centres. The lack of policy (and ensuing legislation) have not allowed for an enabling environment in which rural rollout can take place. Support mechanisms such as

universal service funds and universal service obligations have not been created in several of the SADC countries.

The introduction of subsidised tariffs for telecentres, schools and clinics has not been generally adopted in Southern African countries. It is an area, however, that could have considerable impact on increasing access.45

Interactions Between National and Regional Institutions

The diverse levels of ICT development within the SADC region create challenges for SADC to meet the needs of all its member states. The ability of countries to "absorb" and use the support and direction that may be provided by a regional institution will depend to a large degree on national capability to assimilate such support mechanisms.

The capacity within SADC to provide policy support for member states is very limited. The lack of research capacity in human and financial resources as well as available research material is regarded as a major restraint in policy development. This is also evident through the number of non-African consultants involved in formulating policies. Very few institutional-strengthening activities are currently being undertaken in the subregion in ICT and information policy research.46

Policy Content and Priority Areas

Most Southern African countries have focused their efforts on policy that addresses infrastructure. Many countries, with assistance from the ECA, are conducting NICI processes, which also work towards the creation of ICT policies containing the following elements:4'

Developing national ICT infrastructure

Human resource development

Universal Service and creating broader utilisation and exploitation of ICTs (including by women and the physically challenged)

45 Senegal introduced special rates in all its telecentres (local call rates to any location in the country) - this contributed greatly to the success of telecentre use.

46 TRASA has drafted plans (January 2001) to establish a network for capacity building in the telecommunications sector. Its objectives would be to develop and strengthen capability to generate advanced-level policy, regulatory and managerial expertise, and also to enhance the capacity of key decision-maker/s, policy-makers and human resources who are implementing telecommunications policy, so that they can stay abreast of new technological developments.

4' The ECA's Post-ADF Summit Paper on ICT policies and strategies includes more detail on possible elements to be included in national ICT policies and strategies: www. un. org/depts/eca/a df/pforum. h tm

A recent survey indicated the need to strengthen ICT

policy research capacity within Southern Africa. This could be achieved through initiatives to strengthen existing institutions within the region and at national level.

Cooperative mechanisms could be found to share expertise more optimally across the region.

An analysis of the existing ICT policies in Southern African countries shows that there are common key elements that are addressed in those policies.

The ECA's Post-ADF Summit document on ICT policies and strategies can be used as a guideline for policy formulation.



Various sectoral applications such as Education, Health, Agriculture, etc. (which vary depending on national priorities)

IT for Government

e-Commerce

Creating an enabling environment to stimulate ICT usage (through incentives, favourable investment climates, easing of regulatory restrictions, removal of tariffs on equipment, etc.).

Stimulating the local ICT industry, including the promotion of SMME start-ups in the ICT sector, and incentives.

Human Resource Development in ICTs

The lack of available ICT skills in Southern

Africa has been identified as one of

the most critical constraints for policy

development and implementation.

There is also a

serious lack of research

capacity in ICT-

related areas; the need for local

institutional strengthening to support national

policy processes has to be considered.

In all countries, including South Africa, the lack of ICT skills has been identified as one of the most critical constraints. Tertiary institutions are not providing enough students to meet demand, and those that do graduate often leave for better opportunities in developed countries, or those employed in government, leave for better-paying private sector jobs. In Namibia, for example, skills development was regarded as the area of highest importance for inclusion in the ICT policy. The draft policy therefore includes several actions to stimulate ICT awareness in government and citizens, and to grow the number of available graduates with ICT

skills.

The brain drain has been identified as a major problem within the subregion (with South Africa acting as the magnet for ICT

professionals from other Southern African countries). ICT policies should therefore address action plans that encourage skilled resources to remain in the country.48

The resource base for research in ICT policy is very low and few researchers live in the subregion.

Raising ICT awareness within government, and particularly at Ministerial level, has received attention in a number of countries, such as Namibia, South Africa and Mozambique. This was seen as

one way of ensuring that government could play a lead role as a

model user of ICTs. The programmes appear to have had limited success, and it seems that other mechanisms will need to be examined to raise the levels of ICT skills.

48 The brain drain is not yet perceived to be a problem in Mozambique - this may be attributed to the low levels of available skills as well as the language issue.


ICT Policy in South Africa

An Analysis of Information Policy in South Africa Chapter 3 covers a historical overview of ICT developments since 1994; it briefly introduces major events in terms of policy and implementation initiatives and puts them into perspective; provides an overview of policy formulation, both formal and informal, which draws some conclusions on the basis of the content of policy itself, and an overview of the institutional mechanisms and structures that were put in place to implement policy. It looks at the mandates of new institutions, their internal operations, their implementation efforts and the way in which these correspond with the goals set out in formal policy. Finally it looks at some of the problems encountered and lessons that can be learnt from the South African experience. Specific areas that are covered include telecommunications policy, broadcasting policy, and policy and institutional experience in promoting universal service and universal access. Specific aspects of establishing an independent regulator (and later a combined broadcasting and telecommunications regulator) are discussed.

3.1 Introduction The multitude of ICT-policy related activities that have been undertaken in South Africa since the 1994 democratic elections, and the many lessons relating to policy formulation and implementation that have emerged subsequently, justify the inclusion of a separate chapter in this Handbook on the South African experience. The country, with its parallel developed and developing components, presents an interesting case in that ICT

policy has to address the needs of a dynamic business sector and ICT

industry under increasing pressures to compete globally. At the same time it is confronted by the societal inequities left behind by the apartheid regime, which threatens to keep many people from inclusion in the Information Economy.

ICTs and their use for development have been high on the political agenda of the South African government since before the first democratic elections in the country in 1994. The ANC in exile, in the years prior to the elections, prioritised ICTs as a key area, and the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) Base Document that formed the election manifesto of the ANC Alliance already included references to the importance of ICTs to development.

After the elections the new government started to reformulate overall policy frameworks, some of which touched upon the issue of ICTs. By 1995, the theme of the information Society started to surface regularly in political discourse and policy documents, and ICTs, including access to ICTs, found recognition in both policy formulation and implementation.

At the international level two speeches were witness to the debate that had begun to develop within South Africa. At the G7 Conference on the Information Society, then-Deputy President



Thabo Mbeki made a memorable speech inviting Western countries to engage the developing world on the issue of the Information Society (Mbeki, 1995).49 At the opening of the International Telecommunication Union's (ITU) Telecom 1995 Conference, then-President Nelson Mandela stressed the potential of ICTs for development, but warned of the widening duality between those with access to the global Information Society and those without (Mandela, 1995).50,51

3.2 Presenting an Overview of ICT Policy in South Africa Information and communications policy cuts across many fields. Some of the policy processes relating to ICTs were developed by government departments with a clear stake in ICT policy, such as the Department of Communications (then called the Department of Post, Telecommunications and Broadcasting), the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology. Other initiatives derived from the Presidency or civil society. The development of these policy frameworks was seldom coordinated, both in 1994 and subsequently. Some of the processes ran in parallel; others overlapped in terms of content. However, over time four overlapping periods emerged in the general policy formulation process in this sector:

A Transition Period (pre-1994), during which the transition from the 40-year Nationalist Party rule to what ultimately became the Government of National Unity was negotiated. Critical to these discussions were the roles in the future society of broadcasting and telecommunications and their accompanying market structures.

A Transformation Period starting after the 1994 elections and running until the first half of 1997. During this period policy frameworks were renegotiated and developed within the new democratic dispensation. The first post-apartheid democratic institution, the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) was set up to regulate the broadcasting sector in order to ensure free and fair elections and subsequently enshrined in the Constitution as a

commitment to freedom of expression and access to information.

An Implementation Period running from mid-1997 until mid- 2000, in which policies formulated during the transformation period were starting to wield effect, institutions responsible for implementation or regulation were being set up and new policy processes introduced to refine existing frameworks; and

49 Mbeki, T. (24 February 1995). South Africa and the Information Superhighway, G7 Conference on the Information Society, Brussels, Belgium, 24 February 1995, in Mbeki, T.

(ed.) (1998) Africa: the time has come. Selected speeches. Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers and Mafube Publishing, 181-185.

o Mandela, N. Q October 1995). Address by President Nelson Mandela at the opening ceremony of Telecom 95, The 7th World Telecommunications Forum and Exhibition Geneva, www.gov.zal Concerns about this duality are now being formally addressed by the G8 countries through the DOT Force initiative, which is looking at mechanisms to close the "Digital Divide". (www.markle.org/dotforce.htm/).



An Evaluation and Policy Reformulation Period from mid-2000 until the present, in which both policy frameworks and implementation are being evaluated and reviewed, and new policy processes instituted.

A graphic overview of the major events in ICT-policy development is

presented below.

Figure 3: Overview of ICT Policy Processes in South Africa

1993

Independent Broadcasting Act (1993) ----------------------

ANC prioritises ICTs before the democratic elections ----------------------

1994

Independent Broadcasting --__-----_ Authority (IBA) established

C O

Green Paper on Science and Technology drafted

December 1995 COMTASK established to develop strategy for govt communications

1995

1996

ANC holds the first workshop on "Telecommunications in a Post- apartheid South Africa" organised by CDITP

ANC Alliance develops the 1994 election manifesto, the RDP Base

---°------ Document

March 1995 National Telecommunications Project launched. Green Paper

---------- released for public comment

March 1996 White Paper on

---------------------------- Telecommunications

April 1996 --------------------- Information Society and Development

(ISAD) and Helderfontein Conferences White Paper, Science and Technology ----------------------

November 1996 Telecommunications Act;

April 1997 TELI Strategic Plan for ----

Education and ICTs completed

May 1998 Government Communication and

Information System (GCIS) launched

SAITIS project commences

IT Policy for Government initiated (DPSA)

1997

1998

1999

February 1997 SATRA established

May 1997 Universal Service Agency created

February 1998 Presidential Review Commission: IT for government July 1999 e-Commerce debate launched

--------------------------- Broadcasting Act (1999) --------------------- ------- Universal Service hearings launched to

redefine Universal Service and Access

State Information Technology Agency (SITA) established to merge defence,

---------- police and administrative networks October I November 2000

--------- Consultants appointed - formulation

R SATRA and IBA combine to form ICASA

October 2000 e-Commerce Green Paper launched

for public comment

February 2001 Telecommunications Policy Colloquium - public inputs requested on proposed

policy (written inputs and workshop)

2000

2001

of revised telecommunications policy

April 2001 e-Law Workshop: fast-tracking development of e-Commerce legislation

Cabinet approves new telecom policy (public comment by 2 May 2001)



The result of the negotiated settlement

was the establishment

of a constitutionally protected

independent

broadcasting regulator

to regulate broadcasting in the public

interest.

3.3 The Transition Period (1989 - 1994)

3.3.1 Broadcasting

The last decade has seen massive changes to the ICT sector, once characterised in broadcasting by an expensive state propaganda organ and in telecommunications by a highly indebted state monopoly. It was, in fact, broadcasting that had led the break away from the state monopoly provision of communication services. The introduction of new technological applications in the politically strained '80s, made possible the introduction of subscription broadcasting services by a consortium of the white Afrikaans and English-language newspaper houses. These could be narrowly provisioned so that content could be tightly controlled to provide relief to the voting public from the realities of guerrilla warfare and other evidence of social and political dysfunction.

In other words, these subscription broadcasting services, together with a web of other media, education and cultural activities, could provide the appearances of normality, and even technological and economic progress, to a country which had lived so long under a series of states of emergency that they had indeed become the norm. At the same time, these services provided the newspaper owners, aggrieved with the loss of advertising income they claimed to have suffered with the introduction of television in 1976, with a valuable source of revenue. At the same time, resistance media burgeoned in short-lived new metropolitan titles, community free-sheets, and illegal radio stations. This chaotic situation within the sector was reflective of the dissent in the country at the time and of a state able to operate within the sector without any transparency or accountability.

Amid this turmoil the ANC was unbanned in 1990 and a

multiparty negotiation forum, Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA), was established to negotiate key policy issues.

Among the key areas identified at the time was broadcasting and telecommunications. A combined telecommunications, broadcasting and spectrum regulator was proposed but the collapse of CODESA in 1992 brought negotiations to an end.

In 1993 the Department of Home Affairs was sitting on 80-90 applications for broadcast licences but refused to deal with these while awaiting the creation of the broadcasting regulator.52 At the time, plans were already underway for the first democratic elections in the country. Fast-tracking the broadcasting policy process (and ensuing legislation), and ensuring that an open broadcasting environment was established, were seen as critical to ensure fair elections and to allow political parties to have access to their constituencies through this medium.

When the multiparty negotiating forum eventually reconvened, the negotiations on the structure of telecommunications deadlocked. Conflicting parties abandoned telecommunications and

Horwitz (1997). South Africa Telecommunications: Historyand Prospects, Virtual Institute of Information, Section 3, www.vii.org



finally came to agreement on broadcasting. The Transitional Executive Council passed the independent Broadcasting Authority Act in 1993 and the Authority came into operation in 1994 following the first democratic elections.

3.3.2 The Reconstruction and Development Programme and ICTs

One of the first documents stressing the importance of ICTs in the development of the "New South Africa" was the 1994 ANC Alliance election manifesto, the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) (ANC, 1994). This document, later to be known as

the RDP Base Document was meant to be a blueprint of how the Alliance, once in power, would reform the country. After the elections the then-Government of National Unity accepted the RDP

Base Document as the overall framework for development and it became the central policy document. The RDP Base Document consisted of six principles, which constituted the basis for the country's political and economic philosophy. The main underlying strand was that economic growth, development, reconstruction and redistribution were not antagonistic goals, but could be combined in terms of an overall developmental policy. The document in fact proposed a combination of a basic-needs approach, directed at the immediate improvement in the lives of disadvantaged groups, with a neo-Keynesian macro-economic policy, geared at economic development and the creation of employment.

RDP: Six Basic Principles

The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)

became the central policy document for the newly elected government.

The RDP stated that economic growth and development were compatible with the goals of reconstruction and social development.

An integrated programme, based on the people, which provides peace and security for all and builds the nation, links reconstruction and development and deepens democracy-these are the six basic principles of the RDP (ANC, 1994, §1.3.1-8).

An integrated and sustainable programme. The legacy of apartheid cannot be overcome with piecemeal and uncoordinated policies. The RDP brings together strategies to harness all our resources in a coherent and purposeful effort that can be sustained into the future. A people-driven process. Our people, with their aspirations and collective determination, are our most important resource. The RDP is focused on our people's most immediate needs, and it relies, in turn, on their energies to drive the process of meeting these needs.

Peace and security for all. Promoting peace and security must involve all people and must build on and expand the National Peace Initiative. To begin the process of reconstruction and development we must now establish security forces that reflect the national and gender character of our country. Such forces must be non-partisan, professional, and uphold the Constitution and respect human rights.

Nation building. Central to the crisis in our country are the massive divisions and inequalities left behind by apartheid. We must not perpetuate the separation of our society into a 'first world' and a 'third world'-another disguised way of preserving apartheid. Nation building is the basis on which to build a South Africa that can support the development of our Southern African region. Only a programme that develops economic, political and social viability can ensure our national sovereignty.

Link reconstruction and development. The RDP is based on reconstruction and development being parts of an integrated process. The RDP integrates growth, development, reconstruction and redistribution into a unified programme. The key to this link is an infrastructural programme that will provide access to modern and effective services like electricity, water, telecommunications, transport, health, education and training for all our people. Success in linking reconstruction and development is

essential if we are to achieve peace and security for all.

Democratisation of South Africa. Thoroughgoing democratisation of our society is, in other words, absolutely integral to the whole RDP. The RDP requires fundamental changes in the way that policy is made and programmes are implemented. Above all, the people affected must participate in decision- making. Democratisation must begin to transform both the state and civil society. Democracy is not confined to periodic elections. It is, rather, an active process enabling everyone to contribute to reconstruction and development

information Policy Handbook 41


The RDP emphasised access to

telecommunications and the creation of

advanced information

networks as key in the reconstruction of

the country.

RDP and the Information

Highway

The use of information

technology provides a major challenge in

linking basic needs with information

highways in innovative ways that improve the capacity

of industry to successfully

reintegrate into world markets (ANC,

1994: §4.6.3).

The RDP Base Document deals with ICTs in several chapters, already indicating its crosscutting nature. In the chapter on "Meeting Basic Needs" access to telecommunications is defined as a basic need that has to be provided at affordable prices as rapidly as possible. However, telecommunications are perceived to be much more than just a basic need. The telecommunications sector is "an indispensable backbone for the development of all other socio-economic sectors. An effective telecommunications infrastructure, which includes universal access, is essential to enable the delivery of basic services and the reconstruction and development of deprived areas" (ANC, 1994, §2.8.3).

The same reasoning is to be found for information technology in the chapter on "Building the economy". As is the case for telecommunications, the upgrading of the information technology infrastructure can "facilitate an upgrading of education, health care, recreation and other services, by improving the quality of information available and providing communities throughout the country with access to expertise and usable data" (ANC, 1994, §4.6.1-3). The development of an advanced information network can play a crucial role in providing access to high-quality services to all South Africans.

Although the RDP Base Document is not clear how the sector should be organised, the section on "Upgrading Infrastructure" is

emphatic on some policy aspects. According to the document:

The basic network should remain within the public sector. Underlying the RDP Base Document was a fear that market forces would tend to serve the status quo. This stance corresponded with the more general principle that the privatisation and commercialisation of parastatals should be reconsidered and could even be reversed if these processes went against the public interest (ANC, 1994, §4.4.4.3).

At the level of the ICT sector, the RDP was in favour of introducing an independent regulator and separating policy from regulation and implementation.

Certain value-added network services could be provided by the private sector (ANC, 1994, §4.6.6-8). Making a link with industrial policy, the RDP proposed to support the development of the sector through a strong industrial telecommunications sector. The industrial sector should cooperate with the different operators to develop appropriate systems, which could also be exported to other developing countries (ANC, 1994, §4.6.10).

The vision of ICTs that underlies the RDP Base Document in many ways influenced future policy making in the post-apartheid era. Although many modalities of policy and implementation differ, the main principles concerning the relation between ICTs and development barely changed during the period.

After 1994 many government departments started formulating new policy frameworks.



3.4 The Transformation Period: 1994 - 1997

During the transformation period, policy frameworks were renegotiated and developed within a new democratic dispensation. The first round of many of these policy processes came to an end during the second half of 1996 and the beginning of 1997. Thereafter additional policy processes, such as that for the new broadcasting and e-Commerce policy, got underway but the founding legislative frameworks for broadcasting and telecommunications had been set.

The National Telecommunications Policy Project (NTPP) 1995 - 1996

The need for a new telecommunications policy was generally recognised by all parties in 1994, be it for divergent reasons.

1. Under the former government the sector itself had undergone major changes without the introduction of appropriate legislation. The former government had taken steps towards a

liberalised sector by commercialising Telkom in 1991 and by licensing two mobile operators in 1993. These changes were not accompanied by a clear separation of responsibilities between the state and operators, the state having stakes in some of them. Although a National Telecommunications Forum (NTF),53 comprising stakeholders in industry, was set up towards the end of 1993 to discuss telecommunication issues and future policy, the organisation did not have the time to make any decisive impact on policy before the elections.

2. Although the mobile licences issued included commitments to providing subsidised access in disenfranchised and rural areas, due to the former dispensation, the provision of telecommunications services in 1994 remained highly skewed. As a

result, penetration rates for disadvantaged groups were far below those of white and urban groups. Servicing the disadvantaged groups needed new efforts from a national operator (Telkom) already burdened with debt.

3. Business and industry were largely in favour of the introduction of competition, which they believed would lead to services and prices in line with those of their international competitors.

Between 1993 and 1994, several negotiations were undertaken between the ANC Alliance and the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) to develop a national information policy and to conceptualise a consultative policy process. A first report was presented in May 1994 (Harfoush & Wild, 1994), which focused on the transparency and accessibility of

53 See Appendix 8 for a more detailed description of the NTF.

In the South African context it should be kept in mind that the policy processes took place against a

general rethinking of the South African state and a

restructuring of the administration. Some of the departments were undergoing thorough restructuring processes while formulating policy or trying to implement it.

The result was fluctuation and variation in responsibilities, creating high levels of uncertainty for many. Large differences in the capacities of departments and institutions were also evident.



An independent structure,

the National Telecommunications Policy Project (NTPP)

was set up in 1994/95 to

coordinate the development of a

national telecommunications

policy.

information and on information systems for government, government departments and information users. It developed ideas on how information management might be improved and on how infrastructure might be extended. Within the RDP Office a

separate initiative was started with the aim of improving information management within government.

At the end of 1994 the IDRC was officially invited to conceptualise processes and structures that would lead to a Green Paper - White Paper process and the drafting of actual legislation. The IDRC was to set up an independent structure to guide the consultative process, the National Telecommunications Policy Project (NTPP). The NTPP was programmatically responsible to the Minister, but was placed outside of the existing administration. The process provided for input from all stakeholders involved during the different phases in the process.

National Information Management Project (IDRC)

What is abundantly clear is that the policy makers within South Africa are critically aware of the importance of strong, effective and dynamic information infrastructures, systems and networks (Harfoush & Wild, 1994, p.3).

Extensive participative

and consultative policy processes

were characteristic of the South African

policy processes during this period.

All major stakeholders were consulted. For the first time in South

Africa, (black) labour was consulted on

the restructuring of state assets. Their

power in the process was demonstrated

by their initial veto of the partial privatisation.

The NTPP became a lengthy process, trying to align major differences between the various stakeholders. At the outset, some of these differences seemed insurmountable. The ANC and the partners in the Alliance - the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party (SACP) -

were convinced that only the public sector had the leverage to provide universal service to the whole population. The business sector, on the other hand, was in favour of the further liberalisation of the sector, which they believed would lead to the fast modernisation of the network, the extension of services and the rebalancing of price.

However, the reasons for setting up the NTPP were ideologically, politically and strategically motivated:

Firstly, the new government already had stated its commitment to open up policy processes to participation by the community in its RDP Base Document.

Secondly, the participatory forums under the transition period leading to the first democratic elections in 1994 were significantly successful in brokering consensus between the different stakeholders in society. Using similar mechanisms under the new government seemed logical.

Thirdly, and more strategically, the new government still mistrusted its own administrations. The new policy makers were afraid that the "old guard" in the administration might capture the process in terms of their own interests, or might even obstruct the democratic



process. A similar fear probably underpinned the motivation not to commission the National Telecommunications Forum (NTF) to take the process forward. As a stakeholder body, it was feared the NTF might fall prey to certain sectoral interests during the process.

The formulation of telecommunications policy did not take place in a vacuum. In the course of its two years, changes took place in other fields, not least in South Africa's economic policy. The telecommunications policy process had started under the neo- Keynesian economic policy of the RDP. By the time of its culmination in the Telecommunications Act at the end of 1996 and the Telkom licence in 1997, the more neo-liberal Growth Employment and Reconstruction (GEAR) Policy was gradually implemented. The government developed from a clear "NO" on the issue of privatisation towards a position in which privatisation of public enterprises was considered a central piece of its economic policy. Without any doubt these evolutions had a significant influence on the eventual outcome of the NTPR

The NTPP led to the adoption of a White Paper on Tele- communications in March 1996 and a Telecommunications Act in November 1996. However, the NTPP process was not completed, as

the issues of market structure and privatisation remained deadlocked by a veto from labour.54The extent of the exclusivity period for Telkom, the obligations in terms of its rollout, and the phasing of the liberalisation process were left out of the Act. These omissions resulted in subsequent problems relating to universal service obligations and definitions. It was only after 1) labour agreed to the sale of a stake in Telkom, 2) the actual sale of a 30% stake to Thintana Communications" and 3) Telkom received its new licence, that the policy process was finalised.

The Green Paper on Telecommunications

In the South African context, the Green Paper is not a document outlining government's views on future policy. It is a consultative document that outlines the different policy options in order to stimulate public debate. To this effect, the Green Paper on Telecommunications Policy comprised 10 chapters broadly covering the different aspects of telecommunications policy (Ministry of Post, Telecommunications and Broadcasting (MPTB), 1995). After a brief description of the subject and the issues at stake, the Green Paper outlined questions for future policy.

The most important issues covered were:

Universal service (or access)

Market structures (monopoly versus competition and in which segments of the market)

" The Telecommunications Policy Colloquium of February 2001 showed labour assuming a similar (minority) position regarding privatisation, and liberalisation of the telecommunications market.

ss The consortium consisting of Malaysia Telecom and SBC International.

Government's stance changed from a

strong negative position on privatisation in 1994/95 towards one where privatisation of public enterprises was considered central to economic policy by 1997.

The issues of market structure and privatisation were major stumbling blocks during the negotiations (and remain so to this day). Whereas the private sector was generally in favour of liberalisation, there was considerable resistance from the labour movement.

Some of the controversial aspects were left out of the Act - subsequent events have revealed that the legal uncertainty in the eventual enactment led to many legal disputes with the Regulator.



The NTPP used a

broad information campaign to

obtain inputs into the policy process from stakeholders

outside the telecommunications

sector.

This was achieved through the use of media advertising,

dissemination of promotional

material and wide distribution of the

Green Paper.

Financing mechanisms and ownership structures (possible privatisation of Telkom)

Establishment of a regulator (position, independence, composition, etc.) and its responsibilities (licensing, standards, frequency, etc.)

Price regulation and cross-subsidisation

The local industry and its relation to the sector

Education and training of personnel

The relation to international organisations and operators (including satellite)

The implementation of legislation.

Although the different options were spelled out rather well, it was clear the Green Paper on Telecommunications was written with the RDP philosophy in mind.

The NTPP organised a broad information campaign to attract as

much input as possible. It was innovative in that the campaign did not restrict its attention to the obvious stakeholders. By distributing the Green Paper in the different official languages, by advertising on radio and television, and by developing promotional material, the NTPP hoped for reactions from the general public and more specifically from disadvantaged communities. The reaction was substantial. The NTPP received over 131 contributions and almost 4 000 pages of text.

Green Paper on Telecommunications Policy

Telecommunications can play an important role in helping South Africa achieve [the RDP goals]. In order to do so, the telecommunications sector must work towards meeting four interrelated objectives:

The achievement of universal service

The economic empowerment of historically disadvantaged South Africans

The provision of a wide range of telecommunications services to stimulate and support economic growth in various sectors

The effective use of telecommunications for social and infrastructural development (MPTB, 1995, Chapter 1).

The reaction was substantial and the NTPP received over

4 000 pages of text. There were,

however, few contributions from the public at large.

However, the bulk of these contributions came from stakeholders involved in the telecommunications sector. The Minister was later to admit that the contributions from the public at large had been disappointing. The content of the reactions from the stakeholders themselves was not surprising and was in line with the positions and interests they held in the sector.

The private sector, the mobile operators and foreign telecommunications companies present in South Africa were largely in favour of a fast liberalisation of the sector. Telkom itself proposed



a phased introduction of competition. It pleaded for an exclusivity period in which it could extend the network. Only value-added services would be provided on a competitive basis. Labour, especially the Post Office and Telecommunications Workers Association (POTWA), was against the introduction of competition and in favour of the status quo. In hindsight it was to be expected that the labour movement would resist these changes, as jobs were threatened and there were no immediate alternative sources of employment until the introduction of competition at some unspecified period in the future.

The Technical Task Team (TTT) produced an Interim Narrative Report (1995), which found widespread agreement on a number of issues. The most important were:

universal service was the single most important goal for the sector, with universal access as an intermediate objective;

a new regulatory framework, in which the responsibilities of the different actors were clearly defined, was indispensable;

a new Telecommunications Regulatory Authority should be created with a semi-autonomous or autonomous status and a broad mandate to regulate the sector; and

apart from labour, all actors were in favour of a partial privatisation of Telkom, either through a partial sale of shares or through the introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner.

The key remaining area of disagreement was the issue of the market structure. As opinions diverged considerably, the Technical Task Team synthesised the responses into five scenarios, ranging from the direct introduction of competition to the maintenance of the basic monopoly.

Key elements in the Green Paper were the achievement of universal service, a

new regulatory framework with an independent regulator, and partial privatisation of the national monopoly operator (Telkom).



Interim Narrative Report: Market structure scenarios

Scenario 1: Basic monopoly maintained, with slight liberalisation in the long term

The monopoly of Telkom is maintained, geared at network extension

Private and cellular networks obliged to interconnect with Telkom

Other public networks (ESKOM and Transtel) are to complement Telkom

General contribution to a universal service fund

Scenario 2: Basic monopoly retained in the medium turn, liberalisation in the long term

Liberalisation only after extension of network

Competition for international services

As much interconnection as possible

Other public networks, first complementary, then competition


Scenario 3: Liberalisation in the medium term; full competition in the long term

Phased liberalisation and introduction of competition

Monopoly for national operator for short period

In short to mid-term competition in all areas

Other public networks may compete with national operator


Scenario 4: Break up Telkom and limit monopoly to local services and the network backbone; full competition everywhere else as soon as possible

Based on the American model

Telkom's activities restricted to provision of local basic telephony and backbone

All other services opened to competition

Scenario S. Immediate liberalisation; full competition in the medium term

Fast movement towards liberalisation, first for international services, later the rest

Within this scenario there is discussion on the universal service fund.

The White Paper on Telecommunications

The next step after the Green Paper process was a Colloquium on National Telecommunications Policy, held in November 1995. The main aim of the colloquium was to further the discussion and to prepare the ground for a White Paper on Telecommunications. The colloquium arrived at consensus on some points, which later emerged in the White Paper:

A Universal Service Agency was to be set up to ensure that the issue of universal service remained on the political agenda;

A new regulatory regime was to be created and an independent regulator to be established, responsible to Parliament through the Minister;



The importance of a local telecommunications industry was recognised and the protective measures, in terms of exclusivity contracts between the national operator and the industry, were to be phased out.

Agreement could not be reached on the central issues of market structure and the partial privatisation of Telkom. A majority of the representatives concluded that Telkom had to play an important role in providing universal service. To that end an exclusivity period of three to five years, necessary to extend the network, seemed appropriate. A similar majority was in favour of the introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner (SEP) for Telkom. On neither issue,

however, could labour be convinced. It remained opposed to both the liberalisation of the market and the partial privatisation of the sector.

In order to further the policy formulation process, the issues of the privatisation and the introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner were referred to the Cabinet. The privatisation of Telkom would be part of a broader governmental strategy on privatisation, an issue that was at that time discussed at the national level. The issue of market structures was referred to an Eminent Persons' Group (EPG). At the colloquium several candidates were proposed to have a seat in this commission of experts. The Minister selected five people who were mainly high-level representatives of the stakeholders involved. The goal of the EPG was dual: on the one hand it was to try to broker agreement on the issues not resolved; on the other hand it had to assist in the drafting of the White Paper by the Technical Task Team. More specifically the EPG had to make sure the different views emanating from the discussions were considered in the White Paper.

A first draft of the White Paper was duly presented to the Minister and on the 5th of February 1996, the second draft of the White Paper was discussed at a second stakeholder conference, the National Telecommunications Forum (NTF) Conference. As the issue of privatisation had already been referred to the national level, the debate at the conference centred on the introduction of competition and the length of the exclusivity period. The White Paper proposed to give Telkom a five-year exclusivity period. During this period the operator would be responsible for the extension of the network, including to 'unprofitable' rural areas, and would be able to prepare for competition. After the exclusivity period competition would be phased in over a two-year period (MPTB, 1996).

At the Conference, the Minister of Post, Telecommunications and Broadcasting for the first time argued in favour of the introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner. According to the Minister, Telkom needed the financial and technical support from an SEP to be able to fulfil its mandate in terms of network extension. Jordan's speech caught commentators off-guard, as the Minister had always been sceptical about the introduction of both an SEP and competition.

The White Paper further recommended setting up a

Universal Service Agency, one of its mandates being to monitor universal service obligations of the network operators.

The White Paper recommended that Telkom, the monopoly operator, be granted a

five-year exclusivity period, with a

possible one-year extension if it met its rollout obligations.



The importance of finding a Strategic

Equity Partner (SEP)

was introduced - this was regarded as

necessary if Telkom was to meet its

mandate in terms of network extension.

A phased approach to liberalisation was recommended, with

a two-year period for introducing

competition after the exclusivity

period.

"Is it not time we arrived at new

conceptions of the 'public interest' and

of public service? Should we not

explore if and how competition

can enhance the delivery of services

to the people?"

Minister Pallo Jordan at the NTF

Conference (1996)

The reasons for his change of heart are difficult to deduce. However, at the national level the ANC was gradually shifting both its economic policy and its position on the privatisation of public enterprises. As for the telecommunications sector, the move by the Minister resulted in the left-leaning labour factions, and more specifically the Post Office and Telecommunications Workers Association (POTWA), being in the minority. Their stance that a

monopoly was the only feasible market structure, in that only a

state-owned operator had the leverage to secure universal service, appeared to be losing favour with government.

Although no overall agreement was reached, the White Paper was accepted without major changes and was tabled before Parliament in March 1996. The important issues of the partial privatisation were still, however, to be resolved at the national level (MPTB, 1996a).

The White Paper on Telecommunications set out the broad policy framework in which future legislation and implementation were to develop. On most issues it represented a broad consensus reached between the different stakeholders. Although its eventual outcome was not revolutionary in content, the broad participatory process that led to the White Paper was innovative, when compared to many other national telecommunication policy reform processes in other countries.

The White Paper consisted of 10 chapters dealing with all major issues of telecommunications policy. The main thrust was a phased process of liberalisation. After a five-year exclusivity period, in which Telkom would be bound to extend the network, competition would be gradually introduced.

Importantly, the White Paper on Telecommunications foresaw the vital role that an independent regulator would play. In the White Paper, the regulator had broad powers over the sector and the privatisation process in particular. The regulator would start the process, would decide on the different phases and would oversee the whole process. It was also the regulator who would decide on the objectives of network extension and the obligations of Telkom (MPTB, 1996a, §2.10.2). It would also work out the details of the licence for Telkom.

Few of these proposed functions found their way into the legislation, which placed most of them in the hands of the Minister.



White Paper on Telecommunications: Summary (1996)

The state's vision for telecommunications is one that balances the provision of basic universal service to disadvantaged rural and urban communities with the delivery of advanced services

capable of meeting the needs of a growing South African economy.

. An independent Regulator, called the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA), will be established to regulate telecommunications in the public interest.

A Universal Service Agency will be established to promote universal service in telecommunications in South Africa.

A new market structure is necessary for the telecommunications sector to orientate the sector towards accelerated development and universal service, as well as to take into account technological and international trends. The new market structure entails a period of exclusivity for Telkom, after which various telecommunications market segments will be liberalised in a

phased process put into motion and overseen by the Regulator.

The issue of ownership, investment and financing are subject to the outcome of the state assets

restructuring process in the Government of National Unity. If Telkom is not able to attract the necessary financing, because the issue is not resolved, the scenario on market structure should be revised.

The extension of affordable and accessible universal service will enhance social and economic activities in historically disadvantaged communities by providing the necessary infrastructure as

well as by generating employment in the telecom sector itself.

The adequate attainment of universal access and service goals largely depends on meeting the requirements of affordability. The manner in which the cost of services is determined through tariff regulation is fundamental to the achievement of universal service. The key requirement is

to create a balance between affordability and the need to expand and upgrade the network.

South Africa needs a strong telecommunications equipment supply industry in order to respond to the development needs of the country and to position South Africa appropriately for the 21st century. A vibrant globally competitive local telecommunications industry will attract more investment, generate employment and greater economic activity. The Ministry will move towards the phased removal of any protective measures inconsistent with GATT.

The Telecommunications Act and the Introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner

Although the White Paper on Telecommunications set out the broad policy framework for telecommunications, to be effective it had to be translated into legislation, the goals had to be stated in an enforceable manner and mandates of institutions defined in legal terms. Due to a cabinet reshuffle shortly after the publication of the White Paper, Jay Naidoo replaced Pallo Jordan at the head of the Ministry.

By May 1996 a first Draft Telecommunications Bill was presented. The Draft Bill was largely the White Paper drafted in legal style. The draft legislation was made public in order for the public and the sector to propose amendments. At the same time a

task team was set up to search for a Strategic Equity Partner for Telkom and negotiations with labour intensified. This led to a

breakthrough at a conference in June 1996 at which labour seemed to be willing to reconsider its stance on the issue of privatisation, if the goals set out in the RDP would not be jeopardised.

The legislation represented a

compromise between the consensus achieved from the Green and White Papers and the demands being placed on the government by the Strategic Equity Partner process.



The Tele- communications Act was passed in 1996.

It made provision for an independent

regulator, the creation of a

Universal Service Agency and a

Universal Service Fund to extend the network to

unprofitable areas. A Human Resources

Fund would be established to ensure the development of human resources for

the telecommunications

sector.

The clear separation of functions between the

Minister as the party responsible for

national policy and the regulator as the

implementer of policy in the White

Paper process become muddied in the final legislation.

In June 1996 a second Telecommunications Bill was approved by the Cabinet and was sent through to Parliament. However, although the Bill was not made public it was leaked that the Bill had undergone considerable changes. The independence of the regulator was to be curtailed and its mandate restricted. The powers of the regulator would become more advisory and the Minister would get more decision power. The Bill would not fix the extent of the exclusivity period or lay down dates for the phased introduction of competition.

The decision of the Minister was heavily criticised by the participants in the NTPP. According to the participants, the Minister jeopardised a consensus that had been carefully built up over the preceding two years. Both the Minister and the Director-General argued that the peculiarities of the regulatory framework, the exclusivity period and the network extension formed an important bargaining tool in the negotiations process over the partial privatisation of Telkom.

After some amendments by the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee on Communications the Bill was adopted by Parliament and published as the Telecommunications Act in November 1996 (RSA, 1996). Describing and analysing the Act in detail is beyond the scope of this Handbook. In brief, however, the underlying philosophy of the Act remains largely in line with the White Paper on Telecommunications. The institutional framework proposed is also in line with the White Paper. The Act provides for the establishment of a Universal Service Agency and a South African Regulatory Authority.

Two separate funds would be set up:

The Universal Service Fund to stimulate the extension of the network in unprofitable areas; and

The Human Resources Fund to stimulate the development of human resources for the sector.

It is important to note that the Telecommunications Act differs from the White Paper on the issue of responsibility, in that some responsibilities were shifted from the regulator to the Minister:

Responsibilities in the White Paper versus Telecommunications Act

Issue White Paper Telecommunications Act

Market structure Exclusivity period for five years By the Minister in the licence,

dependent on negotiations with SEP

Minister Phased competition Regulator / Decisions by

the Minister

License Telkom Regulator Minister

Goals network extension Regulator Minister

Tariffs Regulator Minister (for first three years)

Human Resources Fund Regulator Director-General



The separation of responsibilities between Minister and regulator was not clearly defined. In general terms, the Act provides a broad regulatory framework in which the different actors have some room to act on their responsibilities. The Minister retains the responsibility for overall policy, but can also provide policy directions to the regulator. However, it is not stated how detailed policy directives can be. How exactly the regulator would proceed and how the relation between the regulator and the Minister would evolve, depended on the mutual interpretation of the Act. This would later become problematic.

The Privatisation of Telkom and the New Licence

The search for and introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner (SEP)

for Telkom took place from the middle of 1996 until March 1997. After a first screening, Deutsche Telekom, France Telecom, Malaysia Telecom and SBC Communications were left in the running. Malaysia Telecom and SBC Communications formed a

consortium in the run up for the actual bid. Between December 1996 and March 1997 several rounds took place in which bidders formulated proposals.

In February 1997 a draft licence for Telkom was made public. It stipulated that at least 1,8 million new lines should be provided during an exclusivity period of five years. If 90% of the goals set out in the obligation were reached by the fourth year, Telkom would get an extra year of exclusivity. Only one party, the consortium between Malaysia Telecom and SBC Communications, was to bid in March 1997, leading to an agreement in March 1997. Telecom Malaysia and SBC Communications acquired 12% and 18% respectively of a 30% stake in Telkom for 5,58 billion Rand (about $1 billion US at the time). The South African government reinvested R 4,42 billion in Telkom, the rest went to the National Revenue Fund. The SEP partners were to extend the network by 2,8 million new lines within five years (MPTB, 1997).

Mandela in Partnership for the Future (1997)

Telkom's licence stipulated that 2,8 million new lines had to be provided over the five-year exclusivity period.

Telecom Malaysia and SBC

Communications acquired 12% and 18% respectively of a 30% stake in Telkom for R 5,58 billion (about $1 billion US at the time). The South African government reinvested R 4,42 billion in Telkom; the rest went to the National Revenue Fund.

"Our decision to sell a minority of Government-owned equity in Telkom SA Ltd, to a foreign strategic equity partner, is based on our vision to improve the quality of life of all our people, make South Africa a knowledge-based society, and help create an information economy " (MPTB, 1997)

The exact details of Telkom's obligations were laid down in its new licence, published in May 1997. There are in fact three licences, one for basic communications, one for Value Added Networks (VANS) and one for radio communication. Apart from specifying the details on the obligations for network extension, network modernisation and service standards, the licence specifies the extent of the exclusivity period and its related conditions (RSA, 1997). Although not part of the licence, the Minister determined

Telkom was granted three licences: for basic communications, Value Added Networks (VANS)

and radio communication.



Telkom's rapid rollout of telephone

lines since 1997 has to be seen as a

success story in terms of the increase in

teledensity in South Africa.

The creation of a Universal Service

Agency was mandated by the

Telecommunications Act of 1996 and

funded through the establishment of a

Universal Service Fund, financed

through a levy on the three network

operators.

the tariffs for telecommunications services on the occasion of the publication of the licence. Telkom was, for the three subsequent years, allowed to set its own prices, subject to a price control formula. Roughly the formula boils down to the principle that the cost of a weighted Basket of Services is not to increase, taking into account inflation and a 1,5% efficiency factor (RSA, 1997a).

In some respects the Telkom licence ended the long policy formulation process that started in 1995 with the establishment of the NTPP. Taken together, the White Paper on Telecommunications, the Telecommunications Act and Telkom's licence, formed the framework in which telecommunications was to develop within the subsequent five to six years. To understand the period from 1997 until today it is important to consider these documents together.

The Telkom licence, after years of speculation and negotiations, finally stated Telkom's responsibilities in terms of network extension in a clear and enforceable way. Both the White Paper and the Act, together with the introduction of a Strategic Equity Partner, set the stage for a massive rollout of new lines, also to disadvantaged areas.

Taken together, the White Paper on Telecommunications, the Telecommunications Act and Telkom's licence form the legal framework in which the telecommunications sector developed within the next years.

The main threads of the new framework were in line with international practice in that:

Policy, regulation and operation of telecommunications were separated; and

An independent regulator, the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA), was introduced.

An innovation in the case of South Africa was the establishment of a Universal Service Agency (USA), responsible for promoting the goal of universal service and encouraging schemes to provide universal access or universal service (RSA, 1996). Both SATRA and the USA played an important role in the development of the sector from the beginning of 1997 onwards.



Telkom Licence: Summary (1997)

Telkom has the exclusive right, over a period of five years, to provide public switched services for national long-distance telecommunication, international telecommunications, local access

telecommunication and public payphones.

During the exclusivity period all operators for mobile services, value-added network services and private telecommunications networks have to use Telkom's fixed network and facilities. This means that resale is forbidden.

Telkom has to extend the network by a total of four million lines, of which 2.69 million are new lines and 1.25 million replacement lines (from analogue to digital). Of the 2.69 million new lines, 1.67 million lines have to go to underserviced areas.

Telkom has to provide basic services to 20 246 priority customers, of which 19 270 are schools, 627 hospitals, 268 libraries, and 81 are local authorities, and to 3 204 villages (both categories are included in the 1.67 million lines to underserviced areas).

Apart from this, Telkom has to install 120 000 public payphones (not included in the 1.67 million lines to underserviced areas).

The exclusivity period can be extended by one year if Telkom reaches 90% of the Total Line Target and 80% of the Underserviced Line Target by the end of the fourth year.

. The licence also stipulates objectives in terms of service delivery, towards both residential and business customers.

All the obligations above are subject to penalties if Telkom does not fulfil the obligations set out for the respective year (RSA, 1997).

Competition would only gradually be phased in. Telkom received a six-year exclusivity on basic telecommunication until 2002 (or a

possible extension to 2003 if licence obligations were met). This was to allow the operator to double the network with an additional 2,69 million new lines, of which 1,67 million are to be located in disadvantaged areas, and to prepare for competition (RSA, 1996).

During the telecommunications policy process the issue of universal service was mainly treated as individual access to basic services. Although the White Paper states that telecommunications policy should fit in with a broader information policy, both the White Paper and Telecommunications Act largely define universal service as basic telecommunications. These definitions were later to be questioned and redefined in a series of public hearings undertaken by the Universal Service Agency (USA). These definitions have to date not been formally ratified or made public through the Department of Communications or the USA.

The discussion on the Information Society that followed from 1995 onwards, posed questions concerning universal access as well as a broader set on ICT services. These themes would eventually be publicly discussed at two conferences held in May 1996:

The Information Society and Development (ISAD) Conference; and the

Helderfontein Conference.

Many problems associated with Universal Service (US) rollout in South Africa can be traced back to the original US definition, which embraced only basic telecommunications. The USA adopted a

de facto broader definition, which included Internet access.



The Information Society and Development (ISAD) Conference - 1996

The ISAD Conference was a pioneering

effort in that African countries challenged Western countries to

discuss Information Society issues as they

related to developing countries.

The ISAD Conference was a follow-up conference to the 1995 G7 Ministerial Conference on the Information Society in Brussels. At the latter, the then-Deputy President Thabo Mbeki challenged the Western countries to discuss the issue of the Information Society and development with developing countries.

A position paper was prepared by the National Information Technology Forum (NITF)56, representing a synthesis of the views of all South African sectors (Mbeki, 1996). The position paper was a

critical reflection on the Information Society. It advanced from the position that ICTs and their applications could have enormous potential for development, but that the challenges ahead for developing countries were different from those in developed countries.

The position paper proposed to work towards an Information Community, as the NITF called it, starting from local needs and participation. As for the restructuring of the telecommunications sector, the Position Paper was sceptical of the proposed liberalisation and privatisation "as an exact guide to the regulatory mechanism to ensure the rapid and massive network expansion needed" (NITF, 1996, §1.2.4).

The Information Community as envisaged by the NITF

It is a vision that seeks to shift the emphasis of the advantages offered by the information revolution towards a fuller balance between individuals and social groups, communities and societies. In developed countries, even where social issues are taken into account, the bias has tended to remain that of individual advancement via personal universal access and, at a public level, on competition between firms and nations.

Our vision seeks to ensure the creation of an equitable information order, nationally, regionally and internationally. The vision of an information Community therefore takes into account the undoubted potential of communities at various levels to co-operate, to bridge differences, to work for mutual upliftment and for the meeting of basic needs, and to redress the social imbalances of under-development. The development of an Information Community perspective aims to ensure that the information revolution benefits society as a whole (NITF, 1996, §1.2.1).

Although the concept of the Multipurpose Community Centre (MPCC) had been around for some time, the position paper was the first official document in which the concept was developed in

some detail. It was also the first document that tried to systematise the different components of an ICT and Information Society policy for South Africa.

" A more detailed description of the NITF is included in Appendix 8.



Helderfontein Conference - Empowering Communities in the Information Society

The Helderfontein Conference, which took place concurrently with the ISAD conference, brought together a wide range of stakeholders in ICTs from South Africa and elsewhere in the region. It was a milestone in that it attracted a major delegation from civil society. The formal aim of the conference was to discuss the different aspects and initiatives regarding information and telecommunications policy within developing countries, and particularly Africa. The attention focused on better access to information by the community and this in terms of its own needs and its own empowerment (Berlyn, 1996, p.1). Although the discussion at the conference covered many fields, the issue of MPCCs was central to much of the discussion, as it was seen as the major instrument to provide access to a broad range of information services.

The definitions used, however, varied broadly (Berlyn, 1996, p.1). In a more restricted definition, the MPCC is defined as a centre where people obtain access to advanced ICT services such as

computers, fax, Internet, etc. In its broader definition, the MPCC is

seen as a centre where the community, NGOs and government provide a broad range of services such as the provision of government information, health and welfare services, library services, etc., either face-to-face or by way of different media. Information technology is mainly seen as a supportive means for the working of the MPCC. This difference in conceptualisation has remained in policy initiatives, implementation and debate in subsequent years.

Nevertheless, at both the ISAD and the Helderfontein Conferences, MPCCs were perceived as the means to extend universal access to a broader set of ICT services.

Task Group on Government Communications (COMTASK) - 1995

The first partial integration of ICTs in a wider information policy came from an unexpected angle. In August 1995 government communicators, representatives from the media and media experts joined in a conference hosted by COMTASK to discuss a different approach to government communications.

The new government was frustrated with the media, which related to three factors:

The South African Communications Services (SACS), a structure for government communications inherited from the former government, was not operating according to the expectations of the government. The organisation itself was paralysed and the new administration was reluctant to use the services of this former "apartheid propagandist".

The concept of the Multipurpose Community Centre (MPCC) as a vehicle for providing ICT

access for communities was a

central theme of the Helderfontein conference.

Another key focus was the need to address access at community level, and to ensure that communities were involved in their own development.



COMTASK worked in a transparent way,

basing its deliberation on as

much participation as possible. It widely disseminated its call

for input, set up public hearings,

analysed written contributions

and oral presentations,

developed questionnaires to be

answered by government

departments, and visited foreign

countries to learn from best practice. The result was the

Communications 2000 report,

presented to the Deputy President Thabo Mbeki in November 1996.

(COMTASK, 1996).

The decentralisation of government

communications was in line with a

general move within the national

government to decentralise

functions to the provincial

and local levels of government.

There was mistrust within government vis-a-vis the mass media, especially the press, which was seen as the tool of white interests.

Both the above led to widespread frustration within government that it was not getting its message across to the disadvantaged groups in society."

The COMTASK conference itself did not lead to major break- throughs in the dispute between government and the press. However, at the conference a decision was taken on the direction of a new policy process for government communication. Then- Deputy President Mbeki would set up an independent commission to analyse the role and function of government communication, the ownership structures and power relations within the media and its effects on government communication. Recommendations concerning a new government communications policy would be the outcome. In December 1995 the Task Group on Government Communications, COMTASK for short, was officially set up and started its deliberations.

The COMTASK report is a comprehensive document covering the fields of information policy, government communication, media ownership, access to media and ICTs, the relation between government and civil society framed in a broad conception of participation and democracy. The content of the document is too broad to capture in this overview.58 However, two main points are important for the later discussions:

COMTASK's recommendations towards a new structure for government communications; and

The view of MPCCs as instrumental in the dissemination of services and information (COMTASK, 1996).

The COMTASK report suggested that SACS be closed and proposed a new communications structure, the Government Communication and Information System (GCIS). Within this agency the responsibility for government communications would be decentralised towards the ministerial and provincial level. To ensure the coordination of the system the new institution would be set up under the Cabinet.

The GCIS would have departments responsible for media liaison, communication services and support, and provincial and community liaison. It would build up strong contacts with the different government branches and with civil society. In general the GCIS would take responsibility for development communications, especially towards disadvantaged communities. Apart from its coordinating role the GCIS would have the capacity to provide for specific services and campaigns and for subcontracting services (COMTASK, 1996). Based on the outcomes of the COMTASK report, the GCIS was established in 1998.

5' Berger, G. (25 August 1994). International experience: Government communication and media policy. Arniston Conference on Government Communication and Media Policy, Government Communication and Information System, www.gov.zalspeechesl

se wwwgov.zalreportslI996/comtask/contents.htm



COMTASK identified a general lack of information infrastructure and a weak culture of information sharing in South Africa. Large segments of the population were (and still are) extremely isolated, illiterate, and live in poverty. COMTASK recommended the development of a broad range of media, including an innovative form of information dissemination for both government and other information, i.e. the MPCC. Government later picked up this idea, and by 1999 the newly formed GCIS was given the responsibility for implementing several MPCCs throughout the country.59

MPCCs in COMTASK

"An MPCC should be an open structure that invites existing institutions, organisations and agencies to network or form a clearinghouse for development information. The MPCC should be capable of providing developmental information, not as an end product, but as a means for growth and development. All members of the MPCC should be concerned with providing useful and accurate information to communities in an appropriate way. The most important aspects of MPCCs are that they should be user-oriented, adaptable to local conditions and designed to be accessible to the communities they serve. The dispersal of MPCCs is crucial in their success. " (COMTASK, 1996).

White Paper on Science and Technology 1995 - 1996

South Africa currently lacks a national policy to facilitate the country's optimal integration into the global information society and outlining clear responsibilities, goals and targets. This is a

serious defect in our overall innovation drive and must be remedied as soon is possible. Information society planning must now take place at the highest levels within South Africa to develop a national vision, policy and strategy for meeting our specific needs. Government has decided to embark on a process leading to a national policy on the Information Society, including the drafting of a Green Paper. This will attract response from the public and other stakeholders. The national consensus elicited will allow for the drafting of the White Paper as soon as possible.

White Paper on Science and Technology DACST, 1996

During 1995 and 1996 the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (DACST) undertook a consultative Green Paper-White Paper process to develop a new science and technology policy. The White Paper was presented in November 1996 and forms the basis of the present National System of Innovation.

According to the White Paper, government has an important role to play in creating a stimulating environment in which science and technology lead to innovation, prosperity and improvement in the quality of life. The document proposed the restructuring of institutions of science and technology, and their financing mechanisms, to promote their more effective use in terms of national development.

" A detailed description of the GCIS is included later in this chapter.

In the Information Society "the ability to maximise the use

of information is

now considered to be the single most important factor in deciding competitiveness of countries as well as

their ability to empower their citizens through access to information" DACST, 1996



"A technology- enhanced system

generates and derives knowledge

from schools, universities,

corporations, public and private

organizations, and individuals. It

provides for the planning of

instructional programs, and produces and delivers them

through a variety of communications

media.

The work of centrally

located course designers

and media experts is

integrated with local activities of learner

groups and the activities of

individual learners who are supported

by experts in interpersonal

interaction and learning, located in

schools, colleges, workplaces, homes,

and elsewhere." TELI, 1996, p.17.

Five priority themes are defined:

The promotion of competitiveness and employment;

The amelioration of the quality of life;

The development of human resources;

Working in the direction of sustainability for the environment; and

The promotion of the information society.60

This prioritisation led to a reallocation of research funding, including an Information Society Focus. An Innovation Fund was set up, as recommended in the White Paper. This has, since its inception, included an information society focus."

Technology Enhanced Learning Investigation (TELI) 1995 - 1996

Within the educational sector is a great awareness of the potential positive use of media and ICTs in education. After a first conference on the subject in November 1995, the Department of Education realised that a coherent policy was needed on the use of technology in education. In February 1996, the Ministry of Education commissioned a group of experts to develop a national framework and strategic plan for technology-enhanced education.

The commission was required to make recommendations on:

The infrastructure necessary to support technology-enhanced learning;

The standards and protocols underpinning such infrastructure;

Strategies and partnerships between the educational sector and other stakeholders contributing to it; and

A framework for evaluating major proposals for technology- enhanced learning as part of a coordinated and systematic tendering process."

The result of the commission's deliberations was a report called "Technology Enhanced Learning Investigation in South Africa", presented in July 1996. The TELI-report contains a broad set of recommendations and guidelines for policy, the details of which are discussed in the chapter dedicated to ICTs and Education in this Handbook (cf. Chapter 4).

eo Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology (1996). White Paper on Science and Technology. Preparing for the 21st Century

61 www.dacst.gov.zalscience_technologylsc&tecwp.htm 62 TELI Strategic Planning Committee (1997). Technology Enhanced Learning Initiative in South

Africa: A strategic plan. A discussion planning document prepared for the directorate, Pretoria, Department of Education, National Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education, p. vii.



The main thread of TELI was that technology as such would not contribute to the quality of education. It should become part and parcel of the whole educational system, which meant that changes would have to take place at all levels of the system.

The Ministry and the sector broadly welcomed the TELI-report, even though it would not be developed into a concrete policy document. It resulted in the establishment of the National Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education in early 1997. Under this new structure a second TELI-commission developed a

follow-up report in May 1997, containing a more detailed plan for concrete implementation and action.

The General Demand for Integration

Of interest is that almost all of the above documents called for a

greater integration of policy initiatives concerning ICTs and information policy. The White Paper on Science and Technology, the COMTASK-report, the Technology-Enhanced Learning Investigation, the White Paper on Telecommunications, and the different initiatives by the NITF, realised that the then-existing initiatives were fragmentary, and pleaded for a greater level of integration. The ISAD Position Paper and the White Paper on Science and Technology called for a consultative Green Paper- White Paper policy process on the Information Society. The NITF and the COMTASK-report proposed that the lead and coordination should proceed from the highest level possible, in other words from the Cabinet.

At the time of writing there are some signs of possible integrative measures, but as yet they have not been implemented; fragmentation of ICT-related initiatives is still problematic.

3.5 The Implementation Period: 1997 - 2000 During the Implementation Period, policies formulated under the Transformation Period were starting to take effect, institutions responsible for implementation or regulation were being set up and new policy processes introduced to refine existing frameworks.

The evolution during this period, and particularly the establishment of a growing number of new or reconstructed institutions, makes the playing field more complex and difficult to describe. Furthermore, the implementation of policy is a long-term process rather than a succession of separate events in time. In the description below, the historical line is more-or-less followed based on major developments in certain fields, be it that most processes ran in parallel during this period.63

63 Broadcasting, for example, led the reform of the ICT sector from as early as 1994 with the establishment of the Independent Broadcasting Authority.

All the policy processes initiated during the Transformation Period called for higher levels of integration within government, and between government, industry, labour and civil society.

To date, this has not been very successful for numerous reasons, and ICT-

related initiatives are still being addressed in a

fragmented manner. Many attribute this to the lack of a

national ICT-vision that could streamline activities in terms of national goals and priorities.



Regulating the Broadcasting Sector

The IBA Act sought to create a regulator

that would

.. function wholly independently of the

state, governmental and party political

influences and free from political or

other bias or interference; to provide for the

representation of that Authority by

and its functioning through a council, and to define the powers, functions and duties of the

Authority; to provide for the devolution of

power relating to the administration,

management, planning and use of

the broadcasting services frequency bands to the said

Authority... "

Having led the reform of the sector, regulation of broadcasting began as early as 1994 with the establishment of the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA). The IBA, unlike in the telecommunications process, however, came into operation without a clear policy process from government, which was at that time merely an interim political arrangement, the Transitional Executive Council. The IBA Act, which brought it into being, was the product of a negotiated settlement and negotiators preoccupied with ensuring free and fair election in the upcoming first democratic vote. The context for this particular institutional arrangement is often cited as a weakness and certainly provided the basis for the government to introduce a new broadcasting policy process that culminated in the Broadcasting Act in 1999.

Another view might be that it was the product of a golden moment in history when effectively no one was in power and all parties' objectives were concerned with safeguarding their rights and curtailing those of a government in which no one was guaranteed a part.

The validity of such a view might be reflected in the independence of the Authority and its protection under the Constitution - in contrast to the telecom regulator, which followed. The IBA Act sought to provide for the regulation of broadcasting activities in the public interest and for the Authority to function independently of political and industry pressures.

The public interest objectives captured in the IBA Act can be clustered as follows:

Promotion of diversity in programming which should cater for all languages, cultures and geographic regions;

Promotion of public, private and community broadcasting while protecting the integrity and viability of public broadcasting;

Ensure fair competition among broadcast licensees while refraining from undue interference in commercial activities of licensees;

Ensure that broadcasting services are controlled by a diverse range of communities in South Africa and particularly that broadcast services are owned by historically disadvantaged individuals;

Encourage investment in the broadcasting industry but ensure that services are not controlled by foreign persons; and

Efficient use of broadcasting services frequency bands and compliance with internationally accepted technical standards.



The IBA Act requires that the IBA Council be appointed along the following principles:

A public nomination process;

Transparency and openness; and the

Appointment of Councillors by the President on the advice of the National Assembly against the specified criteria.

These principles included that, when viewed collectively, the Council would:

have qualifications, expertise and experience in the field/s of policy, technology, law, frequency planning, business practice and finance, marketing, journalism, entertainment and/or education;

be committed to fairness, freedom of expression, the right of the public to be informed and openness and accountability of public office; and

be representative of a cross-section of the population of South Africa.

The Council members had full-time staggered appointments for the purposes of continuity. Although the Act enabled the Council to appoint a CEO and staff, there was almost no regulatory experience in the country. The former licensing agency, the Department of Home Affairs, provided a licensing officer and a

secretary. The Council took on the management functions in order to make the organisation operative. However, having become hands-on, it was difficult for the Council to relinquish the day-today management of the Authority. In a political compromise reflective of the time, co-chairpersons had been appointed. Although these particular individuals worked closely together, it could have resulted in heightened conflict and even deadlocks as

staff and industry lobbied one or the other.

Broadcasting - The Triple Inquiry Report

Apart from directives to conduct a Triple Inquiry into the viability of the public broadcaster, local content, and cross-media control, the Authority found itself in a policy vacuum. It was soon in the position of having to develop policy as it went along with licensing and regulation. This did not just affect peripheral matters but determined such significant issues as the market structure, including the critical issues of privatisation of the commercial arms of the public radio broadcaster.

The difficulties of specialist and complex issues, such as those in broadcasting and telecommunications being determined by Parliament, are reflected in the outcomes of the Triple Inquiry Report. After a year of national and regional public hearings, the Authority reported to Parliament on its vision for the broadcasting

The Act required that the individuals appointed to the Council of the regulator be committed to fairness, accountability of public office and that collectively they would have the necessary technical, economic and social expertise to regulate the sector effectively and be representative of the population.

The lack of regulatory experience in the broadcasting sector was problematic, and staffing arrangements heightened conflict.

Despite the democratic value of regulatory agencies accounting to Parliament, the contradictory outcomes of the Triple Inquiry Report, outcomes which required parliamentary approval, reflect the difficulties of specialist and complex issues being determined by a

broad-based forum such as Parliament.



industry. It presented a tightly argued approach to broadcasting with a careful balance of shared opportunities and obligations on all broadcasters in order to create a dynamic but viable sector.

The television services of the public broadcaster, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), were pared down and a

private competitor was proposed. The Authority carefully determined the financial needs of the restructured public broadcaster and offset these costs against the income from the privatisation of the commercial radio stations of the SABC.

The effect of these developments was a bloated public broadcaster with fewer means than ever to fulfil its extended mandate, as the revenues from the privatisation of the commercial radio stations were to go to the national fiscus.

Defining the Broadcasting Market

Following the establishment

of the broadcasting regulator in 1994, six

regional radio stations were

privatised, and 80 community radio

stations were established.

With the establishment of an independent broadcasting regulator in 1994, the communication sector more formally entered the terrain of global economic competition, offering a geographically and culturally distinct site for capital accumulation and management. Despite an overwhelming mandate to protect the public broadcaster, in four years the regulator privatised six of the public broadcasters' commercial regional radio stations, which are now independently owned, and licensed 80 community radio stations. In addition, six new metropolitan radio stations were licensed in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg and a private commercial television station in competition with the three-channel public broadcaster.

The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) still dominates the market with three channels and around 12 million viewers a day. The SABC also runs 19 radio stations, of which two are national commercial stations - Radio 5 and Radio Metro. The other stations service the 11 official language groups and a

number of cultural and regional interests. The monopoly of the free-to-air television market ended in

1998 with the introduction of a free-to-air competitor to the public broadcaster. E-TV is jointly owned by a local empowerment consortium dominated by trade union investment arm Hasken's and Time Warner, and commands around 8% of audience share."

The inability of the Authority to deal with licensing and regulatory matters under the existing legislation came to a head rapidly with the lodging of applications by interested parties for satellite broadcasting licences. The Act had failed to provide specifically for satellite broadcasting, indicative of both the lack of policy on the matter and the speed with which the Act had been outstripped by developments within the sector. When trying to be expansive in the mandate of the Authority it referred to its responsibility for all terrestrial broadcasting.

e" South African Advertising Research Foundation (2000). First quarter, Johannesburg, South Africa.



While some aspirant satellite broadcasters waited in vain for a

licensing regime throughout the nineties, the controlling company of the terrestrial subscription broadcaster, MNet, used the lacuna in legislation and policy to regard itself as exempt from needing to be licensed, and established a DTH digital satellite service.

With the new broadcasting legislation of 1999 the IBA was required to regulate this area and examine ways of encouraging competition. Despite the legislation being flawed and contradictory and the Regulator having declared itself unable to license without amendment to it, the Broadcasting Act is a

forward-looking document that acknowledges the role of multimedia technologies and broadband services that would drive the convergence and create the need for a merged broadcasting and telecommunications regulator. There is little doubt that the legislation set the scene for the ICASA Act that followed a year later.

Regulating the Telecommunications Sector: 1997 - 2000

Shortly after the promulgation of the Telecommunications Act in November 1996, preparations were made to set up the institutions to regulate the sector. The Telecommunications Act proposed the creation of the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA), which was assigned powers in line with international practice. Although an intermediate period in which the Minister held certain prerogatives was stipulated, the regulator was broadly responsible for licensing, pricing policy, regulation, etc. Apart from this, both the White Paper on Telecommunications and the Telecommunications Act indicated that SATRA would play a proactive role in terms of development and social policy, by ensuring the extension of the network and the regulation of tariff structures.

Setting up SATRA in February 1997 was an important step towards a modern telecommunications regime characterised by a

separation of policy, regulation and operation. From its inception the regulator was confronted with a heavy

workload and inadequate resources. In this a distinction should be made between its legally defined obligations in terms of the Telecommunications Act and its reactive deliberations due to disputes.

In terms of the Telecommunications Act the regulator had to reissue all licences. In practice this meant that the regulator had to:

develop services (PTNs);

new regulatory frameworks for value-added network (VANs) and for private telecommunications networks

regulate the contributions to the Universal Service Fund (USF) and the Human Resources Fund (HRF);

Within months of the founding broadcasting legislation coming into force, the Act had been outstripped by developments within the sector, with satellite broadcasters, for which the legislation did not expressly cater, baying for licences or exemptions from licensing.

The South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (SATRA) was established in 1997.

In addition to the demanding formal obligations on the regulator to create a

fair competitive environment for licences and matters such as determining the feasibility of further cellular licences, the regulator has been incapacitated by limited funding, especially in the light of successive resource-hungry court actions against it.



define needy persons in terms of who would benefit from the Universal Service Fund;

conduct a study on feasibility of introducing further cellular licences; and

monitor the licence conditions of the incumbent PSTN, Telkom.

By the time the legislation came into force the fledgling Internet industry in South Africa was booming, with South Africa then the 14th largest Internet user in the world." All the required services had to be sourced from the monopoly provider Telkom and this has provided grounds for ongoing regulatory disputes. Within months of the establishment of the new regulator, the Internet Service Providers Association (ISPA) had lodged an unfair competition complaint against Telkom, which, under its new leadership, had belatedly but aggressively entered the Internet market."

In addition, SATRA was confronted with disputes concerning call-back services,67 the nature of the Internet as a basic telecommunications service and the issue of virtual private networks (VPNs). All these disputes, emerging during 1997 and 1998 and in some cases still not resolved at the time of writing, arose as an effect of the nature of the exclusivity period given to Telkom and the interpretation thereof.

Addressing Universal Service in South Africa: 1997 - 2000

The Universal Service Agency is a unique

institution set up by the South African

government to ensure universal

access to telecommunications services, particularly

in rural areas.

Universal Access is

initially defined as a

telephone within 30 minutes travel.

The Universal Service Agency (USA) is a statutory body established by the Telecommunications Act No. 103 of 1996. Launched in 1997, it was given the responsibility for ensuring universal access to telecommunications services (voice, fax, Internet, etc.).

South Africa's existing definition, as defined by the Universal Service Agency" is:

"Universal Access means a telephone within a reasonable distance. The ultimate aim would be to have universal service for all in South Africa, but this will not happen soon. A more realistic goal is to provide telecommunications where everyone in the country can have access within 30 minutes' travelling. This can only be achieved with co-operation from business, government and the broader community. '"

65 1997 figures, the current figure is about the 28th largest user worldwide. ea This matter has been in the courts for the past three years, placing the Internet industry

in a weak position. e7 Through closed-door negotiations with Telkom, operations have been allowed to

continue as long as their services were not advertised in the mass media. 68 www.usa.org.za es The fact that the definition refers to basic telecommunications services, and that the USA

telecentre rollout included Internet access is significant, and highlights the problems associated with definitions adopted for universal service.



The Telecommunications Act stipulates that the USA will:

Promote universal service:

Directly advise the Minister on ways to bring about universal service.

Foster the adoption and use of new methods of attaining universal service and universal access.

Define universal service and universal access.

Monitor and research:

Develop and collect statistics as well as measure impacts on economic growth and social benefit.

Advise SATRA on matters relating to universal service and universal access.

Monitor the universal service obligations of the licence holders - Telkom, Vodacom, MTN.

Survey and evaluate the extent to which universal service has been achieved.

Manage the Universal Service Fund. The USA will manage a fund to support projects bringing telecommunications to the people - in particular telecentres.

To help develop universal access, the USA rolled out an ambitious programme to establish hundreds of telecentres within the first two years, with funding provided by the Universal Service Fund and augmented by donor funding from the international community." Different types of telecentres were conceptualised and an implementation plan formulated for rural areas in all the nine provinces. The number of telecentres needed for full geographic coverage, and to meet the requirement of access within 30 minutes, was first estimated at between 3 000 and 5 000. On the basis of the Universal Service Fund, the USA expected to be able to set up 100 telecentres a year.

However, the actual implementation of these centres proved more difficult than originally thought. Although the institution managed to set up 63 by 2001, it is largely accepted that it did not deliver on its promises. Furthermore, as the institution mainly focused on implementation, it largely neglected its mandate in terms of research and policy preparation. The internal capacity of the USA was not sufficient to cope with its plans and commitments, nor was the skills mix the correct one for the changed focus to an implementation agency.

The USA, in collaboration with the regulator, was mandated by the Telecommunications Act to develop definitions of universal access and universal service for telecommunications in South Africa.

70 The IDRC supported the development of 12 pilot telecentres.

The USA was tasked with monitoring universal service obligations of the three network operators. It is also responsible for managing the Universal Service Fund, and for the rollout of telecentres on a

national scale.

Consideration is

given to revising the universal service definition to include Internet access, and the very important element of "working" telephones versus "installed" telephones.



The key objectives of this process were to establish national definitions and set national achievable goals for universal access and universal service. A first draft discussion document was completed in October 1998, a second document was prepared incorporating comments from the public hearings in the nine provinces as well as written submissions, and a national colloquium was held in August 1999. To date, however, those definitions have not been ratified by government and there are increasing levels of frustration within the industry that the Universal Service definitions are still not complete.

Implementation Projects of the Department of Communications

The Department of Communications

(DoC) has, through its leadership,

played a key role in many of South

Africa's ICT policy and implementation

initiatives.

The Department of Communications has launched some very

ambitious and innovative projects

since 1997. Many are, however,

hampered by the lack of resources to operationalise and

sustain such projects.

This, together with the many policy

initiatives that were undertaken during

the 1997 - 2001 period, has resulted

in a critical shortage of required skills

to deliver.

With the passing of the 1996 Telecommunications Act, and the formation of the independent regulators for broadcasting and telecommunications, the role of the Department of Communica- tions (DoC) has been largely restricted to broad policy making and policy review. Apart from this, the Department oversees organisations such as the national telecommunications operator Telkom, the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), the signal distributor Sentech and the South African Post Office (SAPOS).

DoC has been a particularly active department, showing vision in some of its project undertakings, a few examples of which are listed below:

Together with SAPOS, DoC has piloted Public Information Terminals (PiTs). PiTs are standalone kiosks where people can access the Internet, as well as personalised services in terms of e-Commerce, distance education, e-government, etc. After a

positive test phase, it bid out the design and implementation to the private sector. SAPOS decided in the second half of 1999 to distribute 50 to 100 PiTs nationwide, mainly through post offices but also other public places.

DoC runs a DOCWIL-project (DOCWeb Internet Laboratories)," which sets up Internet laboratories in vocational training institutions (Technikons) throughout the country. By 2001 more than 60 laboratories with 10 or more computers are functional. The goal of the project is not only to provide infrastructure, but also training.

The Houwteq-centre was established by DoC (with private-sector support) to provide students who already possess degrees in mathematics and natural sciences with the opportunity to follow one-year courses in programming, software development, network engineering, virtual reality, etc.

" Each Rand invested by DoC is matched by seven Rand from industry.



During the introduction of an SEP for Telkom in early 1997, many projects were conceptualised and considered for implementation both by Thintana Communications (the SEP consortium consisting of Malaysia Telecom and SBC International) and the Department of Communications.

The Info.com 2025 programme was conceptualised 72 as a modular approach to the implementation of ICT services and applications. The programme itself consists of five main programme components:

Policy management and institutional framework

Information access infrastructure

Government information technology

Education and training

Private sector development.

To date, only some of the envisaged pilot projects have been implemented and reasons for the partial implementation of the Info.com 2025 programme are difficult to ascertain. Several factors probably played a role:

Limited capacity for the conceptualisation and implementation of projects within the Department of Communications;

Some programme components and related projects were better conceptualised than others, more specifically those projects where the Department of Communications had a direct responsibility;

The Department of Communications needed the support of many other departments to implement the 2025 programme. Without a

clear mandate from government to provide the overall coordination for Info.com 2025, overall implementation was difficult;

The responsibility for some projects has shifted between implementing agencies and departments. In some instances the responsibility has shifted from the Department of Communications to other departments;

The initiation of other priority projects such as the e-Commerce policy, development of an ICT strategy, and the upcoming Telkom Initial Public Offering (IPO) may have diverted energy and resources away from Info.com projects.

DoC continues to play a leading role in the elaboration of regional policy initiatives; in particular it assisted with the establishment of TRASA, the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa (TRASA) in 1998.

" See Appendix 7 for a breakdown of Info.com projects.

The Department of Communications formulated the Info.com 2025 framework, through which various ICT-

related pilot projects could be undertaken.

These include Public Information Terminals, School Networking, Government Online, centres of excellence and Houwteq, a

training facility in ICT applications.

Several of these projects were implemented, although not many were aware of the fact that such projects were part of the larger Info.com strategy.



Government Communication and Information System (GCIS) : 1998

The Government Communication and Information System

(GCIS) assumes responsibility for

the South African Government Online portal as well as for

the rollout of MPCCs

to deliver government

information services to the people.

Based on the COMTASK report mentioned earlier in this chapter, the Government Communication and Information System (GCIS) was launched in 1998. It consists of four components:

Communication Service Agency: responsible for the production and distribution of government media. The department is

responsible for the bulk-buying of advertisement space, etc.;

Media Liaison Section: responsible for the relation between the media and government;

Policy, Research and Strategy Section: responsible for research into public opinion on the function of government. This section is also responsible for policy development concerning media diversity; and a

Provincial and Local Liaison Section: responsible for the provision of information at the level of the provinces. It would work closely with the provincial governments. This agency would play an important role in terms of development communication and the provision of information through ICTs.

Electronic technology and the GCIS

The GCIS will develop ways to ensure that there is delivery of information to the people of South Africa and that a two-way system is set up to facilitate a dialogue between government and provision of information to disadvantaged sectors, such as people living in rural areas where information is scant. Electronic technology, indisputably the most efficient and most cost-effective way to achieve this, will play a major role. This has been shown in other countries with mixed economies and large rural populations to be a highly effective way of reaching large numbers of people at relatively low cost.

Office of the Executive Deputy President, 1997

The GCIS started to play an important role in the field of ICTs and information provision at the beginning of 1999. It assumed responsibility for the South African Government Online portal site (South Africa Online) and also initiated research projects to define the population's needs in terms of information. Furthermore, the GCIS assumed responsibility for implementing some Multipurpose Community Centres (MPCCs) from 2000 onwards. The organisation has also played a role in coordinating telecentre and MPCC initiatives.

In late 2000, the GCIS published a position paper on the Media Diversity and Development Agency, with the intention of developing an independent agency to support the development of community stations and publications, and generally encourage and monitor diversity of the media, including Internet and other ICT means of dissemination.



The Presidential Review Commission (PRC) and IT for the Public Service: 1998

Information technology in the public service did not appear to be a central issue during the Transformation Period. This is surprising as the new South African government inherited a fragmented public service in which almost every department had its own IT

infrastructure and IT department. By 1994, South Africa had 17

wide-area networks at the national level. These networks were not integrated, did not communicate and were largely unable to exchange information and data.

Although the Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA) officially responsible for information technology policy within government, until 1997 there was little progress towards a

more integrated approach concerning IT in government. A first document stressing the poor situation is the report by the Presidential Review Commission presented in February 1998 (PRC,

1998). The PRC was specifically set up by President Mandela to analyse the working of government and the administration.

Although there was a massive investment in IT there was no appreciable benefit in the form of greater service delivery or a

more efficient and effective public service.

The Commission briefly summarised the problems as follows:

A widespread use of incompatible platforms, networks and applications;

Information not shared and re-used in any organised manner;

An unsustainable, broad set of technology skills needed to maintain the systems;

Unacceptably varied and non-standard priorities and approaches to the use of information management, systems and technology (I MST);

Unnecessary duplication of functions and systems between line departments (PRC, 1998, §6.2.3).

Information Management, Systems and Technology (IMST)

The current systems and technology applications in the public service cannot, in their current form, come close to meeting the requirements of the new South Africa.

Presidential Review Commission, 1998,

§6.1.2

The implementation of electronic government is

probably the best way to build capabilities that enable the public not only to access

information but to conduct transactions with government departments. The Government already owns most of the infrastructure for the implementation of electronic government and the private sector has the technology products. The Commission therefore recommends that government give serious consideration to migrating to completely electronic communication within the next five years.

PRC 1998, §6.4.4.

It is clear to the Commission that the Government lacks an overall vision and strategy for IMST and that in the absence of such a strategy, individual departments are finding it difficult to define their own IMST strategies. Most departments are therefore pursuing their policy agendas independently, with IT systems being developed and/or operated to meet only the specific departmental policy objectives. In the absence of effective policy coordination, IMST strategy is likely to remain incoherent. The cost implications of this situation are enormous.

Presidential Review, 1998, §6.2.1



The document recommended a move towards a more coordinated system based on commercially available systems. Interesting in its recommendations was the Commission's view on electronic government, which largely reflected the vision set out in the Info.com 2025 programme and many speeches by prominent politicians.

An IT Policy for Government: 1999 - present

The Department of Public Service and

Administration (DPSA) is driving the

IT Policy for Government process.

The draft IT Policy spells out the

national vision for e- government, and identifies priority

focus areas.

An IT policy for government was one

of the last policy processes to emerge

from the Transformation

Period, and to date it is still in draft

form.

The draft policy identifies the need for interoperability

of government IT

systems, IT security, streamlining of IT

systems and leveraging the

economies of scale offered by

government IT

purchasing.

The Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA) has mounted a series of initiatives aimed at developing an IT policy for government. The first of these started in June 1999 and ended in the submission of a draft proposal in March 2000. The second started soon thereafter, following the appointment of a Chief Government IT Officer (CGITO) and the initiation of a process to establish a GITO Council by requesting all national departments and provincial governments to nominate Government IT Officers.

The office of the CGITO started the process of drafting an IT

policy as well as constituting an interim GITO Council comprising IT

managers from national departments and provincial governments. A draft IT Policy document73 was presented to the GITO Council at their inaugural meeting in October 2000.

During a government IT Executive Forum meeting on 14 June 2000, several priorities were identified. The outcomes were fed into the IT for Government Policy process, led by the Department of Public Services and Administration. A draft policy document was presented to the President at the end of September 2000, and finalised for tabling in Parliament at the end of October 2000. The outputs have been summarised on the next page.

The latest DPSA initiative was the publication of yet another draft of an IT Policy for Government document. Titled Electronic Government - The Digital Future: A Public Service IT Policy Framework," the document sets out by defining a series of e- concepts - e-government, e-governance, e-services, e-business, etc., and underscores the importance of and need for a "systematic and methodical approach, informed by clear understanding of the objectives, affordable scale and interdependence of issues. "

To this end, it notes that a policy should:

spell out the e-government vision;

define clearly how progress is to be measured in terms of the benefits to be achieved;

set priorities by identifying focus areas for immediate attention;

define the generic prerequisites (in areas like human resources, research, legislation, etc.) that must be in place for advancements in the key areas to succeed; and

give specific recommendations on how to deliver results in each focus area.

This document was not brought to the public domain. " See www.dpsa.gov.zaldocumentlpolicyframework



IT for Government Policy and Implementation

Establish policies that are clear, understandable and practical (IT Strategic Plan for Government, HR development policy in IT), and strike a balance between coordination and integration. This

includes defining principles and reviewing existing policies to allow aligning of resources

Clarification of roles for government and industry, and strengthening of its role with industry

Ownership by government, and coordination of IT initiatives

Creation of an empowered CIO function

Leadership in the presidency as model IT user, as well as more broadly in government

Creation of a legal framework for e-Commerce (electronic legal documents, computer crimes and computer evidence to be considered)

Creation of an enabling regulatory framework for SMMEs

Creation of incentives to stimulate growth of the ICT industry, and to slow down the brain drain of ICT professionals

Streamlining of government service delivery - build in monitoring and evaluation to improve service - benchmark with similar developing countries (OECD and international)

Set up common standards and policies for technology

Use of access points for government service delivery - telemedicine, teleschools, Public Internet Terminals, universal access, etc.

Use IT for government procurement processes (the newly-formed State IT Agency's (SITA) role to be accelerated; online service)

Integrated IT systems throughout government

Improved communications strategies (internal and external)

Infrastructure Affordability of infrastructure

More bandwidth

Liberalisation of telecommunications

HR development

Establishment of ICT training centres (IT at lower levels, in schools, building capacity of government users, government as a model user)

Integration of technology into the school curriculum, and revision of the education system and policy

Creation of an ICT culture within government - paperless environment

Innovation Innovation for international markets

Promotion of DACST's Foresight findings and Innovation Fund

Adequate funding and management of R&D

Collaboration

CIO to create a strategic coordination forum between government and industry

Establish an ICT user group

Environmental scanning on existing initiatives

Establish a centralised projects database

DPSA must ensure that all government departments sit on the CIO forum

Utilisation of quasi-government structures as a resource for government

Government must facilitate open participation by interested members.



The document (Electronic Government - The Digital Future) identifies the following focus areas essential for the success of e- government policy. Consequently, the policy proposals are built around these key focus areas:

Interoperability of government IT systems including networks, platforms, applications and data;

IT security to provide an environment in which all government electronic documents and data are protected from unauthorised access, malicious code or denial-of-service attacks;

Economies of scale so that government can leverage its buying muscle to promote compliance with other key IT focus areas; and

Elimination of duplications to ensure that similar functions, projects and resources are used with improved efficiency, economy and effectiveness.

Creating Government's IT Infrastructure: the State IT Agency (SITA): 1997 - present

The State IT Agency (SITA) was created to mobilise the IT arms

of three government institutions - the

Defence Force, Police Services and the

State's Central Computing Services.

All national government

departments and the nine provincial

governments are expected to make

use of SITA's service within the next five

years. This is done through Business and Service Level

Agreements.

The Department of State Expenditure (DSE) and the Public Service Commission (PSC) originally investigated the problems concerning the information technology (IT) function within the government. On transfer of certain PSC functions to the Department of Public Service and Administration (DPSA), the investigation regarding the IT problems was taken over by the DPSA.

As a result of consultations and workshops during 1997, involving IT

role players throughout government, the main problems regarding the IT function within the Public Service were identified as:

The inability to recruit and retain appropriately skilled personnel.

The inability to manage IT procurement, especially consultants, and to ensure that the government gets value for money.

The inability to position the government to use IT tools to support the policies of the government and in particular governance and service delivery to the public; and

The ineffective utilisation of expensive IT resources.

As a solution to government's IT problems, and by Act of Parliament, the State Information Technology Agency (Pty) Ltd was registered as a state-owned company in January 1999. SITA

became operational in April 1999 through an amalgamation of three hitherto separate state IT entities, namely:

The Department of State Expenditure's (DSE) Central Computer Services;

The Department of Defence's (DOD) Infoplan, then a division of Denel (Pty) Ltd;



The South African Police Services (SAPS) IT facility for the Department of Defence, which is an operating division of Denel (Pty) Ltd.

Thus, DSE, DOD and SAPS were the first SITA clients. SITA expects all national departments and provincial governments to join SITA

in the next five years. At the time of writing, about 10 national departments and two provincial governments have joined SITA.

SITA was mandated to provide IT, Information Systems (IS) and related services to the government, thus providing a basis for rationalising and integrating government IT applications and infrastructure. To this end, SITA provides a range of IS and IT

services to government, including applications development and operations, data services, networking and distributed services support, research and development, electronic government, and education, training and development.

SITA establishes a relationship with its clients through a

business agreement (BA) and a service level agreement (SLA). A BA is a broad memorandum of understanding between SITA and a

national department or provincial government, while an SLA is a

specific contractual instrument specifying the service to be rendered over a period of time, together with other agreed parameters, such as acceptable levels of performance and the costing of such services.

While there is no evidence that any study has been carried out to evaluate the extent to which SITA has met its mandate in the past two years of its operations, it can be argued that it has spent much of this time setting itself up as a serious business organisation. In doing this, it has had its share of turbulence, as

reflected in the number of its chief executive officers over this period. However, there are indications of progress, reflected in the formulation and publication of its business strategies and in the recently announced organisational restructuring into three business entities - each focusing on DOD systems, former CCS or legacy systems and electronic government.

The SITA Defence Services division will provide unique and specialised services to the DOD including data centres, bureau services, WAN, LAN and applications;

The SITA Civilian Services Division will provide services to the remaining public service organisations, including national departments and provincial government. These will include data centres, bureau services, WAN, LAN, applications development, maintenance and support; and finally

The SITA E-Services will focus on architecture, security, acquisition, and web technologies. At the same time, it will serve as a regulator to both SITA Defence and SITA Civilian.



Foresight - A Road Map for Future Technologies: 1998 - 1999

Foresight is a

national long-range scenario-planning

exercise, undertaken to provide a

strategic roadmap for the country's

technology development.

Driven by the Department of Arts, Culture Science and

Technology in South Africa, it included IT

as a focus area.

Several countries have engaged in long-range scenario-planning exercises to shape technology policy, especially IT policy. The United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Australia, Vietnam and Korea are just a

few examples of countries that conduct one-off or regular exercises to suggest appropriate directions for technological policy. Initiated by the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, South Africa began its own Foresight study early in 1998 and completed the final report in November 1999.

Working groups of 20-30 people each were formed to represent diverse interests and experience in each of twelve sectors. Along with IT, there were groups studying the environment, biodiversity, education, youth, health, mining, energy, business and finance, agriculture, manufacturing, tourism and safety.

At the start, the IT Working Group commissioned two substantial studies - an International Scan of IT Trends and a Local Study of the State of IT in the country.75

The focus areas were:

IT and global trends;

The individual and the home;

The organisation;

Learning;

Innovation;

The IT industry;

Civil society

The public sector; and

The labour market.

Recognising that a Foresight process does not set out to forecast, but rather to explore possible technology futures, an important element was the creation of four plausible sociopolitical scenarios for the country.

The general outcome of the analysis was that South Africa, with a small but strong skills base and infrastructure, and a

relatively high international profile and GDP, was well positioned to take advantage of niche opportunities to develop a software development industry, and an emerging IT-empowered middle class. However, the threatening problems of the skills flight and the existing social barriers to IT access, particularly the low levels of literacy and education of the vast majority of the population, presented serious obstacles to this objective.

75 Both reports were unpublished.



The conclusions suggested that an aggressive national IT vision was urgently needed to counteract the problems of obstructive policies, uncoordinated efforts, lack of funding, inadequate skills training, and the absence of a culture that fostered the development and effective use of IT."

Various areas were identified as strategic technology nodes -

Knowledge Management, FutureWeb," Intelligent Systems, Bio-IT, Content Development, E-tagging, Advanced Software Develop- ment Platforms, Smart Materials, and IT-Supported New Learning Methods."

Although many of the above processes took little note of the outcomes of the Foresight exercise, it is encouraging that the South African IT Industrial Strategy Project (SAITIS), discussed below, has included many references to the Foresight outcomes, and some of the recommendations will be carried forward through the Department of Trade and Industry.

The South African IT Industrial Strategy Project: 1999 - present

SAITIS is a three-year strategy project driven by the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI). The project was first conceptualised in 1994 but only came into being in 1999 when a small local SAITIS project office was created in the Department.

The project began with the commissioning of a baseline study that covered areas such as the status of the ICT industry, usage of ICTs, the status of ICT jobs and skills, and an assessment of the major issues facing the ICT industry in South Africa."

What followed was an intensive period of consultation with a

broad range of stakeholders from industry, academia, government, civil society and labour. Four working groups were established to deal with the ICT industry, ICT users, ICT human resource development and ICT innovation. In addition, specialist topics were discussed - women and ICTs, capital mobilisation, infrastructure, international markets, management skills and Small, Medium and Micro-enterprises (SMMEs). The outputs of these groups, together with the baseline studies, formed the basis for a situational analysis. In addition, an ICT Executive Forum was established, comprising leaders of industry.

By November 2000 an ICT Sector Development Framework had been put in place80 which will now form the basis for future implementation plans to stimulate the growth of the ICT industry in

"The need for a national IT vision for South Africa can be identified as a running theme throughout the '90s

" Referring here to any future versions of the World Wide Web a See also Appendix 10, which outlines some of the ICT research priorities identified by the

National Research Foundation for future funding (2000) 9 The baseline studies can be accessed through the SAITIS Website, www.saitis.co.za. The study

was supported by the Canadian International Development Agency, with additional support from the IDRC

"Also available on the SAITIS Website, www.saitis.co.za

Foresight identified a number of strategic technology nodes - ranging from future Web- based developments to IT-supported New Learning Methods.

The South African IT

Industrial Strategy Project (SAITIS) has

developed an ICT

Sector Development Framework that outlines priority areas to stimulate the ICT sector in South Africa. It draws on findings from the Foresight study, as well as from intensive consultations with key stakeholders in the sector.



South Africa, find ways to make ICT a better enabler for industry and civil society in general, develop ICT human resources, and substantially enhance ICT R&D and innovation.

During this period the Department of Trade and Industry also underwent major restructuring to bring it in line with international trends in dealing with the new information economy. The ICT

industry has been given higher status, and already talks are underway between the relevant Ministries to develop a migration policy facilitating the recruitment of foreign professionals with ICT

skills.

The Promotion of Access to Information Act (PAIA)

The National Assembly passed the Promotion of Access to Information Act (PAIA) on 21 January 2000. It had its roots in the so-called "Open Democracy Bill", which was split into three pieces of legislation by the Parliamentary Portfolio Committee: Promotion of Access to Information Act

Protected Disclosures Act

Promotion of Administrative Justice Act.

PAIA is intended:

"To give effect to the constitutional right of access to any information held by the State and any information that is held by another person and that is required for the exercise or protection of any rights; and to provide for matters connected therewith. "

In general the Act applies to "records", which it defines as

"recorded information", regardless of "form or medium". PAIA therefore clearly applies to information that is held or

communicated electronically. It refers to the Constitution, and states in the preamble that:

"the right of access to any information held by a public or private body may be limited to the extent that the limitations are reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom as contemplated in section 36 of the Constitution. "

While this act in general will increase transparency, and provide citizens with access to government information to an extent that has not existed in this country, it relies heavily on the Human Rights Commission (HRC) for its implementation and monitoring. It is

unclear if the HRC will have the capacity to manage this process effectively over the long term.

No mention is made of ICASA (Independent Communications Authority of South Africa), or of any need for interaction between the Human Rights Commission and ICASA. This could lead to ambiguity in processing claims that relate to information that was communicated or published on the Internet.



3.6 The Evaluation and Policy Reformulation Period: 2000 - present

Evaluating the Universal Service Agency - a New Role: 2000 - present

The USA has undergone challenging times since its launch in 1997. Despite high levels of goodwill and commitment from a wide range of players in the industry and beyond, it struggled to achieve any significant levels of telecentre rollout, nor did it meet many of the objectives it was originally set up to achieve, such as monitoring of universal service obligations, creating awareness of universal service, and developing policy instruments for universal service. The reasons are complex but some of the major points include:"

The USA was never set up as an implementation agency, and the staff skills complement was not one needed if the agency was to rollout telecentres as its key priority. Skills in financial and project management, contracts management, technical support and small business support would probably have constituted the right mix, whereas many of the staff were more skilled in policy development (which was most appropriate for the type of functions the USA was originally set up to achieve);

The USA had to confront a confusion of reporting lines between the regulator and the Department of Communications, which were not easily resolved;

The original intention that pilot telecentres would be run by the USA, was overtaken by the intention to launch a full-scale national rollout plan, but without the necessary budget or human resources to manage such a large-scale project;

The inability to negotiate for telephone lines from Telkom for its telecentres became a critical problem, resulting in a high number of telecentres not having access to even a telephone;

The telecentre model was regarded as too sophisticated (and unaffordable) for many rural communities, where basic telephony is more of a need than Internet access;

The explosion in cellular telephony has changed the face of telecommunications in rural and urban parts of South Africa. The advent of prepaid phone cards, which do not require contracts and allow direct management of call costs by users, has revolutionised

a, Several unpublished reports have been written to evaluate the USA and its operations. The IDRC and UNDP jointly funded a study examining ways in which the institution could be strengthened (David Townsend and Associates, 1998); an audit was conducted by the IDRC

in 1999/2000 of the USA's internal operations and telecentre rollout; the IDRC's Acacia Programme has carried out evaluations of the USA's telecentre projects and more recently a

study was conducted for the Department of Communications to examine possible future structures for the USA. Doctoral studies currently being undertaken by Peter Benjamin of the University of the Witwatersrand may allow more of these lessons to be shared.

The Universal Service Agency (USA) should be given credit for pioneering initiatives in telecentre rollout. The learning from this activity has been documented through a number of evaluation studies undertaken by the IDRC's Acacia Program in South Africa and Mozambique.



The Universal Service Agency (USA) has

been undergoing a

series of evaluations to determine what

its future role should be and

whether it should continue to exist.

Current thinking is

that it should no longer be involved

in telecentre implementation but focus on its original

mandate, i.e. monitoring and

advocacy in support of universal service.

rural access in particular. This has never been taken into account in redefining universal service and access. The USA's telecentres found that they were competing with cellular telephony in many areas where this had not even been considered a few years ago, when the USA was planned;

Despite running several provincial hearings on redefining universal service / access standards for South Africa, there are still no agreed definitions in place;

The creation of a Universal Service Fund was enacted in the Telecommunications Act. However, there were many problems in a) the collection of funds from operators and b) obtaining the funds from the government treasury.

As a result of the USA's poor track record, and with the present revision and reformulation of the telecommunications policy, the role of the USA is under review. At this stage, it looks likely that the USA will continue to function but it may return to its original mandate of monitoring and advocacy. It is expected that the implementation aspects of telecentre rollout will be addressed through other mechanisms.

Reformulating the Broadcasting Act: 1999

Although the institutional frameworks for the policy and regulation of the information and communication sectors have been adjusted in an attempt to deal with both South Africa's national transformation and the relentless economic and technical changes to the sector, driven at a global level, these adjustments have occurred at some national cost and with a level of political expediency.

While the changes have been prompted by a need to modernise the sector as a developmental imperative, make it globally competitive and provide a catalyst to rejuvenate the African continent, the timing has often had a political motivation. Within a few years of its establishment, the IBA was no longer seen as a cherished democratic institution but rather as the product of negotiated settlement, unaccountable to the government of the day, the legitimate representatives of the citizens. It had also become a political embarrassment, following lack of corporate governance and poor financial accounting. This allowed those concerned by the Authority's lack of accountability to rein it in, by putting in place such stringent budgetary restraints that the regulator, in its dying days, did not have sufficient funds to fulfil its licensing mandate.

The situation provided the state with the opportunity to impose some policy direction on the broadcasting sector. Following a rather hurried Green and White Paper process, the Broadcasting Act was drafted in 1998 and passed by Parliament in 1999. The

So Information Policv Handbook


Broadcasting Act particularly sought to clarify the relationship of the Minister to the regulator. The White Paper justified this in the following way:

"The perception that the IBA is not accountable to anyone in its activities regarding the implementation of public policy is wide spread and a source of concern... While the basic assumption is

that there will be an effective regulatory authority capable of basing its activities on public policies, it is nonetheless important that the regulatory authority retains public trust. " The second broadcasting process bore no resemblance to the consultative process that had resulted in the telecommunications legislation two years before, and which had become the hallmark of good governance. Neither did it have the gleam of that historic moment when no party was effectively in power and policy and law were the product of negotiated consensus. Although the process adopted a similar form, drawing diverse stakeholders into a consultative process, stakeholders expressed concern that their viewpoints were not being taken into account and that they were being used to rubberstamp the blueprint of government.

While there is little doubt that the sector lacked policy direction and amendment to the legislation was needed, the process reflected the tensions between a stated commitment to the participatory process, which had become a characteristic of the democratic movement, and the desire to seize the reigns of power, which became more evident with the end of the Government of National Unity.

Broadcasting Act of 1999

The revision of the Broadcasting Act also involved stakeholder consultation, but it was perceived as a

rubberstamping exercise.

The Act sought to create a new policy framework for broadcasting by:

Establishing a three-tier system for the broadcasting industry, namely policy formulation by the government, licensing and regulation for the independent authority and service provision by broadcasters.

Prioritising universal access, diversity within a framework of national unity, democratisation of the airwaves, nation-building, education and strengthening the moral fibre of society.

Underpinning policy with the constitutional principles of freedom of expression, equality of languages, multiculturalism and choice.

A statutory charter for governing the public broadcaster, which will enable the public broadcaster to withstand competition in the market and specifically its corporatisation.

The promotion of public, private and community broadcasting.

Classification of broadcasting services to include new multimedia licences.

Introduction of multi-channel delivery systems.

Increasing foreign investment and ownership by historically disadvantaged groups.

Encouragement of production of local film and television.

" White Paper on Broadcasting, 1998



The most significant aspect of the 1999

Broadcasting Policy process was the

corporatisation of the public

broadcaster, and the division of its activities into

separate commercial and public

broadcasting arms.

The broadcasting policy process provided the government with the opportunity to indicate its broader intentions for the sector. Most significant was the corporatisation of the public broadcaster and the division of its activities into separate commercial and public broadcasting arms. This was a break with the regulatory approach of the IBA, which had long sought the shared delivery of public service obligations across the entire sector in order to avoid the ghettoisation of public broadcasting.

The White Paper also recognised the convergence of telecommunications, broadcasting and computing, and contained an entire chapter on converging services dealing with Internet, satellite, digital radio and television broadcasting and indicating the need for a converged regulator.

Combining the Telecommunications and the Broadcasting Regulatory Functions - the Formation of the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa: 2000 - present

The broadcasting and tele-

communications regulators were

merged into one regulator, the Independent

Communications Authority of South

Africa (ICASA) in early 2000.

This reflects the realities of

convergence in the ICT sector, and the need for coherent

regulation.

Despite grave logical inconsistencies in the Broadcasting Act of 1999, and some contradictory and confusing drafting, the Act acknowledges the need for legislation that enables regulation that goes beyond traditional television and radio. This will encourage the kind of investment needed to run large regional and globally competitive multimedia operations and will grow and export national cultural products, rather than narrowly isolate and protect them for local audiences.

The merger of the two separate Authorities into the Indepen- dent Communications Authority of South Africa is further acknowledgement of the realities of convergence between the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors, and the need for their coherent regulation if South Africa is to meet its own needs in the global information economy.

In addition to the economic and technological drivers, the merger of the Authorities was pushed by a number of other developments. Government attempts to cut spending had already resulted in the slashing of regulatory budgets for which the Director-General, as the chief accounting officer, was ultimately responsible. The rationalisation of the Authority was seen as an effective way of avoiding duplication of effort and consolidating skills in areas of shortage within a developing country.

The administrative and technical areas were identified as areas in which duplication could be avoided.83 The legislation largely deals with the merger of the two decision-making bodies, the Councils, of the prior authorities. The Council will still draw on the body of broadcasting and telecommunications legislation in order to regulate the sector until comprehensive convergence legislation is developed.

e3 A table of advantages and disadvantages of Multi-sector Regulators is identified in Intven, H. (2000) Telecommunications Handbook, infoDev and McCarthy Tbtrault, World Bank, Washington.



The Telecommunications Policy Colloquium and beyond: 2001

In late March 2001 the South African Cabinet approved a number of policy directives in relation to the telecommunications policy in the country, which reflect the intentions of government and which were open for comment in South Africa until 2 May 2001. The decisions followed a national colloquium of stakeholders and interested parties in February 2001. Some of the public responses to date have pointed to the failure of the directives to reflect the consensus of the participants at the widely attended colloquium.B4

The proposed policy decisions identify a number of touchstones; priority issues that will attract substantial focus in the new telecommunications policy. These have as their foci:

Black economic empowerment;

Domestic and foreign direct investment;

Stable predictable regulation;

Universal service and access;

Human resource development; and

A reduced digital divide.

Alongside these highlights is the general commitment by the South African government to development and economic growth.

A summary and itemised consideration of the policy directives is instructive in evaluating the impact and possible implications of the purported policy stance of the government, with regard to telecommunications.

The new proposed policy directives continue the approach to the liberalisation of the telecommunications sector adopted in the previous round of papers and legislation, by opening up the sector in a managed way. The government remains committed to a

duopoly in the PSTN at the end of Telkom's exclusivity, as was proposed in the White Paper on Telecommunications in 1996. This is despite a strong lobby towards greater opening up of the market, and in the light of more evidence since 1996 of the failures of duopolies globally to deliver cheaper or better services for telecommunications users or consumers.

The government will invite applications for the Public Switched Telecommunications Service (PSTS) licence to become the second national carrier in July 2001. The PSTS includes VANS and long- distance service, provided that it will be in the form of fixed-mobile services. Provision is made for the carrier to use Telkom facilities until May 2005. The second licence will be granted subject to universal service and access obligations. Provision is made for black empowerment ownership of 30% in all new licences. Importantly,

s" For full documentation of all the submissions, consult the website of the Department of Communications, www.docweb.pwv.gov.za



ESI-TEL (the new communication company of the electricity utility, ESKOM) and Transtel are mandated inclusions in any new licensed operator, while foreign shareholding in this new operator will be restricted to 49%.

VANS operators will still be prohibited from carrying voice services, including Voice over the Internet, subject to a number of tight exceptions, and on pain of licence revocation. VANS operators shall have the right to provide full spectrum end-to-end e-Commerce services.

Mobile operators Cell-C, MTN and Vodacom will all be granted 1800 MHz frequency spectrum, as will the PSTN incumbent, Telkom, and the Second Network Operator (SNO). In addition, these same parties shall be issued third-generation service licences.

Targets for universal service that have been stipulated in licenses are to be redefined and will in future address the need for access to advanced internet services such as multi-media. Disabilities and the equitable geographic spread of services will be considered. The monitoring of compliance with universal service obligations will be improved by the increase in institutional capacity at the Universal Service Agency (USA), which is to be restructured. Universal service will also be aided by non-fee domain registration for public schools and a mandatory 50% discount on all Internet access calls made by the latter. The increase in the ceiling on the universal service levy to 0.5% further demonstrates an ongoing commitment to universal service.

However, the issuing of these directives, outside of a clear institutional and implementation framework, is of concern. Although some reference is made to a new board to buffer the USA from political interference, the lines of responsibility and accountability remain unclear between the Agency, the Regulatory Authority and the Department of Communications.

All new major telecommunications licences will set aside anything up to 30% of shareholding for persons from previously disadvantaged groups. Regulations on social obligations to previously disadvantaged groups in the ICT sector shall be developed by ICASA with regard to service providers, equipment suppliers and vendors. These obligations are to be included in the licences themselves.

Stakeholder responses to these recent announcements have been mixed. Early indications are that while empowerment groupings have welcomed the quotas stated for ownership of new operators, other industry sectors hoping for increased services-based competition remain disappointed, especially over the continued restrictions on Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).

Concerns have also been expressed about: the commitment to a

duopoly structure for the PSTNs, in the light of failures of duopolies elsewhere in the world in extending services and reducing costs to



users and consumers; and the required inclusion of state enterprises in the competitive licences and their resultant dominance in the extended licences in the mobile segment of the market. It has been argued that while these enterprises should not have been excluded, their inclusion should have been left to commercial negotiation to determine their real value.

Responses to Convergence

The Department of Communications is in the final stages of completing a Discussion Paper on Convergence and is finalising the Green Paper on e-Commerce. It is also currently developing 43 policy initiatives for the Minister, which include such matters as

broadband access and Internet policy, and other issues that impact on multimedia provision. In compliance with the Broadcasting Act, the Minister appointed a Digital Broadcasting Advisory Body whose recommendations will have to take into account a converging environment.

In recent interviews85 with industry, government and the regulator, there was widespread agreement that convergence raised new regulatory challenges that required new regulatory frameworks. Some industry stakeholders said this was particularly the case if one believed that the spread of broadband could redefine or reshape the global economy over the coming years. Specifically, the convergence of broadcasting with personal telecommunications required urgent regulatory attention.

While most respondents believed it was necessary to converge regulatory structures in order to ensure balance in the regulation of converged technologies, within the telecommunications sector there is still a strong belief that infrastructure or carriage regulation should be treated quite distinctly from content regulation. This is one of the most controversial areas of regulation in the newly converged areas of broadcasting, telecommunication and IT. Traditionally, telecommunications operators and regulators have not had to concern themselves with the cultural and political area of content regulation, which has been left to broadcasting regulators. Those coming from the historically unregulated area of IT generally struggle with both infrastructure and services regulation as well as content regulation.

Most interviewees agreed that the convergence of regulatory structures in order to deal effectively with a converging communication environment was inevitable. Many argued that while this had started in South Africa with the physical integration of the broadcasting and telecommunication regulators, the regulation of these traditionally distinct sectors would need to be more evolutionary and develop in response to new issues as they came before the authority.

a5 These interviews were conducted for the purposes of an ITU Case Study on the Policy and Regulatory Implications of Broadband in South Africa, under the auspices of the ITU Special Projects Unit.

The Department of Communications is

presently formulating 43 policy initiatives, covering matters such as convergence, broadband access

and Internet policy.

A Digital Broadcasting Advisory Body has been formed.



There are various advantages in the

creation of a merged regulator, although

such a regulator cannot be seen to favour one service type over another.

ICASA is likely to face challenges in having to manage

infrastructure as

well as content, the latter by its nature having to deal with

political and cultural aspects of

regulation.

More challenging than the physical

integration of the broadcasting and

telecommunications regulators is the

philosophical integration into a

new regulatory approach that is able to shrug off the two separate approaches of the old paradigm

into one that is

flexible and innovative enough

to deal with the dynamism of a

convergence.

The levels of coordination and integration required for broadband services to operate effectively certainly require a

rethink of the historical separation of broadcasting and telecommunications regulatory structures. Perhaps more important and more challenging than the physical integration of these historically distinct agencies, however, is the philosophical integration into a new regulatory approach that is much more encompassing than the sum of the two. Effective regulation in the era of convergence will require greater flexibility and imagination than ever before if the benefits of the new technologies are to be equitable, without stifling innovation and investment.

Most respondents agreed that the trend towards merged regulators made sense from an efficiency standpoint. However, they pointed out that it is vital to ensure that within the merged entity there exists a sufficient body of operational expertise for all relevant service types. Often the regulator will need to resolve conflicting demands on resources by different service types and it is

critical that the merged entity is not seen to favour one service type above another.

Merging regulators that come from incompatible or "old" paradigms was cited as a particular challenge. Anders Henten develops this in a paper in which he argues:86

Infrastructure regulation is usually based upon the premise of some scarce or limited natural resources which are in public trust, and which have a value attached. This basis becomes less true once broadband technologies are widely penetrated and bandwidth becomes far less of a scarce commodity.

Content regulation is usually based upon protection of certain cultural values, protection of democracy, protection of minors, and the wish to promote local culture or the local content industry. This is no less true in a broadband world, but content regulation over a

global medium like the World Wide Web becomes far more difficult to apply in practice, and is much more influenced by voluntary codes of conduct and consumer pressure groups.

Cross-media ownership regulation has been based upon trying to ensure that no individual amasses an overwhelming media ownership, so as to exercise undue influence upon the populace. In

the Web world, this function tends to be taken up by anti-trust regulation.

Service regulation is usually targeted at ensuring equal and universal access to certain services regarded as basic. Access remains an important issue in broadband, in ensuring that no infrastructure owner (such as an incumbent telecommunications operator or a "last-mile-service-provider") is able to exclude access

by the customer to other service providers.

86 Henten, A. (2000): Regulation in a liberal, international and converging communication market, In: Cammaerts and Burgelman (eds): Beyond Competition: Broadening the Scope of Telecommunications Policy.



In contrast, the world of broadband and Internet, with its borderless nature, raises a host of new priority issues that may be far more relevant to address.

Some of these are:

The tracing and combating of cybercrime in all its forms (hacking, virus propagation, denial of service attacks, credit card fraud, etc.); and

Commercial issues around e-Commerce, such as non-repudiation of a transaction, dispute resolution, jurisdiction rules, taxation, authentication, electronic signatures, etc.

It is doubtful whether these issues would or should be addressed by telecommunications regulators, as they fall within normal commercial, trade and criminal justice areas.

3.7 Problems and Issues Emerging from the South African Experience - What Lessons Can We Learn?

Policy and Implementation

South Africa has been praised for the excellent policy it has formulated in certain areas over the last few years. However, the appropriateness of policy to the circumstances in which it is applied can be measured by the degree to which it can be implemented in the timeframes allocated. A policy framework that does not ensure the resources or effectiveness of the mechanisms to implement policy cannot be regarded as successful. In the case of the ICT

sector, far from sufficient attention has been paid to the lack of institutional capacity in sectors where independent regulation had not existed before. Nor have resources been provided to fast-track the development of the required capacity or the use of external expertise until internal capacity has been developed. Some agencies, such as the IBA, actually had their budgets cut during their first few years as they attempted to develop their resources.

Regulatory Framework

While SATRA made a number of courageous decisions in a new and difficult terrain, it played a predominantly reactive role. In terms of universal service and universal access to broader ICTs, opportunities to re-evaluate universal service obligations were missed and the possibility of expanding the contributions made to the USF by a

broader base of service providers, e.g. ISPs, VANS, etc. were not explored. Several reasons may account for this:

The low levels of human resource capacity and the continuous fire- fighting SATRA had to do in relation to the third cellular licence, VANS, etc.;



Clear legislation on issues such as the

market structure, the nature of

competition, and the nature and

definition of services is essential.

Lack of clarity in the Telecommunications Act, leading to political interference;

Few financial resources to develop capacity;

Internal fighting and turf wars; and

The diversion of SATRAs resources to defend perpetual court challenges from the national operator Telkom.

As in many developing countries, the result was a weak and ineffective regulator, which has not been able to fulfil some of the licensing and regulatory functions essential to the successful realisation of policy objectives. The result is that, although the White Paper and the Telecommunications Act foresaw an institutional set-up which was to be flexible and proactive, the licence conditions agreed to in the strategic equity partner's arrangements, together with the strong support for the conditions by the Ministry and Department, have often rendered the regulator redundant.

Two suggestions are to:

Reorganise functions so that flexibility is reintroduced, as was originally intended; and

Ensure that the regulator is strengthened and given the autonomy and broad political mandate, and resources, to regulate the sector effectively.

There are some major lessons to be learnt about the role of the regulator in a monopolistic environment, compounded by unclear legislation. For example, the high number of disputes can be directly attributed to deficiencies in the Act regarding competition, and the nature and definition of basic services. If a similar situation arises within the current policy reformulation and possible amendment of the Act, it is likely that ICASA, like SATRA, will find itself having to fight fires because the Act was ambiguous.

Human Resources

Ensuring that institutions are

adequately resourced, and that staff have the right skills to deliver, is a

prerequisite for successful

implementation. More emphasis

needs to be placed on developing skills

and strengthening institutions.

In addition to the lack of policy and regulatory capacity to oversee the sector, a recent unpublished study carried out for the IDRC on the possible establishment of an ICT policy research institute, which would develop skills in Southern Africa, found that the skills base in ICT policy, in South Africa and the subregion, is extremely low. Few academic institutions are devoting much attention to this area.87

Lack of integration at the policy level may also be the result of little training offered in other sectors on ICTs and policy-related areas of overlap. Where it is being offered, the public sector in particular has not taken up the opportunity.

eJ There was a contrary view that South Africa needed to spend more resources on developing good project managers and implementers of policy, as this was the area where the country was failing most.



The lack of human resources in ICTs in government is of particular concern, and can be partially attributed to the inability to compete with the private sector in terms of remuneration. There are no exact figures of the level of turnover from the government to the private sector, but it is believed to be significant.

The Sector Education and Training Authority for the ICT sector, the ISETT SETA, arising from the South African Qualifications Authority and funded through the Skills Development Levy, is seeking to address some of these backlogs, but the progress has been slow.88

Research Capacity and Availability of Reliable Data

Information and research on the working of the telecommunications sector is not readily available in the public domain, nor are some areas well understood.

For example,

The use of ICTs, especially by disadvantaged groups;

The impact of prices on ICT use and affordability; and

The working of telecommunications and ICT markets.

Part of the explanation for the lack of good research stems from the lack of good data, and is a global phenomenon in developing countries.

The absence of information through good consumer organisations may lead to sub-optimal functioning of the market. In this case

government has to foresee the need for other structures that provide that type of information. This is likely to be even more important in a more liberalised environment. The lack of good data was identified as a priority area in the SAITIS project, and initial discussions were held with Statistics South Africa to a) improve the levels of possible data disaggregation for the ICT

sector, and b) devise a set of indicators for the industry that would more accurately allow tracking within the industry.

Alternative mechanisms for the public release of data could be considered in terms of disclosure of information by the national fixed-line and mobile operators. For example, the regulator could make far better use of its powers in order to establish baseline data on the sector by requiring more rigorous annual reporting by licensees, from disaggregated gender statistics on their workforces, to churn rates.89 The lack of coordinated data on fulfilment of community service obligations, for example, has resulted in uncoordinated rollout efforts by the operators, donors, government departments and NGOs. The lack of good data to establish benchmarks makes effective monitoring extremely difficult.

es See Appendix 9 on the history and nature of the SETA. 89 "Churn" can be defined as the rate at which service subscriptions are subscribed to and

terminated.

Reliable data on the telecommunications market size is

essential to enable proper planning for universal service rol lout.



Universal Service and Access

Limiting Universal Service Obligations

(USOs) to voice-only services has resulted in the installation of

technologies that have major

limitations for the provision of

advanced services.

The institutional capacity to monitor

and coordinate USO activities should be

considered when imposing USO

requirements on operators.

The definition of Universal Service will

in future have to take the explosive growth of mobile telephony on the African continent

into account.

Setting USO targets for operators as a

percentage of revenue would result

in higher levels of universal service

The lack of a workable definition for universal service and access has been a major problem in South Africa. Since the existing definition includes telephony only, this has had an impact on the rollout of technologies. For example, while the rollout of DECT systems90 has enabled rapid, cost-effective provision of telephony, its low speeds also limit Internet access significantly, with anything beyond e-mail virtually impossible. This is not so much caused by the limitations of the DECT technology adopted, but is more a result of the economics in the design of the network by the telecommunications operator, and was driven by the need to meet its voice-only universal service obligations for line rollout. This was an omission in the obligations, i.e. to provide advanced services over the network.

There is no coordinated universal service map outlining where rollout is to occur. From an implementation point of view this has resulted in three operators providing service in the same area, and nearby areas being totally underserviced. Neither SATRA nor the USA assumed a coordination role in this regard, and it is uncertain whether ICASA will assume a stronger role in monitoring community service obligations.

The same goes for the USA. By only focusing on telecentres, the USA neglected its information role in telecommunications policy. The USA was, by way of research and policy proposals, to stimulate debate on universal service and to provide innovative ideas for implementing it. In this area little has been done.

The legislation mainly focuses on extending the fixed network. This is a traditional view, and neither the White Paper nor the Act take into account the enormous potential of mobile communications for extending universal service. The question is how to resolve this, given the position of the two existing cellular operators, and the incoming third operator. Further complications were caused by the requirement for the mobile licensees to provide subsidised tariffs in rural areas - this has resulted in underutilisation of the fixed network, which is not required to subsidise call tariffs. In many towns around the country it is common to find large queues of people waiting to use the cellular public phones, while Telkom's public phones nearby have virtually no traffic.

Telkom has been able to meet its network rollout obligations in terms of the licence. The last figures from Statistics South Africa show that universal access is growing, but the market for telephony has probably been overestimated. The churn is an indication for this. Although the South African market looks big (43 million inhabi- tants) the vast inequalities in the population probably reduce the market size to less than originally thought. The rise in the cost of local calls, due to a rebalancing of tariffs between international and

90 A type of wireless telecommunications system.



national calls, probably further reduces the potential market. There are unfortunately no statistics to substantiate this. However, this needs to be weighed against the exponential growth of the prepaid cellular market, which now makes up the bulk of mobile subscribers who have in turn exceeded the number of fixed-line subscribers.

Integration Between Government Departments

Of interest is that almost all of the policy and strategy processes that have taken place in South Africa since the early '90s have called for a greater level of integration at various levels:

Between government departments with overlapping functions relating to stimulating ICT development and use;

Between government and industry to ensure that economic development is addressed; and

Between education institutions, government and industry to ensure that the policies will address the right skills mix.91

The NITF and COMTASK reports, the SAITIS baseline studies and the 2000 SAITIS development framework all proposed that the lead and coordination in ICTs should proceed from the highest level possible, in other words from the Cabinet.

It appears that there are now several moves afoot to address this vacuum:

The President has appointed an IT Advisory Council consisting of local and international business leaders in IT,

ICTs have been identified in the 2001 State of the Nation speech as

a priority area; and

Information Industries South Africa OISA) was formed in 2000 and is an umbrella body consisting of 10 separate ICT organisations. The motivation was to create a stronger industry body that could negotiate with government.

The ability of these initiatives to harness, integrate and coordinate the important progress of earlier initiatives such as Foresight, the SAITIS project, the telecommunications and broadcasting policies, e-Commerce policy, science and technology policy and education policy, which were developed in isolation from each other, will significantly determine their success.

91 The Financial Mail of 16 March 2001 (p. 14) appeals to corporate South Africa to become more actively involved in formulating policies that affect the country's economic growth. The fact that the government's national plan on higher education received no inputs from organised business was raised as a major concern. The Centre for Development and Enterprise, a think-tank funded by large South African companies, pointed out in their report last year that there was no effective communication between business, institutions of higher learning and government. In the UK, the Council for Industry and Higher Education was established in the '80s - this led to the development of a shared agenda between academia, industry and government.

International experience shows that the preconditions for nations that have been able to embrace the challenges of the global economy and transform themselves into effective information societies are political will and visionary leadership.


Educational Technology Policy

Educational Technology Policy in Southern Africa Chapter 4 examines the difficult (and often controversial) area of educational technology policy development particularly as it refers to the use of ICTs in schools. Given the challenges facing many African countries in providing even the most basic facilities to support education, the significance (or not) of introducing ICTs is

debated. Very little policy development has been undertaken in Southern Africa, and where it does exist it is usually consolidated into a broader ICT policy framework. The chapter presents a number of examples linking policy decisions with implementation strategies, and addresses some of the areas that require attention in ensuring future successful implementation of ICTs. Emphasis is given to the South African Technology for Enhanced Learning Initiative (TELI), a framework within which several provincial ICT-enhanced learning initiatives have taken place. The chapter illustrates that most educational technology policy processes have concentrated on the school level, with little initiative in tertiary education. The chapter therefore presents Southern African experience with school networking projects, and the possible establishment of Schoo/Net Africa to support such projects throughout Africa.

Interest in educational

applications of ICTs

has been stimulated both by the

potential offered by these technologies

and by the range of complex problems

facing education systems worldwide.

4.1 Introduction Globally, there has been a proliferation of activity focused on using ICTs to enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of education systems. This activity has two broad stimuli. First, the technologies themselves offer extraordinary potential functionality that has stimulated an innate desire to understand how best these functions can support and improve people's ongoing learning. Second, it has been stimulated by a series of problems that face education systems internationally. These include:

Growing pressure on traditional education and training to provide access to far larger numbers of students, of all ages;

A crisis of confidence in traditional approaches to education, which have often confused education with the transfer of information; and

Dwindling funding - in real terms - for education and training purposes in the public sector.

Inevitably, therefore, rapid development - and increasing convergence - of ICTs has stimulated significant debate about the roles that these technologies might play in accelerating education. This is particularly relevant for developing countries, where several of the broad challenges facing education systems are magnified by a low skills base, significant resource constraints, and a range of non-educational social problems (such as widespread poverty, disease, and political instability) that make the creation and suste- nance of any stable social system harder.



Education is in many ways the most complex of all social processes, and also the one in which most vested interests within any society have a stake. Establishing new education policies, therefore, is inevitably a complicated and difficult exercise, in which efforts to change strategic direction need to be balanced against the importance of ensuring continuity and stability. Education policy focusing on the use of ICTs sits at the heart of this challenge.

Developing policy frameworks to respond to these trends is no easy task, and further complicated by the challenging economic, social, and physical environments in which much education implementation occurs in Southern Africa.

4.2 Where Technologies Can Most Effectively Support Education Before any consideration can be given to the use of technologies in the teaching and learning process, the various modes of communication that underpin such activities must be understood. Communication can take place in various ways:

Face-to-face, for example in classes, tutorials, or practical sessions;

Via correspondence, whether it involves post, courier, fax, or electronic mail;

Using printed media of various kinds, which can either be distributed via correspondence or in face-to-face sessions;

Using audio such as radio, audio cassettes, telephone calls, or audio conferencing;

Using video, for example, one-way broadcasting, video, or video- conferencing; and

Using computers and computer-based multimedia, whether they be standalone or part of a network.

Policies about the use of technologies in education also require a

clear understanding of the varied teaching and learning environments they aim to support, as well as their potential functions. These can be categorised into three broad applications for technologies:

Technologies to Support Delivery of Educational Resources

Technologies can play a crucial supporting role in delivery of educational resources, particularly course materials. These technologies are made up of a wide range of ICTs, from the printed book and other printed materials, through television and radio, to multimedia computers and the Internet. Although printed materials do not fall within the boundaries of common definitions of ICTs, it is critical to ensure that education policies do not set up artificial boundaries between groups of technologies, and that traditional media are not ignored. The need for centralised expertise in evaluating the growing range of products and technologies has become increasingly important.

Various modes of communication underpin educational processes - face- to-face, correspondence, audiovisual media and computer-based.

Technologies can effectively support education in three areas: 1. Interactive

communication between educators and learners;

2. Delivery of resources; and

3. Administration.



Investment in course materials design and development is a

prerequisite. Behind this lies the increasing use of computers - word processors, graphics programs, desktop publishing, and the Internet - to support development of printed or electronic resources. Valuable educational resources can be centrally packaged, updated, and delivered rapidly, sharing costs of assembling appropriate, up-to-date educational materials among many educators. However, these benefits can only accrue if the establishment of centrally shared resources is effective and supported by all stakeholders.

Interactive Technologies to Support Teaching and Learning

Aside from course materials, many technologies support more interactive teaching and learning processes. Some of these can be used generally in any education and training programme, such as

white boards or overhead projectors, while others might be referred to as specialist technologies, such as woodwork equipment or language laboratories. The technologies covered by this group range from the very simple, such as pen and paper, to the very sophisticated, such as computerised simulators and the Internet. The latter has gained the most recent public attention as

an important new tool in the classroom and many governments have developed programmes specifically to support connectivity in the education sector.

Technologies to Support the Education Provider's Administration

Technologies have a crucial role in supporting the educational provider, particularly in day-to-day management and administration. Often this important use is neglected, both in policy statements and in the deliberations of decision-makers involved in planning technology support for education and training.

While some basic technologies, such as telephones, have long been in use, there is a growing understanding that ICTs provide significant opportunities for generating savings in education and training and also for leading to more effective management and administration systems. For example, the growing use of databases and information warehouses, together with the explosion in the use of e-mail to facilitate quick, low-cost communication are two relatively simple applications that can prove very cost-effective. Places of learning can benefit greatly from being connected to local or national electronic procurement systems and having real-time access to Educational Management Information Systems to improve the quality of education. Where national implementation of education systems is required (and this includes ICT-related implementation), such management systems become critical in managing the technology, collecting data, and quick distribution of administrative materials.

Convergence in the functionality of technologies is blurring the roles of technologies that directly support teaching and learning



processes and those that support provision of course materials. For example, educators may use video-conferencing both to deliver pre-designed resources and to support live discussion between geographically separate groups (or to deliver live lectures). Likewise, e-mail can be used to support communication among educators and learners, as well as to deliver pre-designed resources.

4.3 What Policies Affect the Use of ICTs in Education? Education, in common with all social processes, does not exist as a

discrete, isolated system. Some of the policies impacting on education and training are reflected on elsewhere in this Handbook, but a number of the more significant ones require further mention.92

Economic Policy

Economic policies (and more importantly, economic growth) have a direct bearing on the use of ICTs in education. Without the establishment of policies that promote economic growth, the historically underresourced public educational sector is unlikely to receive sufficient investment to allow it to deploy ICTs effectively. Simultaneously, the relatively small population and the sheer geographical challenge of reaching people requires sharing of resources in order to build economies of scale. In Southern Africa, this suggests that regional cooperation will also be an increasingly important economic strategy, with the Sector Coordinating Units established by the Southern African Development Community (SADC) poised to play an important role in this regard. The offices have been set up in key areas such as Culture and information (based in Mozambique); Employment and Labour (based in Zambia); Finance and investment (based in South Africa); and Tourism (based in Lesotho).

Telecommunications Policy"

The sustainable use of ICTs in education is inextricably linked to dramatically reducing the high cost of telecommunications, which is a primary barrier to the deployment of ICTs, especially in remote areas. The most important national policy to adopt in this area is

to accelerate the introduction of full competition in the telecommunication sector, which can drive prices down and improve the deployment of infrastructure in rural areas. Increasing numbers of developing countries are beginning to realise that open competition is the best strategy for achieving universal service goals. For example, Brazil and Senegal have both recently announced that their telecommunication sectors will be opened to

9z Other relevant policies not mentioned here include labour policy, rural development, electrification, water supply, and security, among others.

9s A detailed discussion of South African ICT policies is provided in Chapter 3 of this Handbook.

Policies on the use of ICTs in education are intertwined with several other related policy areas, which opens up a wide range of options for stimulating more effective use of these technologies in education. Different national policies in Southern Africa reflect some of this variety.



full competition in 2002, and India has declared that Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP) will be deregulated next year.

e-Rate94 policies and Universal Service Funds (USFs) can also be an effective means to direct profits accrued in the urban areas to rural communities. In South Africa, the USF helped establish rural telecentres, providing access to surrounding schools.

Broad ICT Policies

Some countries in Southern Africa have begun formulating broad ICT policies to cover a number of areas in which ICTs are seen to be important in terms of general national priorities (including sectoral applications such as health, tourism, mining, education, and e- government). Mozambique and Namibia, for example, have both instituted ICT policy processes, in which education and skills development are covered as part of a broader ICT policy.95

Establishing such policies has clear implications for use of ICTs in education. It has the potential to set up a more receptive social environment in which effective educational applications can evolve, as well as eliminating wasteful duplication. However, if such policies are not carefully integrated with existing educational policies, they run the risk of leading to educational choices driven by technological preference rather than educational need.

Education Policies

Several related educational policies have a bearing on ICT use. For example:

School governance policies influence ICT use. When parents become more structurally involved in the management of schools, the drive to integrate ICTs into schools tends to increase (even in poorer communities, the need to acquire ICT skills is coming to be regarded as important).

Education management information policies tend to affect ICT use,

as governments across the subregion are generally coming to see its value in gathering information about education systems more systematically. Often ICTs come to be seen as a prerequisite for greater efficiency in collecting data.

An e-rate (educational rate) is a special rate for delivery of telecommunications services to education providers. Usually established through some form of policy intervention, a-rates are intended to make connectivity more affordable to the education system.

95 More detailed information can be found in Chapter 2 of this Handbook.

96 Information Policv Handbook


School Administration in South Africa's Northern Cape Province

in South Africa's Northern Cape province the provincial government is working with USAID to develop prototype management information systems for the Kimberley district (which will then be rolled out to pilot districts in other provinces in the country). The logic behind this is that accurate, up-to-date management information is critical to the successful operation of the schooling system, and that a well-designed administrative system harnessing computer networking to replicate data from school to district to provincial levels provides such information. This has led to complementary allocations of funding to put computers into every school participating in the district pilot project.

Education Technology Policies

Some policy processes at national level have a specific focus on the role of technology in education (and, in a few cases, a more specific focus on ICTs). These constitute the primary focus of this chapter.

4.4 The Southern African Policy Environment There is a significant distinction between South Africa and other countries in the region regarding national ICT-related education policy. South Africa's investments in policy on integrating ICTs into education eclipse those of other countries, and are hence dealt with separately below. In the remainder of this section, therefore, we focus on some of the trends emerging from policy development processes being followed by different countries.

4.4.1 Range of Policy Approaches

Within Southern African countries, there is significant variance in terms of the work that has been done, characterised by a range of approaches to establishing national policy frameworks.

Countries can be categorised according to the level of policy activity in education as follows:

There is presently no evidence of policy that attempts to either regulate or stimulate use of ICTs in education (Malawi and Angola).

A broad ICT policy covers use of ICTs in education (Mozambique and Namibia).

Policy statements on the use of ICTs are integrated into general policies on education (Swaziland).

Broad policies on the use of technologies in education are established, and strategies - at national and provincial levels - to build specific use of ICTs in education emerge from this broad policy framework (South Africa).

Policies are developed that focus specifically on the use of ICTs in education (Namibia).

Specific policies on equipping schools with ICT infrastructure are developed (Botswana).

Despite the range of approaches used to establish education- specific ICT policies, the overwhelming sense within the region is that very few policies exist. Where they do, they tend to remain vague and make little reference to implementation.



The general perception, however, is that there are very few policies covering the use of ICTs in education. Where they do exist, they tend to remain vague and make little reference to implementation. A draft national policy statement on education from Swaziland illustrates the problem.

Its statements concerning technology are limited to:

The Ministry of Education shall introduce and develop Information and Communication Technology Education in the school system to equip citizens to meet challenges of the 21st Century.

and

Various calls have been made for reform of overall curricular content, information communication technology, and special needs. In order to be in a position to respond to these needs, there is an urgent need to reorient teacher education.96

This highlights that, for the majority of education systems in Southern Africa, ICTs are not yet a high policy or financial priority. There are significant shortfalls in local expertise in the field of educational technology that need to be redressed. Several competing priorities - budgetary constraints, administrative and management challenges, teacher supply, impact of HIV/AIDS on education, and so on - all vie for the attention of local policy makers. ICT-related education policy still needs to establish itself within this set of priorities.

The Namibian Open Learning Network

The Namibian Open Learning Network (NOLNet) is a joint initiative of the Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture, the Ministry of Higher Education, Training and Employment Creation, the University of Namibia, the Namibian College of Open Learning (NAMCOL), the Polytechnic of Namibia, and the National Institute for Educational Development. These organisations signed a

Memorandum of Understanding in 2000, in terms of which they agreed to "establish a network of open learning centres throughout the country at which certain facilities will be shared and services offered on a collaborative basis". The intention is to maximise the use of existing centres by improving their facilities. Funds were made available by the European Union, as part of the Namibia Human Resources Development Programme, to provide equipment and materials for these centres.

The aim of this initiative is to enhance opportunities for supported, independent learning for adults and young people who cannot take part in conventional, institution-based education. Although the primary target group includes students registered with publicly funded distance education institutions, it is expected that other providers will make arrangements for their students to have access to these centres as well. Once equipment and materials have been put in place, any other users of the centre will be able to avail themselves of the facilities to obtain information or engage in individual study. In this way, the Open Learning Network will improve the services provided by some community libraries, Teachers' Resource Centres, school libraries, NAMCOL tutorial centres, and Community Learning and Development Centres.

NOLNet is currently in the process of awarding tenders to deliver computer and audio-visual equipment, as well as books. It is hoped that these will be supplied and installed on site by the end of June 2001, so that NOLNet can be officially launched in early July.

se Global Distance Education Network Southern African Website. (www. saide. org. zalworldbanklDefa ult. htm)



4.4.2 Predominance of Donor-funded Initiatives

Most policy work outside of South Africa on the use of ICTs in education has been funded by donor agencies, rather than by national government. In itself, this is not a problem, but in practice it has also often meant the processes are not conceptualised and "owned" by national governments (however, in some countries, such as Namibia, Botswana, and Mozambique, this sense of ownership does exist, although in some instances not yet below the level of national government structures).

In addition, consultants who do not live in the region have written large quantities of policy research in Southern Africa. Although the quality of much of this work is high, this inevitably raises questions about whose vision for Southern African countries is being articulated and for what purpose. There are several possible reasons why local expertise is so thin on the ground, including weak higher-education systems, difficulties retaining skilled personnel in government positions, and emigration of skilled labour. The same trend extends to local ICT-related activity, scans of which quickly reveal the existence of international projects (see below), but far less often reveal locally initiated and funded projects. This again highlights the reality that the use of ICTs in education remains a low policy priority for most education systems in the region.

The African Information Society Initiative (AISI)"

Donor-funded initiatives focusing on the use of ICTs in education predominate in Southern Africa. While much good work has been done through these initiatives, this has

created problems in terms of ensuring local ownership and sustainability of interventions. Local expertise to conceptualise and drive projects remains very thin on the ground.

AISI has established an initiative called the African Learning Network, which emerged as a result of activities after the African Development Forum held in 1999. The African Learning Network has three pillars:

1. ICTs in schools, and the creation of a regional SchoolNet Africa structure that aims to support national and regional school networking activities;

2. VarsityNet which establishes connectivity at universities and related institutions of higher learning and research, and stimulates the development of content production and information sharing within this environment.

3. OOSYNET, a youth networking initiative that addresses the needs of Out-Of-School Youth (OOSY) at both national and regional level.'a

4.4.3 Focus on Schooling

Another significant feature of ICT-related education policy projects is that they tend to focus almost entirely on the schooling system. Most practical work that has occurred has clustered around the theme of school networking, with various donor agencies investing extensively in projects to put computers in schools and to develop national "SchoolNet" agencies. Such agencies exist in several countries, including South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique, and Lesotho.

91 See Appendix 1 for further background on the A151. 98 For full references, consult the website www.un.org/depts/eca/adflpforum.htm

Policy work in the region focuses almost exclusively on schooling, with a

particular focus on establishing national "SchoolNet" agencies. Further education and higher education receive practically no policy focus.



However, many SchoolNet pilots

were initiated in a

policy vacuum through proactive

donor involvement, and policy processes

began only after

SchoolNets had already been

established.

Practically no policy work is being undertaken in the higher and further-education sectors, which differs significantly from developed countries, where extensive investments in such work are underway. Even in South Africa, where policy work has been most intensive, policy focus on these sectors has been minimal. There is, however, a

growing focus on ICTs in the most recent South African policy position on higher education (the National Plan for Higher Education, released in February 2001), but this still remains largely at the level of principle. The only practical recommendations in that report conflate the use of ICTs with distance education, thus creating little strategic direction for the system as a whole in this area.

School Networking in Botswana

Policy consideration about ICTs and education in Botswana has a history at least as long as any other country in the region. According to a recent conference paper delivered by the Ministry of Education, "In 1994, the Government of Botswana accepted as policy that all the learners should be given some computer skills at all levels of their schooling" '9

This paper noted that the government's Revised National Policy on Education contains several recommendations relevant to the use of ICTs in schools:

Computers in particular should constitute some of the equipment in the proposed resource centres for primary schools to ensure early exposure to computing as a learning resource;

To develop in all children computer literacy and readiness for the world of work;

With respect to the Junior Certificate curriculum, the Commission recommends that each student should take a Basic Computer Awareness Course;

All senior secondary school teachers should acquire computer literacy and the schools should be allocated enough computers to enable all students to develop computer skills.

The curriculum aims to equip learners with computer skills that can be applied in all subjects. The department has adopted an "infusion strategy" whereby all teachers and learners are equipped with basic computer skills. The department has taken care to train all teachers irrespective of subject specialisation. This is intended to counter the historic focus on mathematics and science teachers, which has developed a kind of aloofness among these teachers in schools (created by perceptions that people teaching such subjects are more important than other teachers).

All Junior Secondary schools already have computer laboratories, which were built in preparation for rollout of computer equipment. Eleven pilot schools were equipped with 20 networked computers. Each school has been given a modem for dial-up Internet access and each school has been allocated a single e-mail address. A further 25 schools have been equipped with computers, and a project memorandum to equip the remaining 169 Junior Secondary schools has been completed. A UK

organisation, the Internet Learning Trust, has been involved in the pilot project, offering technical expertise and drawing on UK experiences.

Besides these, many schools have already acquired computer equipment through their own efforts and relationships with donors or businesses. It is anticipated that the pilot schools will be maintained as prototypes for computer use, and that more schools will be added to the project annually. (No audit of computers in schools has been conducted). Most schools already have between one and three computers for administrative use.-

99 Busang, C. et al., 2000. A Botswana Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Educational Development Perspective. Paper presented at the SchoolNet Africa Conference, 17 - 20 July, 2000. p. 3.

"'Information taken from Global Distance Education Network Southern African website (www.saide.org.zalworldbanklcountrieslbotswana.htm) and School Networking in Africa Compendium Draft, August 2000.



4.4.4 Working Off a Low Technological and Skills Base

By international standards, Southern African countries have a very low base off which to implement ICT-related education policy interventions. This makes policy work much more challenging, as a

low skills base, a weak technological infrastructure, and the dearth of contextually appropriate ICT educational resources significantly increases the costs of any sustainable intervention. Many schools are not even electrified.

Lesotho provides a good example of the challenge facing school networks. According to research undertaken by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the status of school networking in Lesotho in 1998 was as follows:

Schools Number of Schools

Schools with computer activities

% Schools with Computer Activities

Primary 1 250 1 N/A

Secondary 204 15 7.3

As a result,

The University of Lesotho started a school networking project in 1999 that is funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRQ. This project will introduce ICT to schools by giving schools near two telecentres access to the centres as well as training. These will be demonstration sites that will give schools exposure to ICT and will raise awareness of the technology and how it can be used. "I

The project goes on to note that one of the two centres to be used is the Institute of Extra-Mural Studies of the University of Lesotho, and that "there are 10 schools and 4 tertiary institutions in the vicinity which can use this centre". Even this intervention, therefore, will have a very limited impact on schools in the country.

10' School Networking in Africa Compendium Draft, August 2000. p. 8.

A low skills base, a

weak technological infrastructure, and the dearth of contextually appropriate ICT

educationalresources significantly increase the costs of any sustainable intervention.



Technology Use in Malawi Education

Most technology infrastructure in Malawi is still government-controlled, although processes to privatise some of this have commenced. Malawi's postal service has recently been privatised. Levels of ICT infrastructure and use, both in government departments and educational institutions, in general, are very low. e-mail access in government departments is almost non-existent and many government departments and offices are not yet issued with computers.

Research visits to Malawi in 1999 revealed no existence of policy processes specifically targeting use of ICTs in education. This is unsurprising, given that Malawi has one of the most underresourced educational sectors and among the poorest telecommunications infrastructures in Africa, with only 37

400 connected lines in 1998 and a telephone density of 0.36 line per hundred population.t0' Access to ICTs for staff and students in educational institutions remains very restricted. For example, only staff at Chancellor College, University of Malawi, have computers and e-mail access.

The Malawi Institute of Education has Internet access and is well equipped with a range of ICTs and printing equipment. By far the majority of schools do not have any access to computers, and there are some schools that do not have telephones. Support staff in educational institutions stiff commonly use

electric typewriters. The Malawi College of Distance Education (MCDE) has two computers only, one of which is used for desktop publishing of materials.1p3

Mozambique's national ICT policy highlights problems associated with operating off such a low base. The policy indicates that, in order to derive benefits from the potential of ICTs, government will:

Provide incentives and develop the teaching of computer science at various levels in the National System of Education;

Generalise the use of the Internet in schools;

Select teachers to be especially trained as promoters of ICTs in schools;

Promote courses and national expositions about ICTs for the benefit of young scientists;

Progressively endow schools with equipment indispensable for access to ICTs.114

These are laudable goals in their own right, but still require a

strategy for implementation. The only sentences in this regard, in a

later section on implementation and evaluation, note that:

As much as possible, this programme will comprise projects to be implemented by various state sectors and institutions, the private sector, and other organisations within society. In this context the areas to contemplate are:

Education: distance learning, school administration, electronic libraries for schools, etc. 105

10'NICI. NICI Malawi Country Report. www.bellanet.org/partners/aisi/nici/Malawi/ma/ab.htm 103 wwwsaide.org.za/worldbanklcountries/malawilmaloverview.htm 104 Commission for Information and Communication Technology Policy. 2000. Draft Policy for

Information and Communication Technologies. Unpublished paper. p. 7. ,os ibid. p. 17.



The Acacia Initiative and School Networking",

The Acacia Initiative is a programme of the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) that aims to support access to ICTs at the community level in Sub-Saharan Africa through integrated programmes that address policy, infrastructure, technology and content. Projects to develop telecentres and school networking activities have formed a major component of support to South Africa, Mozambique" and Namibia.

In addition the IDRC has been the driving force for attempting to establish SchoolNet Africa, an Africa-wide umbrella body that would support national school networking initiatives. This included the organisation of a workshop on African School Networking in Namibia in 2000, at which the concept of a SchoolNet Africa was proposed."

The IDRC supported the development of SchoolNet South Africa, and upon its launch, committed to assist SchoolNet financially in achieving its aims. The support granted to SchoolNet through Acacia included the housing of SchoolNet, and providing legal, financial and administrative aid, with the intention of helping SchoolNet to become an autonomous yet credible organisation within specific timeframes. In addition, the IDRC is supporting several School Networking initiatives in Mozambique and provided initial support for SchoolNet Namibia.

Extrapolating from examples such as WorLD and Acacia, as well as

many of the other projects examined in compiling this Handbook, some general observations can be made about ongoing education projects in Southern Africa.

Unrealistically ambitious objectives

A feature of projects in this area is that they often set unrealistically ambitious objectives (often a reflection of the number of problems that need to be solved simultaneously in order to ensure effective use of ICTs). In 1998, WorLD set the following ambitious goals:

WorLD aims to fulfil its mission by linking students and teachers in at least 1,200 secondary schools in 40 developing countries by the year 2000. WorLD linkages will facilitate the exchange of science projects, writing exercises, historical perspectives, artwork and dreams between students in developing countries and their peers around the world.

To date, WorLD is involved in about 600 schools in 27 countries in Africa, Latin America, Asia, and the Middle East. The evaluation component of the WorLD website reveals little of the impact achieved to date. A recent evaluation commissioned by the IDRC of WorLD schools operating in Mozambique, however, revealed significant difficulties encountered in trying to achieve these goals in one country. It faces significant challenges as a consequence of unsustainably high telecommunications costs (which increase as one moves away from major centres such as Maputo), a dearth of skilled capacity, and problems in maintaining technical infrastructure. This suggests that the WorLD SchoolNet project is still some way from achieving its broad goals.

107 www.idre.calacacia ,os www.mozambique.mzlinformatlmaacs/projsche.htm 09 SchoolNet Africa is an integral component of the ECA's African Learning Network

(www. un. org/depts/eca/a df/pforum. htm)



This approach to implementation should be contrasted with the introduction to a report about Mozambique entitled Knees, Blackboards, and Logs, also produced in 2000. It notes:

During the field visits, many classrooms and teaching spaces were observed without blackboards, or with blackboards in such a bad state that they cannot be used. Many children sit on cold, damp, concrete or earth floors in school. As a result they get colds which develop into bronchitis, sore throats and ear infections, and many have to stay away for longer periods of time owing to illness. Some children's hearing has been impaired by repeated ear infections. If the children had something to sit on -such as levelled logs - going to school would not make them ill."'

The policy positions outlined above, when contrasted with the realities of implementation, highlight the enormous challenges (and high risk of failure) presented by education in developing countries. The low institutional, human resource and infrastructure base raises barriers to entry because ICT policies focusing on education are forced to engage with all of these related gaps and weaknesses, massively increasing the scale of the challenge.

Simultaneously, this greatly increases the cost of possible policy interventions (in systems where budgets are already overstretched). It also reduces the level of locally initiated participation or initiative that is possible because the basic conditions for such participation do not exist. This highlights the importance of ensuring that articulation of such roles in policy statements is imbued with a concrete understanding of the challenges of implementation.

4.4.5 Southern African Implementation Environment

Notwithstanding the relative dearth of education-specific ICT

policy in Southern Africa, there are some initiatives focusing on harnessing the potential of ICTs to support education. Most are funded by international donor agencies. Examples of such projects are the World Bank's World Links for Development (WorLD) programme, SchoolNet Namibia, funded by the Swedish Development Agency (SIDA), and the Acacia Initiative, led by the IDRC.

106 Joint Technical Mission. 2000. Knees, Blackboards, and Logs. Unpublished paper. p. 2.

Many projects focusing on harnessing the use of ICTs in education are characterised by unrealistically ambitious objectives, reliance on "soft" funding, lack of institutionalisation and over- dependence on the commitment and enthusiasm of a few individuals.



WorLD in Zimbabwe

World Links for Development (WorLD), a project of the World Bank, is building global, educational on-line communities for secondary school students and teachers around the world in order to expand distance learning opportunities, enhance cultural understanding across nations, build broad support for economic and social development and train teachers to integrate information technology into the classroom."'

It has set itself the following programme goals:

Improve educational outcomes for participating students;

Facilitate the global spread of information technology; Narrow the information gap between students in developing and industrialised countries; and

Build bridges among the leaders of tomorrow."'

It aims to achieve this by employing the following strategies:

Promoting "connectivity" for developing country schools;

Supplying educational content for collaborative learning and linking schools around the world;

Training in a wide range of educational applications of information technology; Encouraging telecommunications policies which lower operating costs;

Supporting monitoring and evaluation of the educational impact of this programme; and Leveraging additional resources through other agencies and corporates.

In Zimbabwe, WorLD will consist of a national network of schools or centres. As part of the WorLD programme in Zimbabwe, 12 ICT centres are being established, one in each provincial capital (Bindura, Bulawayo, Chinoyi, Gwanda, Gweru, Harare, Marondera, Masvingo, Mutare) and three others in growth points (Gutu, Kwekwe, Mpopoma). WorLD Centres will be equipped with computer and Internet resources. Each pilot centre will have 8 - 10 computers, a printer, a separate phone line for Internet access, and a trained teacher who will introduce the appropriate use of computers and Internet across the curriculum.

Each pilot WorLD centre will be strategically located to serve a surrounding cluster of schools (e.g, five schools). Future centres could be developed in schools with computer labs or having just a few or no computers. Zimbabwe-WorLD will serve as the backbone for the development of a SchoolNet- Zimbabwe initiative overseeing the implementation of ICT in schools.

Reliance on "soft" funding

A key contributor to the above problem is the fact that the vast majority of projects in Southern Africa rely on "soft" money such as

grants from funding agencies. Thus, models of financial sustainability are not encouraged to emerge, rendering the medium to long-term future of projects very fragile. This can be exacerbated by projects that do not ensure that the prerequisite ownership by intended recipients is in place before proceeding. As a result, these initiatives remain very much at the margins of social activity and limited in impact.

Importantly, few government education administrations have acknowledged that innovative financing models will need to be used in the medium to long term if projects seeking to harness the capacity of ICTs to support education are to make a meaningful impact. Sharing of ICT resources and connectivity across sectors (for example, the rural health clinic, school and community) and generating revenues by providing public access services to offset costs have yet to be discussed at a national or regional level in Southern Africa.

10 www.worldbank.org/wor/dlinks/eng/ish/htm//goa/s.htm/ "' ibid.



Lack of institutionalisation of programmes and over- dependence on the enthusiasm and energies of a few individuals

Key elements in ensuring successful

policy implementation for

educational ICTs are: support of key

decision-makers; a

formalised mentorship

programme; and possible

centralisation of technical support

functions.

Significantly more work has been done

on establishing educational ICT

policies in South Africa than in other

countries in the region. This work stemmed from a

desire to establish clear decision-

making frameworks at a national level to

ensure that educational

technology decisions were driven by

educational motives and not by the

marketing agendas of technology

vendors.

Reliance on a few individuals poses serious problems for sustainability, as projects easily collapse when those individuals leave. Similarly, because an undue amount of their time goes into making the project work, these individuals also find few - if any - opportunities to undertake meaningful succession planning. This is

an indication of the lack of skills in this area in Southern Africa, in just about all areas of project management and implementation. It also serves, at least in part, to explain why so many of these projects have international links or are initiated by international agencies. Aside from directing resources to capacity building, strategies to counter this problem might be to:

ensure the project has the support of the key decision-maker/s before starting;

ensure there is a formalised "mentorship" or understudy programme to diffuse skills in-house; and

centralise and share support functions once connectivity is

achieved, which allows most maintenance issues to be dealt with on-line, remotely.

It is also worth noting that this extends to weak capacity in the private sector, where both ICT skills and entrepreneurial capital are much more limited than in most other parts of the world. This makes it significantly more difficult to generate innovative local solutions to educational problems, and also raises the cost of trying to maintain technology-dependent projects.

4.5 Educational Technology Policy in South Africa in South Africa, the use of technology in education has been on the policy agenda since late 1995. As the country emerged from many years of colonial and apartheid rule, the country's first democratic government was faced with a plethora of large-scale educational problems. Thus, the possibility of using a range of ICTs to find solutions received greater attention. Predictably, this interest also brought with it a proliferation of technology carpetbaggers, who traversed the post-apartheid educational terrain marketing specific technologies as "one-size-fits-all" solutions to the country's educational problems.

In response to this, the Ministry and Department of Education initiated the Technology-Enhanced Learning Investigation (TELI), in order to establish a clear policy framework in which effective decisions about the use of technologies in education could be made. In 1996, the South African Minister of Education published a

call for nominations of persons to serve on an Investigating Committee relating to the development of a national framework and a strategic plan for technology-enhanced learning.



This led to a series of policy processes, which are illustrated below.

Figure 4: Overview of Education Technology Policy Processes in South Africa

November 1995 Dept of Education (DoE) ----------------------

workshop identifies need for TELI rocess 1996 p July 1996

September 1996 Dept of Education agreement with ---

----------- TELI Discussion Document completed

South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC)

19 97 January 1997

April 1997 - Draft policy position written, but

not enacted or gazetted TELI Strategic Plan completed; ----

includes plans for 14 projects December 1997

1998

SchoolNet SA launched

December 1998 TELI decision-making framework finalised

1999 February 1999 SABC/DoE Broadcasting

August 1999 Dept of Communications first-phase

----------- Conference - reintroduces idea of dedicated educational channel

November 1999

report on dedicated educational Joint Dept of Communications/ channel released Education report on feasibility of

dedicated educational channel released

March 2000 20 00 - proposes converged educational network

Dept of Education releases value-chain framework 2000

----------- Khanya project planning begins in

2001 Western Cape

February 2001 Gauteng Online.Com launched in ----------------------

Gauteng Province ------------------ March 2001

-------- National ICT forum established to guide national ICT strategy

4.5.1 The TELI Process

The initial TELI process consisted of two related documents, a Discussion Document and an implementation Plan."' The TELI

Discussion Document focused on developing an enabling infrastructure for the effective use of technologies in education and training and not on providing inflexible, top-down "solutions" that take no account of differing contexts. It aimed to outline key principles relevant to the use of technologies in education and then to identify some key initiatives focused on developing an enabling infrastructure. The purpose of this document was, therefore, to provide a framework within which planners, decision-makers,

"' Both these documents can be viewed online at education.pwv.govza/teli2/defau/t.htm



The TELI Discussion Document focused

on developing an enabling

infrastructure for effective use of technologies in education and

training and not on providing inflexible,

top-down "solutions" that take

no account of differing contexts. It

aimed to outline key principles relevant to

the use of technologies in

education and then to identify some key initiatives focused on

developing an enabling

infrastructure.

administrators, and educators at all levels and in all sectors of the education system could start making more effective use of technologies in their teaching and learning environments.

The Discussion Document is important because it established a

clear commitment to a particular approach to making decisions about using technologies in education and training. It stresses the importance of examining teaching and learning environments in depth before choosing which technologies to integrate into those environments. Further, it suggests that it is necessary to identify strengths and weaknesses of different technological options, and to use this to inform decisions. The report stresses throughout the danger of allowing technology choice to drive educational decisions about how to integrate technology use into teaching and learning environments. It offers a decision-making framework as a strategy to overcome this problem.

The TELI decision-making framework (described in more detail below) emphasises appropriateness of technological choice to educational context and need, as a prerequisite to ensuring that scarce resources are used as effectively as possible. The decision- making framework contained in the TELI Discussion Document poses interesting challenges for implementation planning processes for any technology-enhanced learning strategy. It also provides an essential starting point for any investigation of the potential use of different technologies to support education and training.

The intention of this approach was to guard against technologically driven educational projects, which invariably do not provide effective or sustainable educational solutions. Questions posed in the framework remain a crucial reference point for any planning processes focused on using technologies (including broadcasting) to support schooling. They help to locate the use of technologies within broader teaching and learning environments and to identify where the gaps and potential weaknesses of the use of such technologies lie. This information can then be used to try to fill these gaps and remedy weaknesses by establishing appropriate partnerships with educational providers, government departments, educational resource developers, and other key agencies.



The TELI Decision-making Framework

The South African Minister of Education appointed a team of experts to develop a framework and set of guidelines for choosing which technologies to introduce into teaching and learning environments. The team presented a tool to facilitate the processes that people might go through when deciding between different technologies to use in education and training programmes, regardless of whether the decisions are being taken by government departments, single institutions, or consortia of organisations, whether at local, provincial, or national level. The decision-making framework consists of four modules:

1. The Teaching and Learning Environment Module

The primary aim of this module of questions was to enable decision-makers to develop a

picture of the teaching and learning environment in their planned or existing educational programme. To facilitate this, the teaching and learning environment has been broken up into various components: Learners; Teaching and Learning Processes; Communication; Course Materials; Sites of Teaching and Learning; and Educational Provider. Of course, this is a highly artificial separation. Education is a complex social process, in which the various components are intertwined in many ways, often creating difficult tensions. Nevertheless, it is necessary to consider each component in attempting to paint a picture of the whole environment.

2. The Technologies Module

The aim of this module was to give decision-makers information about the range of available communications technologies that can enhance education and training. Using this information, decision-maker/s would be expected to make some preliminary decisions about which technologies, if any, they would like to use to enhance their planned or existing education and training programme.

3. Module on integrating Technologies into the Teaching and Learning Environment

The purpose of this module was to take decision-maker/s through a set of questions, which would help them to understand the implications of introducing certain technologies into a

teaching and learning environment. The answers to the questions posed in this module would lead to a refined understanding of the teaching and learning environment when certain technologies are used to enhance it.

4. Costing Module

When deciding which technologies to use to enhance education and training, it is essential to understand the financial implications of introducing a particular technology to a teaching and learning environment. For maximum benefit, it would be ideal to run comparative costing processes on different combinations of technologies. Together, these processes would make it possible to determine, with a fair degree of insight, the cost benefits of investment in the selected technologies.

People choosing which technologies to use to enhance education and training are likely to do so in one of two basic circumstances:

While planning a new educational programme or course.

While planning to modify and enhance an existing educational programme or course. In this case planning might take place either specifically to introduce technologies to enhance the programme/course or might form part of a broader formative evaluation of the effectiveness of the programme/course.

The tool described above was developed with these different circumstances in mind, and suggests different pathways through it, depending on the needs of the decision-makers that use it.



Key policy implementation

agencies include the CETDE and

SchoolNet SA, both of which evolved within the policy

framework of TELI. The former oversees

national policy on educational

technologies, while the latter focuses on

school connectivity and building the

necessary capacity to support sustainable

educational use of ICTs.

4.5.2 The Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education (CETDE)

One of the first concrete outcomes of the TELI reports was the establishment of the Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education (CETDE) in early 1997. The CETDE was set up as a subdirectorate of the national Department of Education. Its mandate is to "promote Open and Lifelong Learning through the use of media, educational technology, libraries and distance education"."' The centre sets out policy guidelines for the educational sector, supports the use of technology through research, coordinates initiatives and organises partnerships between government and the private sector.

Also of relevance is the TELI implementation plan and list of proposed projects. The plan outlines 19 related projects, of which six were identified as lead projects:

Audit of information and communication technologies in South African schools. The University of Western Cape, Education Policy Unit has produced a report on ICT use in schools."'

Multi-Purpose Community Centres. The centre has carried out research and produced a report on the role of technologies in supporting the development and provision of education and training through multi-purpose community learning centres.15

Technical Standards and Protocols. A Departmental Committee developed technical standards and protocols for educational technologies. These were placed on the website of the Department of Education as a reference guide for practitioners in the country."'

Clearing House of Information. A tender for the design and development of a website of information relating to technology- enhanced learning initiatives in South Africa was awarded recently. A printed version of aspects of the information available on the website will be available, and distributed quarterly as part of The Teacher, a mass, teacher-focused newspaper.

Coordination of Library Services. Responsibility has been allocated for this function, which includes investigating the future of library services and norms and standards for school libraries.

Educational Broadcasting - the CETDE has worked with the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) to produce comprehensive reports relating to a school-based educational broadcasting service for South Africa and educational broadcasting interventions in the field of adult education and youth development.

education.pwv.gov.zalteli2ldefault.htm (accessed 15 April 2001). University of the Western Cape Education Policy Unit (South Africa). 2000. Audit of information and communication technologies in South African schools. education. pwv. go v. zalteli2lresearchlde fa ult. htm

15 education.pwv.gov.zalteli2lpolicydocumentsldefault.htm. 16Department of Education. Technical Standards and Protocols.

education. pwv. go v.zalteli2lpolicydocumentslstd-protocollDefaul t. h tml



The CETDE has also developed a framework of quality standards for distance education. It is important because it contains several value statements that can effectively be used to measure the quality of a

technology-enhanced learning project. These standards were, of course, designed with distance education programmes and systems in mind, but as the boundaries between face-to-face and distance education blur rapidly, it is becoming clear that many of them can be applied to any educational programme or system. While all the standards set out in the framework have potential relevance, those possibly most directly useful are the standards covering course design and course materials.

Specifically, the framework endorses the broad TELI approach in the following standards:

The choice of media and type of technology is integrated into the curriculum design, and is justified in the light of the aims of the course, the required learning outcomes and learner needs and contexts."'

Learners are supported to a considerable extent by the provision of a range of opportunities for real two-way communication through the use of various forms of technology for tutoring at a

distance, contact tutoring, assignment tutoring, mentoring where appropriate, counselling (both remote and face-to-face), and the stimulation of peer support structures. The need of learners for physical facilities and study resources and participation in decision- making is also taken into account.i'

As education is a provincial matter,"' the CETDE does not have direct responsibility over implementation of initiatives at school level. However, it has been instrumental in many initiatives at the national level, which have indirect effects on the use of ICTs in education. For example, the CETDE, together with the IDRC, played an important part in founding the national SchoolNet SA initiative, set up in November 1997.120 It has also now established an ICT Forum (discussed below) to coordinate the work of public and private-sector organisations interested in supporting the use of ICTs in education.

Department of Education (1996), A Distance Education Quality Standards Framework for South Africa, Discussion Document prepared by the Directorate: Distance Education, Media and Technological Services, Department of Education, Pretoria, p. 61.

18 ibid., p. 63. 19 In South Africa, the apartheid education system divided education across racial lines, and

also promoted the creation of "independent" homeland education systems, which resulted in the creation of 11 separate education departments. One of the first challenges of the post-apartheid government was to merge these disparate units, and create a single system. In achieving this goal, a decision was taken to split management functions between a single national department and nine provincial departments. Thus, systems such as higher and teacher education are currently managed at a national level, while adult basic education and training, further education and training, and schooling are managed by the provincial departments.

12G www.school.za



4.5.3 SchoolNet SA

SchoolNet SA had its forerunners in a few local NGOs and ad hoc groups founded by teachers with the aim of providing computers and Internet to schools. However, most suffered from lack of funding and infrastructural support. To secure and extend their work, a national umbrella organisation was established with support from the IDRC.

During 1997, the IDRC brought together possible partners and started negotiations between these local NGOs and government.

It was decided that the CETDE would coordinate the initiative and SchoolNet SA be set up as an independent entity. SchoolNet SA's

mandate stipulates that the organisation should stimulate ICTs in education and the support of educational systems in four main areas:

Through its ability to facilitate public-

private partnerships, SchoolNet has been

able to undertake school networking

projects on a larger scale. It has also

turned its attention to the important

task of building the capacity of teachers

in schools to use computers

effectively to support their

classroom practice.

Connectivity and technology;

The development of human resources;

Online content and material in function of the curriculum; and

Marketing and promotion.

SchoolNet SA is unique in the South African context as the organisation is managed by an Executive Council, comprising representatives from NGOs, the CETDE, the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, the Department of Communications, and the Department of Trade and Industry. Initially, SchoolNet funding largely originated from donors and international organisations. By 2001, however, much of the funding originated from the private sector, either in terms of direct funding or through delivered services and infrastructure. Through its operations, the organisation has shown that partnerships between the public and private sector can wield considerable benefits.

SchoolNet is currently driving several projects to roll out ICT

infrastructure in South African schools, most notably the Thintana i-Learn Project and the Telkom Supercentres Project, which between them are providing computer laboratories to 300 schools. In addition, it has set up an organisation called NetDay to provide affordable network solutions to schools. NetDay aims to "offer low cost network solutions, with at least 5 computers, internet, e- mail and training, for less cost than 2 new computers"."' SchoolNet also works alongside international projects such as

Worl-D and Thinkquest (a global website development competition run for school children), 722 as well as organising regular conferences and workshops on related issues.

121 ibid. 122 The website for Thinkquest can be located at: www.thinkquest.org.za/indexl.htm



4.5.4 South African Broadcasting Policy relating to Education

The South African broadcasting arena was active even before the democratic elections in 1994, with the promulgation of the 1993 Broadcasting Act. 113 However, a new broadcasting policy (and ensuing legislation) under the new regime was only developed in 1999, and included a number of educational aspects in the policy.

The Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA)

The IBA was established by Parliamentary Act 153 of 1993, which described its purpose as providing "for the regulation of broadcasting activities in the public interest","' and proposed the following objectives:

Promote the provision of a diverse range of sound and television broadcasting services on a national, regional and local level which, when viewed collectively, cater for all language and cultural groups and provide entertainment education and information;

Promote the development of public, private and community broadcasting services which are responsive to the needs of the public;

Ensure that, in the provision of public broadcasting services... the need for educational programmes... are duly taken into account.1 '

These provisions collectively stressed the responsibility of broadcasting to play a constructive educational role. This was developed further by the IBA in its Triple Enquiry Report of 1995, which states that:

The planning process would need to plan simultaneously for the production and dissemination of educational programming, the equipping of schools and community centres and the development of ongoing user support systems. 126

It also stressed the importance of local relevance and appropriateness, a mixed-media approach, responsiveness to the challenges posed by new technologies, needs-driven planning, a

balance between quality and quantity, and developing appropriate schedules for educational programming as conditions for the success of educational broadcasting.

A full discussion of broadcasting policy processes, and its regulation, is included in Chapter 3.

4 Parliament of South Africa (1993). Independent Broadcasting Authority Act 153 of 1993, Cape Town. wn.apc.orgliba//egis.htm

,zs Parliament of South Africa. op. cit. ,ze Independent Broadcasting Authority. (1995). Triple Enquiry Report. Johannesburg:

IBA. p. 16.

Significant attention has been devoted to establishing new policy frameworks for broadcasting in South Africa. These have included establishing significant responsibility for the public broadcaster - in both television and radio - to support education. This has created a

much stronger presence of educational radio on the 10 regional radio stations. It has also led to some of the world's most innovative television education programming.



White Paper on Broadcasting

South Africa's educational

broadcasting policy differentiates roles

for the public, private, and

community sectors. in particular, the

inclusion of community

broadcasting within the framework of

educational broadcasting has

significant potential to widen the reach

of educational radio (although

community radio stations do have to deal with ongoing

resource constraints).

The White Paper on Broadcasting contained many references to educational broadcasting. It referred back to the Green Paper, broadcasting requirements set out by the IBA, and various models for the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC). It devoted a chapter to "Broadcasting and Human Resource Development", in which two distinct areas of broadcasting in the human resource strategy of the country were outlined:

The use of broadcasting to support the provision of education and information to the South African population; and

The Human Resources Strategy to develop broadcasting practitioners and skills.-

The first is obviously most directly relevant to public educational broadcasting, as it relates to the use of broadcasting as a resource in support of both formal and informal education. In this context broadcasting is a tool for disseminating educational materials to learners in all corners of the country in a timely and cost- effective way. Broadcasting is used as a support structure in the provision of materials for human resources development, aiding the educators, teachers, trainers and learners wherever they may gather for educational purposes.1'

The White Paper articulates objectives for broadcasting in human resource development and roles for the public broadcasting sector, the commercial sector, and the community sector. In this, the role of the public broadcaster is articulated as follows:

The public broadcaster must shoulder the main responsibility to provide programming that is educative as well as curriculum and skills related through its Public Broadcasting Services. These services target a range of audiences that need and require different educational resources and can therefore go a long way towards developing a culture of life-long learning."'

In contrast to the public broadcaster's role, the White Paper separates the commercial sector's contribution into two components:

"Commercial educational services", which refers to the role of broadcasters in providing educational materials with the convergence of technologies; and

"Social contributions" which refers to educational contributions to priority areas as part of contributing to the Public Interest.13'

Department of Communications. (4 June 1998). White Paper on Broadcasting Policy, www.polity.org.zalgovedocslwhite-paperslbroadcastingwp.htmI

8 ibid. 9 ibid. 0 ibid.



The White Paper notes that the community sector "is ideally placed to deliver developmental and educational programmes at a

grassroots level".131 It goes on to state that:

The Government is of the view that education should be included as an integral object of the community sector. Educational institutions and developmental organisations should be encouraged to forge partnerships with the community sector for the provision of educational and developmental programmes.1'

Finally, the possibility of introducing a dedicated educational channel is mooted.

The White Paper alludes to a possible role for new technologies in educational broadcasting, saying:

Government is aware that broadcasting can play a meaningful role if it is integrated into a coherent system of educational delivery through multi-media approaches involving the Internet print and other non-broadcast media."'

It makes clear government's more specific priorities with regard to the use of new technologies, by articulating objectives for South African production:

Multi-media production for CD-ROM or Web sites in the mid- to long-term will be crucial. Priority for the immediate term will be on production of conventional radio and television materials that can be made available to a wide range of South Africans. Of course, such productions can be re-purposed for use in multi-media. "°

School-based Educational Broadcasting

In April 1998, SABC Education and the national Department of Education commissioned a strategic planning exercise, which culminated in a report entitled A School-Based Educational Broadcasting Service for South Africa - Strategic Plan Developed for the South African Broadcasting Corporation. The aim was to prepare for the phased implementation of a school-based educational broadcasting service that supports teaching, learning, and whole school development. The report describes a strategic plan that will ensure educational relevance and financial sustainability.

In developing an understanding of the nature of the service, the point of departure was that the research would support implementation of a school-based service. This is important because it implies that broadcasting will occur during school hours, and will be used by learners and teachers at schools. The process developed a clear in-principle understanding of the implications of

ibid. az ibid.

133 ibid. "' ibid.



establishing such a service. In doing this, it located a school-based service within a broader broadcasting service supporting schooling through a wide range of broadcasting interventions.

The in-principle approach required an exploration of the relationship between education and broadcasting. This closed off unnecessary debate about whether or not there was any educational role for television or radio. In South Africa, this has already been resolved in the affirmative. This changed the focus of the planning significantly, because it recognised that the public broadcaster had an educational mandate that it had to fulfil. The plans were therefore informed by broadcasting prerogatives, not just educational ones.

Linked to this was the fact that other role players and policy makers have - during earlier planning processes - prioritised school education as a focus for SABC Education. Consequently, these plans focused on roles that a broadcasting service could most usefully play in supporting school education, in terms of:

curriculum support;

professional development of teachers; and

governance, management, and administration of schools.

The school-based educational broadcasting service was launched early in 1999. There are several conceptual and logistical challenges associated with this. Therefore, the focus was limited to Foundation Phase education.1'

A Perspective on Educational Broadcasting in South Africa

As the above analysis reflects, the policy environment for broadcasting is possibly the most developed of all educational technology environments in South Africa. There are two primary reasons for this:

Broadcasting is always regarded as a key power structure in any society, and hence the public broadcaster constituted a critical focus of policy contestation in the years leading up to and immediately after South Africa's first democratic election. This led to well-defined policy positions, which extended to the public broadcaster's role in education; and

Broadcasting is a mature technology, effective educational applications for which have evolved over the past 25 years. It is

therefore simpler to establish clear policy frameworks around educational broadcasting than around other ICTs. Interestingly, the educational broadcasting environment has led to some of the

"' Foundation Phase education refers to the first three years of schooling.



world's most innovative educational television broadcasting, as the continued popular success and international recognition of series such as Soul City (a soap opera centred on health issues) and Yizo Yizo (a drama series focusing on problems in schooling) illustrate.

4.5.5 The Vision of a National Educational Network16

The most recent development in South African educational technology policy has been the establishment of a vision to develop a national education network. This vision emerged from earlier attempts at exploring the viability of establishing a

dedicated educational broadcasting service, and a report was jointly produced by the national Departments of Education and Communications.

Essentially, the vision proposes that government establish an educational technology network, which incorporates four core functions:

Content acquisition and dissemination

Communication

Administration and management

Network rollout and maintenance.

The report notes that, notwithstanding clear trends of convergence in functionality of ICTs and broadcasting technologies, a vibrant and distinct terrestrial broadcasting sector will remain in South African communications for the foreseeable future. It proposes that the SABC television and radio services continue to "nest" a

range of educational and educative programming within existing channels and stations, expanding and augmenting these services as

funding becomes available. Thus, while there is a growing focus on supporting structured education, in areas such as schooling and adult education, there is also some informal educative programming on both radio and television that harnesses many of the greatest potential strengths of educational broadcasting.

The vision also proposes that educational broadcasting investments, as summarised above, be augmented by judicious investments in open and flexible computer networks that will link a wide range of teaching and learning sites in South Africa. It envisages the system harnessing the potential of a range of satellite, telecommunications, and information technologies to provide various forms of support to different elements of the education and training system. These will include many functions, ranging from resource delivery to communication and administrative services.

The vision is based on a belief that a key strength of harnessing converging technologies is that it allows for slower growth in the

,se This section is drawn from the Executive Summary of: Departments of Communications and Education. 1999. The Feasibility of Establishing a Dedicated Educational Broadcasting Service in South Africa. Unpublished paper. pp. xiii-xiv.

Early policy considerations of the potential for establishing a

dedicated educational broadcasting channel soon gave way to a broader review of how best to harness technological convergence.

The result was a

comprehensive vision for establishing a

national education network. This vision now sits at the heart of large provincial policy implementation projects such as

Khanya and GautengOnline.Com.



The South African vision of a dedicated educational network seeks to map out the

full range of applications for ICTs

in supporting education (across all sectors). It proposes

innovative strategies for providing

connectivity to sites of teaching and

learning, and targets the key challenges

of infrastructure and human capacity. It

also engages directly with the financial

challenges of implementing such a

vision.

use of resources. Such resource delivery mechanisms generally grow too quickly, off a low base, making it unaffordable to maintain the infrastructure until it can achieve economies of scale through mass use. However, the vision of an educational network proposes offsetting the costs of rolling out this infrastructure by applying such technologies in a range of innovative ways, thus allowing evolutionary growth in the use of the system for resource delivery and other similar educational functions to take place over five or six years.

The concept of an educational technology network implies a

need to roll out technological infrastructure on a large scale. In this regard, the report proposes judicious investments in networking teaching and learning sites (including schools, adult learning centres, health clinics, multipurpose community centres, and a

range of other potential sites) around cluster hubs. Via a wide area network, these hubs would provide access to network servers for the teaching and learning sites connected to them. They would provide connected teaching and learning sites with the full functionality of a distributed computer network, including access to web sites, e-mail facilities, and centrally stored database systems.

The report anticipates that this distribution network will be connected nationally via a combination of satellite bandwidth, telephone lines, and wireless technologies. Each network server will be equipped with the hardware capability to serve its teaching and learning sites as if they were thin13' clients. This will provide individual teaching and learning sites with maximum flexibility in terms of deciding what equipment they wish to use to connect to the network. This flexibility will be facilitated by ensuring that everything sent via satellite to the cluster hub is developed using Internet protocols. All individual sites can thus engage using web browsers.

The network model proposed above has various key strengths in addition to those already mentioned. These are:

Multiple applications. Such a technological network has a wide range of applications, both in terms of the functions it can support and in terms of the different education and training sectors that might harness its potential.

Technological flexibility. The technological model proposed is

based strongly on flexibility and open standards. This means that investments already made can be incorporated into the network as

it grows. Thus, the model does not constitute a "new" investment in traditional terms. In many ways, it will consolidate and build on investments already made and infrastructure in place. In addition, this technological flexibility will accommodate a range of

A thin client network is a computer network where the hardware of individual workstations is minimised to reduce costs. Users access information directly from the server, with the local workstation simply providing a keyboard, mouse, and monitor to allow the user to work. Unlike fat client networks, software programmes and data are not permanently stored on local workstations, but are accessed directly from the server as required.



directions within different aspects of the education and training system, thus not forcing people to accept any particular constraints in deciding to connect their teaching and learning sites to the broader distribution network.

Linking to existing initiatives. The proposed technological model will link a range of existing initiatives rather than constituting a

single new one.

Enhancing productivity. A central strength of the proposed model is its capacity to enhance productivity in basic ways. Simple illustrations of this are providing computerised tools to help administrators compile school timetables and using e-mail networks to provide cheap, quick policy and administrative communication.

The vision developed at national level by the Departments of Education and Communications is clearly ambitious, and will take some years to achieve. Nevertheless, it represents continuity in the policy approach of South African government, which has favoured the creation of broad national visions and frameworks (the latter being most recently reflected in the Value Chain released by the national Department of Education, which outlines conditions/phases for successful integration of ICTs into educational environments).

Further, several projects now being launched in South Africa, either at provincial level or through involvement of private sector partners, operate within this broad vision and framework, suggesting that there has been some success in adopting this strategy. Many of these represent sizeable investments. SchoolNet SA, for example, is currently managing projects that will lead to the installation of networked computer laboratories in over 300 schools. GautengOnline.Com, a provincial project of the Gauteng Department of Education, constitutes a R500 million provincial investment in ICT between 2001 and 2003, while similarly ambitious plans are evident in the Khanya Project of the Western Cape Department of Education.



The South African Department of Education's Value Chain"'

1. Preparing people to understand the investment in technology All managers, educators and other key people in the education and training system need to understand the role and value of information and communication technology (ICT). Such an understanding needs to include its educational, management and administrative use, as well as issues of cost and sustainability. This element illustrates the need for an advocacy campaign that shows the value and benefit to various sectors of the education and training system of using ICT.

2. Training educators to use technology to enhance teaching and learning This element requires the educators to understand the application of ICT within the education and training system. This requires an understanding of the technology, its application to various learning areas and the ability to manage information and knowledge.

3. Getting institutions ready to accept technology The institution needs to display a commitment to wanting and using ICT within the education and training system. Such a commitment includes the institution establishing its basic infrastructure (phone lines, electricity), safe and secure environment, insurance, etc. The institution's plan would also need to include issues of budget and sustainability of the investment and the use of ICT within the institution and community. This plan also needs to be constantly updated to stay abreast of developments and constraints within and around the institution's community.

4. Procurement and installation of technology for implementation Procuring ICT (new or refurbished) requires various strategies and would need to note the standard infrastructure required (both hardware and software), as well as contracts and guarantees. This element also includes the installation of the equipment as well as the establishment of an educational network designed to facilitate access to relevant educational information.

5. Development and management of appropriate content The value of using ICT in the education and training system is best realised when appropriate content is developed and used to enhance and support the system. This process is vital to educators and managers to enable immediate value when using ICT.

6. Continuous evaluation and research Constant research and evaluation on the use of ICT and ways of improving its use are vital in the context of a dynamic and changing ICT and education environment. This will enable the education sector to make changes that require improving the use of ICT in education.

7. Curriculum integration Technology on its own has limited uses in the education and training system. Its intrinsic value lies in the integration of technology to support learning and teaching in various learning areas and subjects as well as to integrate learning areas within the curriculum.

8. Ongoing technical support The use of ICT within the education and training system requires different levels of technical support. The first line of such support would need to be based within the school. This requires the training of educators to undertake the first level of technical support. Further technical support via help facilities, contracts with local technicians and companies, is also necessary.

9. Ongoing curriculum support The ongoing support of educators is crucial to a quality education and training system. Such

support would also need to focus on the use of ICT to support and enhance learning. All support mechanisms would require information and training on the integrated use of ICT

within the curriculum.

,as education.pwv.gov.zalteli2lValue ChainlDefault.htm



4.5.6 The ICT Forum

All the above processes have now led to the establishment of a

national ICT Forum, which was jointly launched by the Departments of Education and Communications early in 2001 as a

first step towards achieving the vision described above. This Forum is intended to bring together private and public-sector players to help implement the vision of a dedicated national education network. The Forum met for the first time in February 2001, to solicit active support from the private sector in rolling out ICTs

throughout the country's education system. It intends to develop a comprehensive plan of action by September 2001.

4.6 Emerging Lessons

As the above examples illustrate, there is significant variance in national approaches to the use of ICTs in education within Southern Africa, ranging from no engagement with the challenges through to elaborate, detailed visions and plans. There are, however, some common lessons emerging from this work and particularly from the extensive work undertaken in South Africa, which warrant further exploration.

4.6.1 Uncharted Territory

Despite the optimistic rhetoric of technology vendors, the long- term impact of ICTs on education systems is still largely a matter of conjecture, and will only really start to become clear over the next 10 to 15 years. This makes it particularly difficult to establish frameworks to regulate or direct the systems into which they are being integrated. Nevertheless, certain trends in ICT use are emerging:

ICT networks are allowing for exponential increases in the transfer of data through increasingly globalised communication systems;

ICT networks have significantly increased the potential for organisations to expand their spheres of operation and influence beyond their traditional geographical or sectoral boundaries;

It is expanding the range of options available to education planners in terms of teaching and learning strategies, providing an often- bewildering array of choices in terms of systems design options, teaching and learning combinations, and strategies for administering and managing education; and

It is lowering barriers to entry of potential competitors to public education institutions, by reducing the constraints of geographical distance, and the overhead and logistical requirements of running education programmes and research agencies, and by expanding cheap access to information resources. Where economies are weak, this runs the risk of undermining the public sector without leaving viable alternative forms of educational delivery.

There is no single approach to policy that provides a

"one-size-fits-all" solution to the challenges of integrating ICTs

effectively into education systems. Southern African countries are experimenting with a variety of approaches as they navigate this still largely uncharted territory.

Key to success in this endeavour will be to support well- planned exploration and develop a

system where lessons learned from such exploration are systematically integrated into new projects. Simple, flexible policies are a

critical component of this work.



The TELI decision- making framework

has the flexibility to accommodate

rapidly changing requirements

in implementation strategies. It

establishes policy around a process

allowing effective technology choices

to be made.

Policy frameworks become problematic

when they make undue demands of

the systems for which they have been developed.

These demands can be created by:

Attempting to solve all problems

simultaneousy instead of

prioritising the most important;

Assuming that all problems require

some form of policy to be solved;

Creating complexity by

proliferating the number of policies

developed to govern a system;

Assuming that regulation is the

only reliable policy strategy for

improving quality of educational

provision.

Given the tentative nature of these trends and still largely uncharted territory of the integration of ICTs into educational systems, it becomes clear that the only way to learn how to manage integration is to support well-planned exploration and develop a system where lessons learned from such exploration are systematically integrated into new projects. To achieve this, simple, flexible policy is critical.

An example of this emerged from policy processes in South Africa, where policy debate between 1996 and 1999 returned regularly to the notion of establishing a dedicated analogue- broadcasting channel to support education. With the benefit of hindsight (as well as the lessons of similar projects in countries such as C'ote D'Ivoire), it is clear that establishing this as a policy direction would not only have had dubious educational value, it has also been overtaken by technological developments. These technological developments have emerged far faster than can the processes of establishing new policy.

Likewise, new lessons about the strengths and weaknesses of using ICTs for different educational applications are being learned globally all the time. Policies cannot be changed to absorb these lessons, but can be designed in such a way that implementation strategies can be changed. The TELI decision-making framework is

a good example of a framework that has been designed to allow this type of flexibility, because it establishes policy around a

process of making effective technology choices, rather than embedding those choices in the policy itself.

4.6.2 Regulatory Frameworks and Complexity

Emerging specifically from South African policy developments are illustrations of the problem of overregulating the implementation of education, a problem accentuated by growth and development of ICTs. Despite significant achievements in creating a new policy environment, South Africa's intensive attention to educational policy has not necessarily all had its desired effect. The country's education policy processes have been the location of some of the most creative ideas internationally, ideas that have been drawn from extensive research and from detailed discussion and debate involving a wide range of interests. Unfortunately, though, the relatively rapid aggregation of too many ideas has created a policy environment that is weighing down effective, large-scale delivery of high-quality education, because it has become far too complicated for the size of the South African education system. It has also created unrealistic demands in terms of speed of delivery. Other countries would do well to learn from these experiences.

Various features of the South African education landscape have exacerbated this problem, and continue to do so in higher education, as much as any other sector. Below we describe some of the most relevant.



Attempting to Solve All Problems Simultaneously

Developing countries share at least one common problem; there are more urgent social problems to solve than there are time and resources to solve them. Faced with so many urgent problems, it becomes very difficult - some would argue almost impossible - to establish priorities, as focusing on one over another often involves taking decisions that may be construed as ignoring fundamental human rights or even - at its most extreme - leading to loss of life (through poverty, disease, unemployment, and other core social problems). This makes it increasingly tempting to want to solve all problems together, as prioritisation simply forces decisions that are too difficult to take.

Education policy reflects this dilemma. In a very short space of time, South Africans have sought to develop policy solutions to almost every conceivable educational problem. Unfortunately the resources simply do not exist to solve all these problems, with the result that a scarce resource base has been stretched over an impossibly diverse range of implementation processes.

This has at least four consequences:

1. It leaves education practitioners feeling increasingly concerned about the scale of educational problems and increasingly powerless to solve any of these problems. This occurs because education policy raises awareness about specific problems, and also places responsibility on these practitioners for implementing policy. Thus, policy commitments are not only commitments on the part of government, but also set the direction for all members of the system for which the policy is

intended. As a result, even those fully committed to educational change and provision of high-quality education lose focus and the will to continue the good work they are doing.

2. It diffuses resources - human and financial - across many problem-solving exercises, with the result that very few problems are actually solved in a sustainable way. Because people are working in crisis mode to solve so many problems in education and implement so many new systems, success is very rarely achieved. Not only does this lead to loss of productivity, as these efforts and activities are spread so wide that they seldom lead to results, it also fosters disillusionment among those who perceive no progress in educational delivery.

3. It erodes opportunities for professional development. A feature of the South African education sector is that a small number of skilled people are responsible for the bulk of work in that sector, and most are working unusually long hours to deal with their workload. This workload proliferates as policy seeks to tackle more and more educational problems. As policy proliferates, the opportunities available for these skilled people to support the



The formulation (and

implementation) of educational

technology policy requires an

integrated approach so that various levels

of education and training are

considered together.

professional development of others - which, remains the only way to build the capacity of other people and the country as a

whole - are eroded. This is a dangerous self-reinforcing cycle, as well as a major threat to meaningful affirmative action aimed at redressing racial inequities in the country.

4. Strategies to harness ICTs effectively are generally moved to the bottom of priority lists by default. This is not because decision-maker/s do not appreciate the importance of such strategies, but rather because, in the face of so many pressing short-term problems, it becomes difficult to find time and mental space to engage with the complexities surrounding effective integration of ICTs into national education systems. This is at least one key reason why so many ICT-related projects focus almost exclusively on the somewhat easier, but on its own, futile task of purchasing and installing ICT infrastructure.

Policy as the Response to Educational Problems

Many policy instruments are developed with only the problem they seek to solve in mind, with the inherent danger that they might create tensions with existing policy positions. This has become a particular issue in the area of schooling in South Africa, which is now split across two policy implementation areas, General Education and Training (GET) and Further Education and Training (FET). This has resulted in confusion about the relative status of different policy pronouncements pertaining to these different areas and how these pronouncements affect a sector undergoing rapid transformation.



Solving the Policy Proliferation Cycle

In summary, South Africa's policy implementation environment is

caught in a self-reinforcing cycle that looks something like this:

Growing diversity of educational problems

Opportunities for professional development decline in face of urgent pressure to respond to

current problems

Capacity of system to solve problems is eroded

T

Figure 5: A possible systemic cycle for policy development

It is important to stress that the above diagram is not intended to describe the only possible systemic cycle for policy development - it simply outlines current cycles. Policy per se is not problematic, only when it contributes to the above self-reinforcing cycle. In South Africa, this type of cycle has emerged in large part not because the policy framework itself is problematic, but rather because the short timeframes for its implementation - set in acknowledgement of the urgency of the problems it seeks to resolve - have created impossible demands on the system and its human resources. Proliferation of policy and regulation, as well as of the structures established to implement them, pose serious risks to the capacity of education systems to administer themselves effectively and to cope with growing competition from different sources. It also undermines the potential for harnessing ICT applications effectively in support of these goals.

Resource base stretched more thinly across policy

implementation environment, making individual problems

harder to solve

Policy responses to individual educational problems

developed in attempt to solve them

Policy environment grows in omplexity and sophistication,

new policy instruments and structures are added

New policy environment creates new demands on existing education

Creating institutional capacity to implement policies is a serious challenge. Where this has not been done, impossible demands have often been made on education systems and their human resources.



Too Many Regulations

The simpler policy and regulatory

frameworks are better both in terms

of flexibility and quality assurance.

Flexibility is becoming increasingly important as education systems are expected to serve an ever-growing diversity of needs and target groups of learners. It is also fundamental to harnessing ICTs

to support education systems effectively, as integrating ICTs into systems inevitably creates ongoing pressures for change to the structures of those systems. The more complex policies and procedures become, the less flexibility they allow in the operations of people and organisations governed by those policies and procedures. There is also a serious risk that, by creating regulatory frameworks that are too complicated to be administered effectively, one opens the door to serious subversion of the system, as the rapid growth in unscrupulous, "here-today, gone- tomorrow" education institutions throughout Southern Africa has demonstrated. Simpler policy and regulatory frameworks are better both in terms of flexibility and quality assurance.

4.6.3 Macro and Micro-level Models

Although ICTs are being used successfully by individuals and in projects right across the education spectrum, there can be little doubt that the major impact of ICTs educationally will be at the systemic level. The reasons for this are twofold:

Investment in ICTs is now, for the first time, being mobilised - in South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia at least - in enough quantities for their systemic impact to be of serious consequence (and there is sufficient anecdotal evidence to suggest that this level of spending may well spread to other countries in the region); and

At the systemic level, efficiencies derived from using any particular technology have an impact that eclipses the use of technology in micro-contexts (for example, use of technology in support of a

specific course).

The justification for using ICTs is usually quite easy to establish at the individual or micro-level. With the right focus and skills, individuals can deploy technologies to increase their efficiency and productivity significantly. Small projects stand to benefit greatly from the intelligent integration of ICTs into project management, whether this be to improve communication, to generate project documentation more efficiently, or to harness the power of available software applications (desktop publishing, graphics packages, and so on). Likewise, it is possible to construct small- scale educational interventions that demonstrate the educational potential of ICTs.

However, there are associated problems when it comes to scaling up these projects. Most importantly, scaling up a system of any significance does not, by definition, improve the efficiency or



productivity of that system.13' Indeed, what works well at the micro- level can be disastrous at the systemic level, because it may require levels of complexity that a large system is unable to accommodate sustainably. More often than not, models of successful ICT use at the micro-level have evolved through dedicated, highly proficient individuals, and depend on these people's personal traits and commitment for ongoing success. Such models do not translate easily or at all to the systemic level. On the contrary, attempts to escalate such models of operation to the systemic level may have a

seriously destabilising effect on a large system. Linked to this is the concern about the financial impact of scaling

up successful small-scale educational practices. Certain distance education practices provide adequate evidence of this problem. The South African Institute for Distance Education has costed models of distance education developed for use at a very small scale (say, 30 to 250 learners), which are pedagogically very sound and sometimes even work successfully financially because participating individuals are willing to invest huge amounts of time and energy into their implementation. Taken to scale (thousands of learners), however, they would overload the systems in which they operate, as they would place impossible financial demands on those systems. In one example, a sustained loss of R40 million over 10 years was projected for a

planned distance education programme, because it tried to translate the logic of micro-level teaching to a very large programme.141

Further, it is much harder at the systemic level to justify the massive levels of investment that would be required in ICTs. In

addition, as we have noted above, at the micro-level it is usually quite simple to control ICT use in a way that more than justifies investment. However, at the macro-level, project planners lose this control, often with serious unintended consequences. The implications of failure at the macro-level also significantly raise the stakes of integrating ICTs into systems. If the use of ICTs fails in a

single university course or at one school, the consequences are relatively easily contained. However, if inappropriate technology is

integrated into mission-critical systems (for example, deployment of a new, computerised student registration system), the implications of failure are much more serious.

Ongoing policy research, development, and implementation processes need to be aware of the significant differences between micro and macro-models of ICT use. By definition, national policies will be primarily interested in models of ICT use that are relevant at the macro-level, and care should therefore be taken to ensure that these models do not simply draw on successful models of ICT use developed under very specific circumstances at the micro-level.

9 Here, "efficiency" and "productivity" are used as shorthand to describe the two complementary gains that a technology must demonstrate before investment in it can be justified: either it must demonstrate potential to allow a system to produce what it was able to produce without the technology at lower cost (increased efficiency) and/or it must demonstrate potential to allow a system to produce more - or operate better - than it was able to produce (or operate) without the technology (increased productivity). Although this sounds like a crude generalisation, it is a fundamental rationale behind any technological investment, subversion of which will undermine the system's ability to function over time.

40 Reference not available as research was done as part of a confidential analysis of a higher education programme.

What works well at the micro-level can be disastrous at the systemic level, because it may require levels of complexity that a

large system is

unable to accommodate sustainably. National policies need to focus on macro-level strategies that will create conditions for successful, organic growth of micro-level activity.

Given the contextual realities of Southern Africa, this has to begin with:

Strategies to improve basic national infrastructure (roads, telecommunications) and to reduce the costs of using this infrastructure sustainably; Building the professional capacity of people and organisations throughout all levels of the system who will, in some way or another, take responsibility for use of ICTs in education; Ensuring financial accountability by integrating expenditure on ICTs

into sustainable budgets at national and institutional levels.



4.6.4 Technology-driven Educational Solutions do not Work

When technologies fail to deliver solutions to new educational challenges, a key reason for this is often that the technology to be used is identified before a clear understanding of the educational challenges and needs has been developed. Many decision-makers fall into the traps identified by South Africa's Technology-Enhanced Learning Investigation (TELI):

In most cases, decisions about what technology to use in the learning environment [are] made on the basis of the technological preference, rather than by determining which technology [is] most suitable for the learning objective."'

When decisions to use technologies in

education are driven by the technology

rather than educational need

and context, these decisions invariably

lead to failure in implementation.

Therefore, educational

principles and issues

have to form the foundation of

decisions about what technologies to use

and how.

The reasons for this unsystematic approach to making decisions are manifold; well-planned and executed marketing strategies can easily create unrealistic expectations about new inventions. This can lead to political pressure to make investments in such technologies, either at government or institutional level, as decision-maker/s understandably wish to demonstrate their willingness and ability to stay in touch with the latest trends. Such pressure can be exacerbated when the technology has its own "missionaries", people whose love of the invention and its capacity to perform certain functions generates tremendous enthusiasm and a well- intentioned desire to demonstrate the technology's capacity to solve educational problems. This energy, together with the novelty value of recent inventions, can be very persuasive, especially in Southern Africa, where the pressure to respond to educational challenges very quickly and in a highly visible way is so great. Unfortunately, the desire to find quick answers often leads to short cuts in planning - for example, cutting out rigorous and systematic processes of clearly identifying educational needs before making decisions - sometimes with disastrous, and very costly, consequences.

The following pointers are therefore worth taking into consideration:

Educational principles and issues have to form the foundation of decisions about what technologies to use and how.

Before making any contractual commitment, test the viability of using the particular technology or technologies for the intended educational purposes by exploring their potential in a chosen area with the best available educators.

Never take marketing jargon at face value.

Do not get locked into contractual arrangements that force commitment to a particular technological solution for an extended period.

Ensure that the choice of technology does not lead to imbalances in fixed and variable costs.

Ensure that technological resources are affordable and cost-effective.

'"' Department of Education (1996). Technology-Enhanced Learning in South Africa: A Discussion Document. Pretoria, Government Printer. p. 39.



Regardless of technological choice (often influenced by intersecting educational, financial, social, political, and economic interests), ensure that sufficient time for planning, designing, and developing an effective educational programme is scheduled.

Ensure that projects (even pilots) are not driven by the technology supplier.

4.6.5 Technologies as a Catalyst for Transformation or as a Mechanism for Maintaining the Status Quo

Educational discussions about the potential role of ICTs have an undeniable ability to generate tremendous interest, enthusiasm, and excitement. If harnessed effectively, there is a distinct possibility that this might be a very powerful catalyst for transforming dominant education practices. This task is sometimes made easier because the development and use of ICTs have contributed strongly to eroding myths of the teacher as the source of all knowledge. Unfortunately, though, most uses of ICTs still tend to enhance the role of the traditional teacher, using new gimmicks as "high-tech chalk". The assumption seems to be that the "talk and chalk" approach is still the most effective way of organising educational opportunities and that a key function of technologies should be either to enable teachers to do this better or to make his or her lecture available to more students at one time.

Using this as a starting point, there seems also to be an assumption that the use of ICTs is a valuable exercise in itself. In many examples we have examined, there is little questioning of the content being provided using these technologies and of how they could most constructively be used to enhance this provision educationally. There is often very little rigorous effort to match choice of technologies to learning outcomes and processes of courses and programmes. There also seems, in many cases, to be a

lack of sophistication in mixing media and technologies to achieve learning objectives.

This points to the importance of ensuring that projects integrating the use of ICTs into education should seek to create learning environments wherein exploration of educational roles for the technologies available can function as a catalyst for effective educational transformation and for building high-quality education. It is also necessary - particularly given the scale of particular educational problems and backlogs in the region - to focus on developing teaching and learning models that can be taken to scale cost-effectively.

Finally, it has often been noted that development of new technologies can also entrench, or even widen, the gap between rich and poor, both between countries and within them. This trend is one of the most difficult with which Southern African countries have to grapple. In general, people and countries with large resource bases are much better placed to take advantage of the educational benefits arising from using ICTs in teaching and learning than are people and countries with few resources. This is not an easy problem

Any technology can be used to support an existing situation or to support transformation of that situation. In

Southern Africa, certain key processes of change are required that could be effectively supported by carefully considering educational ICT

policies.

They include:

Eroding the myth that the teacher is

the source of all knowledge; Ensuring that the introduction of technologies into educational environments is

not seen as an end in itself; Reducing disparities between rich and poor that are most easily perpetuated or expanded by introducing any new technology.



to solve, but clearly it cannot be solved by pretending that it does not exist. Rather, it is a problem that Southern African education systems have to work through in order to ensure that access to ICTs

is opened up to marginalised communities in innovative and cost- effective ways. Above all, not tackling the problem head on is, as

much as anything else, likely to be an act of perpetuating economic, and educational, marginalisation.

4.7 Conclusion Although it is still relatively brief, the history of educational-ICT policy making in Southern Africa clearly illustrates that there is no single approach to policy that provides a "one-size-fits-all" solution to the challenges of integrating ICTs effectively into education systems. Southern African countries are experimenting with a

variety of approaches as they navigate this still largely uncharted territory. Progress and success across countries is varied, but certain lessons have emerged from work undertaken in the region to date. In particular, it is becoming clear that policy frameworks become problematic when they make undue demands of the systems for which they have been developed.

From this perspective, it appears that simple, flexible policies are critical to support effective integration of ICTs into education systems. This creates an environment that supports well-planned exploration, and develops a system where lessons learned from such exploration are systematically integrated into new projects. As important, an integrated approach to policy development is

critical, as it ensures that the policy environment does not become weighed down by complexity or contradictory approaches.

Equally, it is emerging that what works well at the micro-level can be disastrous at the systemic level, because it may require levels of complexity that a large system is unable to accommodate sustainably. National policies need to focus on macro-level strategies that will create conditions for successful, organic growth of micro-level activity.

Given the contextual realities of Southern Africa, this has to begin with:

strategies to improve basic national infrastructure (roads, telecommunications) and to reduce the costs of using this infrastructure sustainably;

building the professional capacity of people and organisations throughout all levels of the system who will, in some way or another, take responsibility for the use of ICTs in education;

ensuring financial accountability by integrating expenditure on ICTs into sustainable budgets at national and institutional levels.

Focusing on these basic building blocks in national policies is likely to create the conditions most necessary for successful integration of ICTs into education systems, and thus to ensure that the potential of these technologies is realised in the shortest possible time. Given the challenges facing the region's education systems, this endeavour becomes a matter of some urgency.


e-Commerce Policy

Policy Mechanisms for Stimulating e-Commerce

The rapid growth of e-Commerce worldwide, and the far slower adoption of e-Commerce on the African continent has led to several Pan-African initiatives to establish mechanisms for accelerating e-Commerce activities. Chapter 5 examines the status quo of e-Commerce policy activity in Southern Africa, with particular emphasis on South Africa. The chapter includes a section on enabling conditions for e-Commerce, e.g. technical, financial, logistical, infrastructural and human resource factors that will ensure success of e-Commerce ventures. The chapter includes an overview of e-Commerce policy and practice in Southern Africa, with a separate table outlining details of activities in SADC countries. An in-depth analysis of the South African e-Commerce policy process is presented, and lessons that can be drawn from these experiences have been included.

5.1 Background Electronic commerce-and more broadly e-business-has had a

major impact on the way business is conducted, particularly in developed countries. It has the potential to revolutionise international trade, touching virtually all aspects of economic and social life within countries. In Africa, however, basic commercial processes are underdeveloped and the expansion of trade and growth of commerce is limited by very specific problems that have to be addressed before e-Commerce can be successfully adopted and implemented. Corruption and lack of transparency are but two such problems (see Section 5.4 below for a list of enabling factors for e-Commerce).

In addition, lack of availability of low-cost bandwidth is the major constraint to real e-Commerce adoption in most of Africa, an issue that has implications far beyond e-Commerce and which has been touched on in other parts of this Handbook. The need for regional harmonisation of commerce (and e-Commerce) laws, and harmonisation of laws with major trading partners are further preconditions that have to be met if the real impact of e- Commerce is to be felt on the African continent.

"The ability of governments to influence the growth of electronic commerce is underlined by the fact that over 70% of the World Information Technology and Services Alliance (WITSA) members say public policy is critical to the growth of electronic commerce. "

ECA/IDRC Pan-African Initiative on e-Commerce, 2001

Many principles of commercial law have been rendered obsolete by, and in many instances pose barriers to electronic commerce. For example, difficulties arise when concepts such as "writing," "document" or "signature" are applied to information that is

communicated in digital format. Statutory, regulatory and licensing


e-Commerce Policy

Existing "model laws" and codes

should be adopted where applicable.

SADC countries should join a

uniform legislative initiative to avoid

divergent legal approaches,

establish basic rules of cross-border e-

trade and to facilitate legal and

technical interoperability.

Numerous jurisdictions have

adopted legislative measures to

facilitate e-Commerce and

have shaped their enabling instruments

on the UNCITRAL Model Law.

The United Nations Economic

Commission for Africa and the

Canadian International Development

Research Centre recently completed a

Pan-African study on e-Commerce.

requirements may also form a barrier against online transacting, and other barriers to electronic commerce may arise simply from a

lack of uniformity in policies, laws, standards and trade practices in different jurisdictions.

International efforts have attempted to identify the most important policy issues relating to e-Commerce and, worldwide, numerous initiatives and regulatory actions have been launched at national and regional levels. Decision-makers in the public and private sectors became aware of the need for greater consistency in these national and regional approaches. Against that background, the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) drafted the Model Law on Electronic Commerce in 1996.12 The Model Law aims to provide the basis for countries to develop their national polices with the aim of creating a more secure legal environment for electronic commerce. Numerous jurisdictions have adopted legislative measures to facilitate e-Commerce and have shaped their enabling instruments on the Model Law.

This chapter outlines some of the policy mechanisms and implementation strategies that have been adopted to address the impediments to and growth of e-Commerce in Southern Africa, and more specifically South Africa, and provides some perspectives on the various approaches. These policies should be seen as creating an enabling environment to allow countries to stimulate and develop niche markets in the global economy- e-Commerce policy should be seen only as a means to an end that lays the foundations for economic growth.

Despite the fact that all African countries voted for the UNCITRAL Model Law in the UN General Assembly in 1996, there are almost no follow-up initiatives in the SADC region, 143 and even fewer policy processes in place or underway. The perspectives in this chapter must be seen in the light of this limited knowledge base, and the fact that not enough time (and experience) has passed to reveal whether specific practices have helped or hindered e-Commerce initiatives.

The UN Economic Commission for Africa's (ECA) 1999 African Development Forum expressed the need for a better understanding of the support structures needed to stimulate e- Commerce in Africa, and particularly the role that governments can and should play in creating an enabling environment. In response to that need, Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), in collaboration with the ECA, commissioned and managed a study known as the Pan-African Initiative on Electronic Commerce. 144 The study took place during the latter part of 2000 and was completed in April 2001.

142 wwwuncitraLorg 143 Mauritius is a notable exception. 144 wwwcomesaec.org


e-Commerce Policy

The content of this chapter draws especially on the outcomes of that study, which covers 12 African countries, including Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa in the Southern African region. Desktop research was conducted for this Handbook on SADC countries not included in the Pan-African study, as well as

activities undertaken by regional bodies such as SADC and COMESA (the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa).

5.2 Definitions e-Commerce has evolved from the much narrower set of structured computer-based business activities known as Electronic Data Interchange (ED]), which preceded the emergence of the Internet and the World Wide Web. e-Commerce continues to broaden in scope, so definitions must be treated with caution. A broad definition of e-Commerce is:

'The conduct of commerce in goods and services, with the assistance of telecommunications and telecommunications-based tools. "745

A more detailed, and still broad, definition is:

"Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically. It is

based on the processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and video. It encompasses many diverse activities including electronic trading of goods and services, online delivery of digital content, electronic fund transfers, electronic share trading, electronic bills of lading, commercial auctions, collaborative design and engineering, online sourcing, public procurement direct consumer marketing, and after-sales service. It involves both products (e.g. consumer goods, specialised medical equipment) and services (e.g. information services, financial and legal services), traditional activities (e.g. healthcare, education) and new activities (e.g. virtual malls).""'

Implicit in the latter definition are interactions between three groups: the individual consumer (C), business organisations (13) and government (G). Important policy discussions follow from the distinct business transactions between those stakeholders, expressed by the well-known acronyms: 132C, 13213, G213, G2C, etc."' Importantly, definitions that include reference to e-government, or "on-line government," cater for the:

electronic provision of public information to interested parties;

internal application of ICTs in the processes of government;

government to business e-Commerce; and

electronic provision of government services to citizens.

145 www.anu.edu.aulpeoplelRoger.ClarkelECIECDefns.html "' European Commission (1997) 14' An emerging "marketspace" not encompassed by any of these is C2C, addressing ICT-based

communications between individual consumers, for instance via "classified ads" and auctions of personal possessions.

e-Commerce includes various types of business transactions between Consumers (C),

Business (B), and Government (G).


e-Commerce Policy

Countries have to define e-Commerce

according to their national priorities and/or legislative

requirements.

Clearly these aspects go well beyond commercial transactions. In the end, how a country defines the subject area and whether it terms it e-Commerce, e-business or e-government, depends on the intent of its national priorities and/or legislative requirements. For instance, South Africa's Department of Communications emphasises e-government in its definition of e-Commerce:

"The use of electronic networks to exchange information, products, services and payments for commercial and communication1' purposes between individuals (consumers) and businesses, between businesses themselves, within government or between the public and government, and last between business and government. 11149

This reflects the South African government's stated view that public procurement is a key vehicle for Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) and leads to a definition much broader than e-Commerce per se.15I

Necessary preconditions

for an e-Commerce policy process

include:

Substantial research and fact-finding

Affordable access

to tele-

communications Certainty and security in the

telecommunications sector

Empowerment of the ICT sector.

5.3 Preconditions for Establishing an e-Commerce Policy Process

Necessary preconditions for approaching an e-Commerce policy, especially in a monopolistic telecommunications environment, include the following:

Substantial research and fact-finding needs to be undertaken. Careful attention should be paid to international developments and their application for domestic law.

SADC countries are in the fortunate position of being able to benefit from the substantial work completed by other countries and international organisations, such as UNCITRAL;151 the OECD;" the Bank for International Settlements (BIS),153 The UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD);154 the World Customs Organization (WCO);155 the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);156 The UN Economic and Social Commission (UNESCO);"' the World Bank"' and the International Tele- communication Union (ITU),159 to name a few. As mentioned above, it is unnecessary to re-invent the wheel, yet crucial to critically garner relevant international developments for application in domestic law.

48 Where "communications" is understood to imply communication relating to commercial transactions.

09 South Africa's Green Paper on e-Commerce (November 2000), www.ecomm-debate.co.za. This also includes website references relevant to e-Commerce.

,so While the commentary in this chapter goes beyond the classic territory of e-Commerce, for convenience the term e-Commerce is used throughout. www. un.or.atluncitral/textslelectcom/ml-ec.htm www.oecd.org www.bis.org

9 www.unctad.org/ecommerce/ 155 www. wcoomd.orgl "' www.wipo.org 157 www.unesco.org/webwor/d/observatory/

8 www.worldbank.org 9 wwwitu.int


e-Commerce Policy

Universal and affordable access to information infrastructures is

the single, biggest growth factor for e-Commerce. Facilities-based competition will assist in driving down access and service costs. Low-cost technological alternatives for providing universal service, such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), should be used. Prices

charged by telecommunications operators for access to crucial services can be a major factor in determining the effectiveness and affordability of e-Commerce opportunities on the whole.

Ownership and control limitations should accord with technological and capital market trends and try to provide meaningful empowerment in the sector.

5.4 Key Factors Enabling e-Commerce Over the past few years, many studies have been conducted to determine the factors that will hinder or promote the development of an Information Society and the use of e- Commerce.160 For instance, the Pan-African e-Commerce Study and the ECA ADF 99 papers161 list several such factors, including:

Technical factors

Telecommunications infrastructure, which is in turn affected by population size and geographic distribution, and by available investment resources;"'

The nature of available telecommunications services, especially the availability of high bandwidths for rapid information transmission;

Costs of telecommunications-related services, which in part are related to the management and regulatory regime of the telecommunications system and in part through the choice of technologies used in the delivery of those services; and

Availability of computers equipped with a modem and appropriate software in the national economy and the trained capacity to use them.

Financial Factors

Lack of investment capital, which slows down the expansion of the ICT sector; and

Electronic Payment Systems. Access to online payment using credit cards or similar instruments, or at the very least, access to offline means of payments for online transactions (a key

160 An extensive list of references is included in Appendix 12

61 www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/pub.htm 62 This has been identified as one of the major challenges facing the African continent.

However, several regional initiatives are underway to accelerate telecommunications rollout, e.g. The African Connection and the ECA's NICI initiative, which is providing support to African countries to address infrastructural issues at national level. Detailed background information on the ECA and the NICI initiative can be found at www.bellanet.or/partners/aisi. This includes guidelines for the formulation of NICI policies, plans and strategies.


e-Commerce Policy

Several factors need to be considered in

promoting e-Commerce:

Technical Financial

Logistical Human

Policy and Structural.

All require cooperation and

integration between government, the

private sector and civil society.

component missing from the African e-business environment for 132C and C2C, although not for 13213).

Logistical Factors

Transport, Warehousing and Physical Distribution. Rapid delivery is one of the major characteristics of e-Commerce, with express couriers playing a key role in developed countries. Similarly, Africa needs fast, reliable, economical fulfilment logistics systems and transport networks capable of delivering physical goods in a timely fashion and cost-effectively on a regional and international basis;

Customs clearance procedures. Compounding the physical distribution problem are the long delays and complex customs clearance procedures that are a real bottleneck for the movement of goods in Africa. This is why more and more African countries are trying to computerise their clearance procedures; and

Company registration. The registration of companies is

generally a very slow process in African countries, and the development of simpler processes to achieve such registrations will facilitate trade.

Human Factors

Availability of trained people at all levels in the economy, and in government, which in turn is affected by the quality and quantity of the outputs of the educational system. This includes the free movement of skilled professionals across borders;

Lack of policy research capacity in e-Commerce, in the public, private and academic sectors; and

The existence of a "business culture" and a spirit of entrepreneurship within the national economy.

Policy and Structural Factors

The legal and policy environment established by government to facilitate commerce in general and e-Commerce in particular-both of which have direct effects on trust accorded to electronic transactions. In the African context, lack of government financial resources often severely limits implementation of policy and thus has a negative impact on e-Commerce; and

The establishment of integrative mechanisms between government departments, and between government, industry and citizens. e-Commerce touches on many Ministerial jurisdictions, so

the lack of established traditions of inter-Ministerial cooperation within government has a direct bearing on policymaking. It also affects attempts to introduce e-government within a national government.


e-Commerce Policy

To elaborate the latter point, relevant government ministries in Mozambique are known to include Industry and Commerce, Justice, Culture, Planning and Finance, Higher Education, Science and Technology, and Transport and Communication. In South Africa at least the following Departments and Agencies need to be involved:

Departments Agencies

Communications South African Revenue Services

Trade and Industry Reserve Bank of South Africa

Justice Independent Communications

Labour Authority of South Africa

Education (ICASA); and

Public Service & Administration State Information

Arts, Culture, Science and Technology Agency

Technology

A recently completed global e-readiness report16' has identified several prerequisites for creating an enabling environment for e-Commerce:

Visible government priority to develop an e-society on a national level;

Extent of demonstrated progress on e-government, including efforts to automate governmental processes;

Quality of partnerships between industry leaders and government to improve e-readiness; and

Level of effort to promote access for all citizens.

"The... often-conflicting views [of government and industry] make it clear that, unless government leaders are proactive in taking the initiative to establish a national information technology policy and strategy, private sector buy-in will be weak, and program development and implementation haphazard."

McConnell International/ WITSA, Global e-Readiness Report, August 2000

5.5 Why the Need for an e-Commerce Policy? Attempts to enable e-Commerce should begin with efforts to remove the constraints that African countries face in driving basic commerce. If these are not in place, an e-Commerce policy is

unlikely to achieve the required results-stimulating e-Commerce activity. Where e-Commerce policy interventions are undertaken, they do not necessarily need to take the form of legislation and not every facilitative aspect of e-Commerce needs to be addressed in one piece of legislation.

163 www.mcconnellinternational.comlereadiness/EReadinessReport.htm


e-Commerce Policy

Domestic policy should reflect international

standards and consensus on

e-Commerce. African countries need not re-invent the policy

wheel.

Omnibus legislation is not required.

Policy and legislation should only address

the removal of barriers to the

legally effective use

of e-Commerce and should only

supplement existing law where necessary.

Local and foreign investors considering e-Commerce solutions and development need to have confidence in the trade and legal environment for electronic commerce, including minimum standardisation and coordination with trading partners and foreign jurisdictions. As such, domestic policies need to be developed that reflect these developments globally and parallel the efforts of international and intergovernmental agencies that have invested considerable resources in harmonising individual country initiatives in this regard.

Policy to adopt and tailor international initiatives is required so that developing countries need not re-invent the wheel on how to facilitate an e-enabled environment and society. Efforts such as the UNCITRAL Model Law and the Organisation for Economic Develop- ment's (OECD) Guidelines for Consumer Protection in the Context of Electronic Commerce'14 reflect a high level of consensus on many of the issues. African countries could work with international standards already in place to facilitate further cross-border consensus on these issues and expand the potential for trade. Legislation, in accordance with a number of international jurisdictions, should be directed at removing barriers to the effective use of electronic communications, including e-Commerce by the public and private sector. However, certain matters, while crucial to facilitating an enabling environment for e-Commerce, should not be included in legislation aimed at removing barriers to e-Commerce. These include taxation, consumer affairs, communication infrastructure development, the privacy of communications and maxi- misation of benefits, universal service contributions and domestic obligations under the multilateral trading order, to name a few. As far as possible, legislation should only supplement where necessary the common law rules that already exist to govern transactions. The Canadian Uniform Electronic Commerce Act (consistent with the UNCITRAL Model Law)"' is instructive in this regard.

5.6 e-Commerce Practice and Policy in Africa 5.6.1 e-Commerce in Practice

Despite the many factors inhibiting the growth of e-Commerce in Africa, and minimal progress in appropriate legislation, commercial concerns in several African countries are actively pursuing e- Commerce ventures, albeit on a small scale. In several respects South Africa is unique in Africa as regards e-Commerce. Accordingly, it is dealt with in more detail in Section 5.7.

Two-rather imperfect-measures of e-Commerce activity are the extent of Internet and Web-based activity in a country. The following tables show a breakdown for SADC countries in terms of the number of Internet subscribers per country, and the international bandwidth used. The second table reflects the number of domains and websites registered in any particular country in Southern Africa.

64 www.uncitrat.org bs wwwparl.gc.cal36/1/parlbuslchambuslhouselbillslgovernmentlC-54/C-54_21C-54_cover-

E.html


e-Commerce Policy

Table 2. Overview of Internet Usage and International Bandwidth for Southern African Countries (Jensen, 2001)

Country Dialup Internet Subs

Number ISps

International Bandwidth

Total Number # Kbps

Total 892850 132 793634

South Africa 750000 75 750050

Total Excluding SA 142850 57 43634

Mauritius 35000 1 4096

Botswana 25000 6 14000

Zimbabwe 20000 8 5120

Tanzania 20000 14 4096

Namibia 15000 3 3072

Zambia 6500 3 3072

Mozambique 6000 5 2048

D.R. Congo 4500 5 2048

Angola 4000 4 192

Malawi 2400 2 1024

Seychelles 3000 2 4098

Swaziland 1200 2 256

The numbers of domains are those with the associated country code (ccTLD), e.g. Zimbabwe is zw. This tends to undercount domains in use in a given country, especially in Africa, where commercial sites often register as net or com. Nonetheless, the number of domains reflect a tiny proportion of worldwide domain counts.

Table 3. Number of Domains and Websites in SADC Countries'66

International Hubs

Number

Country Domains

Business

Websites

News & Media Tourism

South Africa 187649 117 41 352

Mauritius 3275 42 7 45

Namibia 3251 111 13 130

Zimbabwe 2918 270 437 63

Botswana 2356 60 8 21

Swaziland 981 5 9 23

Zambia 892 23 9 22

Tanzania 816 94 27 130

Mozambique 112 9 17 7

Lesotho 102 8 7 18

Congro DRC 83 3 7 13

Malawi 13 19 2 21

Seychelles 9 13 2 32

Anglola 8 17 18 7

116 Domains are from the January 2001 Network Domains tally, www.isc.org, Websites are from the Google country directory, www.directory.google.com/Top/Regional/Africa. www.yahoo.com also maintains country directories and there are significant discrepancies between the two. The table must be treated as a rough guide only.

Total

3002

160

567

1313

176

62

121

326

129

91

91

100

71

136


e-Commerce Policy

On the other hand, the website count is typically overstated, because the list frequently includes sites "about" a given country, such as international tourist operators, hotel chains, and information sites like Mbendi and NewsAfrica. A brief, subjective inspection of the websites suggests that almost all business and tourism-related sites are simply informative and do not enable e- Commerce transactions as such.

Assessments of e-Commerce potential in Africa, prepared for the ECA Post-ADF 99 summit due in 2001, suggest four target niche markets that African (and therefore SADC) countries could consider.^67

The overall rate of SADC e-business (excluding South

Africa) is very small and growing more

slowly than the worldwide rate.

Experience from the South African

e-Commerce situation can provide

valuable lessons for other African

countries.

Despite the lack of policy instruments,

e-Commerce is

thriving in South Africa.

Export-oriented online teleservices, e.g. call centres;

Business-to-business offline e-businesses, e.g. digitisation services, translation services;

Diaspora-oriented e-businesses, e.g. facilitating Diaspora communication with family at home; and

Government, Pan-African institutional, or regional e-procurement activity.

It is reported that some business-to-business offline e-businesses operate in Africa, but there is little if any activity in the other three niche markets.16' e-Procurement, at the government and corporate level, is a niche market that is most amenable to policy decision and also one which can have a major impact on the economic viability of many ancillary support services.

In the SADC region (excluding South Africa) the overall volume of e-business is very small and growing at a slower rate than world e-business.169 For several well-known reasons, South Africa's e- Commerce characteristics straddle the line between developed and developing countries. The Google country directory currently records about 3 000 South African websites (Yahoo lists over 7 000) and there is a growing incidence of on-line consumer purchasing over the Internet for products such as books, CDs, computer products, wines, flowers, etc.

The thriving e-business environment in South Africa is highly relevant to this Handbook for at least three reasons:

Other African countries and SADC members in particular can probably gain much more insight into their own e-Commerce development process from South Africa than from countries outside the continent;

See e-Commerce paper at www.un.org/Depts/eca/adf/Pforum.htm 68 Experience in other developing countries such as Senegal and Bangladesh has shown that

the market for teleservices could present major business opportunities. Senegal does legal transcriptions for France; Bangladesh is expecting to capture US$ 300 million per year for medical transcription services.

69 According to the World Bank the number of Internet hosts per capita increased 29% in Sub-Saharan Africa in 1997-99, compared to 87%in OECD countries.


e-Commerce Policy

South African entrepreneurs have developed and are refining monitoring and measuring tools for e-Commerce that should be very useful in other African countries; and

The South African e-Commerce environment is thriving despite the lack of policy instruments in place, and points to the reason already mentioned above, i.e. that the barriers relate more to basic commercial ones than the lack of an e-Commerce policy. Apparently many businesses are willing to accept the risks inherent in a legally uncertain e-Commerce environment, in favour of being early adopters.

5.6.2 Regional e-Commerce Policy Initiatives

Since late 1999, three initiatives have highlighted the need for Africa to address e-Commerce as a priority area:

In 1999 the ECA convened the African Development Forum (ADF '99) in Addis Ababa. The theme was "The Challenge to Africa of Globalisation and the Information Age". Several proposals emerged from the conference, one of which was e- Commerce in Africa;

Subsequently, papers were commissioned to tackle four priority themes:

ICT Policies and Strategies;

Electronic Commerce in Africa: "Opportunities for business and trade";

Youth and Learning: "Applications to support the educational process and meet the needs of Africa's youth"; and

Health and ICTs: "Applications in support of the delivery of health care."

These papers"' will be presented at a Post-ADF Forum Summit in the last quarter of 2001 in Morocco, attended by 20 African Heads of State. The Summit will provide African political leaders with the opportunity to assess the results and recommendations of ADF '99 and reach consensus on the most promising initiatives for follow- up at national, subregional and regional levels. It is expected that the Summit will provide high-level political support for information society projects on the African continent.

Perhaps the most tangible outcome of the ADF '99 e-Commerce theme is the major ECA/IDRC study already referenced in this Handbook, namely the Pan African Initiative on e-Commerce. The study set out to develop policy and strategy advice for African governments with regard to the steps necessary to stimulate an active and early African participation in e-Commerce. It comprised extensive data gathering and fieldwork in 12 African countries, including three in SADC.111

"' Available at www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/adf99ecommerce.htm "' Not yet publicly available, but will be made available through the ECA's website,

www.comesaec.org

The ECA has identified the areas of ICT Policies and Strategies, and e- Commerce as

priorities for attention at the 2001 Post-ADF Forum Summit.

The e-Commerce theme paper calls for a framework to promote and accelerate the growth of all aspects of e-Commerce in Africa.


e-Commerce Policy

The outcomes and recommendations from these initiatives have been consolidated and are summarised below:

Table 4: Outcomes and Recommendations of Regional Policy Initiatives

Objectives Proposed Actions

Ensure that Africa retains or possibly improves its share of the world trade in goods and services

Establish the required legal framework at national and subregional levels for the operational isation of e-Commerce

Create mechanisms to stimulate public/private partnerships

National e-Commerce Vision and Strategy African governments need to act on their responsibility for creating an economic, legal and regulatory environment that will enable and foster the growth of e-Commerce within their national economies. Each government should develop and publicise a specific agenda, accompanied by a proposed timetable, for the actions that it will undertake to create an enabling environment for e-Commerce within its national economy. African governments that do not today have equivalent national sources of advice on e-Commerce policy and practice should launch similar initiatives at the national level.

Finance high-level training courses for policy makers. Courses should deal with the legal, social, economic and technological aspects and implications of policies for the facilitation of e-Commerce. The courses should be designed for senior policy makers and delivered in modules that are practicable within the heavy schedules of most policy makers.

Raise awareness at national level (general public/consumers), policy makers, and producers; develop a website where information as well as

public and private-sector experience about new ICTs, and e-Commerce, could be shared.

Do all of the above well within the short window of opportunity provided by very fast-paced global competition.

National Regulatory Activity Create a Certification Mechanism to ensure the credibility of the developing African e-Commerce sector in the eyes of the international community.

Develop streamlined transportation and shipping systems in the subregion.

Developing Public/Private Partnerships

Create a Stakeholders Forum.

Create a small group of experts under a Pan-African Organisation that undertakes consultation with selected governments, regional institutions, large relevant private-sector corporations, potential funding agencies, African e-Commerce actors and other concerned stakeholders. The group would focus on developing the structure, the budget and a proposed action plan for e-Commerce.

Establish subregional mechanisms for sharing niche knowledge on e-Commerce, e.g. by conducting workshops/conferences on the subject.

The African Business Round Table institutional mechanism and the International Chamber of Commerce, working jointly, should take the appropriate steps to launch an African Forum on e-Commerce Policy and Practice.


e-Commerce Policy

Objectives

Create mechanisms to stimulate investment in e-Commerce in Africa

Make SMMEs aware of the opportunities offered by e-Commerce

Create a vibrant e-entrepreneurship sector, which will stem the tide of emigration of Africa's brightest entrepreneurial resources

Create job opportunities that do not discriminate in terms of sex, age, religion, ethnicity, mobility and disabilities

Finance national and regional programmes of applied research in direct support of policy development and private practice related to e-Commerce in Africa

Proposed Actions

Accelerating Private Investment in e-Commerce

Create innovative finance mechanisms.

. The African Business Round Table institutional mechanism and the International Chamber of Commerce, working jointly, should take the appropriate steps to launch an African Forum on e-Commerce Policy and Practice.

Create an African Foundation on e-Commerce.

Targeted support for SMMEs and Special Target Groups

Develop an Intermediation Service capable of connecting African e-

business start-ups with prospective North American and European business clients.

. Identify, research and disseminate information on potential market niches for African e-entrepreneurs.

Create e-Commerce incubators.

Encourage more women to engage in e-Commerce.

Support the creation and development of Africa-based local, regional, international and especially Diaspora-focused Internet Portals.

Creating an e-Commerce Labour Pool

Structure training programmes and mechanisms using ICTs.

Provide significant numbers of entry-level, semi-skilled and skilled jobs in and out of the major African urban centres.

Make full use of Africa's international comparative advantage in human resources cost and of the fact that, especially in the area of teleservices, Africa's chances of success are not constrained by its traditional logistical weaknesses.

Develop effective e-business mentoring, twinning and intermediation mechanisms.

Create specialised training centres targeting the development and running of e-businesses and training of e-professionals.

Domestic and pan-African e-Commerce Research Capacity

Finance the training of new researchers in this field and support dissemination of the results of that research.

Create an Observatory to determine and record industry capabilities regarding security, electronic payment, disk storage space, bandwidth, etc.

Integrate ICT and Internet knowledge into all school and university courses.

Create sources of policy advice related to e-Commerce that are based on research conducted with an African perspective.

Create a Donor Consortium and a set of Regional Funding Committees on African e-Commerce Research and Training.


e-Commerce Policy

One of the most important recommendations that came out of these studies was the creation of an African Forum on e-Commerce Policy and Practice, which could provide the leadership and guidance for African countries to promote e-Commerce.

The objectives of the proposed Forum are to:

Provide a comprehensive and ongoing overview of the current state of e-business in Africa;

Present a compelling vision for the development of Africa's Internet economy, including aggressive targets and opportunities;

Identify strategies for industry, the educational sector and government to realise this vision;

Inspire African business to approach the opportunities presented by the Internet with a sense of urgency; and

Persuade African governments and regulators that facilitating the development of Africa's Internet economy should be a priority.

It is envisaged that the Forum members will come from the highest levels in government and the private sector. Government representatives will typically be Senior Ministers with responsibilities in the areas of e-Commerce, ICTs and economic development, nominated by the Secretary-General of the ECA in consultation with the ITU,

UNCTAD, WIPO and UNCITRAL. Private-sector representatives will ideally be Chief Executive Officers from corporations active in some aspect of e-Commerce, and nominated by the Secretary-General of the African Business Round Table"' (ABRT) in consultation with the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). They would be drawn from sources such as national business associations and chambers of commerce, and the East, West, North, and South African Enterprise Networks.

The intention is to create a high-level body with the capacity to offer strategic policy advice to governments across the continent and to other related institutions dealing with e-Commerce.

SADC has devoted little attention to

e-Commerce, although the 1999

SADC Theme Document does lay

the groundwork for an e-Commerce

policy.

Southern African Development Community (SADC)

SADC has paid little attention to the topic of e-Commerce and the need for harmonisation across the region. However, the 1999 SADC Theme Document, "SADC in the Next Millennium - The Opportunities and Challenges of Information Technology" lays

"The African continent SADC region in particular, will have to work on a coherent e-Commerce strategy that would help the region leapfrog not only the infrastructure, but also the implementation of e-Commerce."

South African Green Paper on e-Commerce, November 2000

1' See www.abrnet.org/eng/ish/about.htm


e-Commerce Policy

down some of the groundwork for developing an e-Commerce policy. It is also possible that the newly proposed restructuring of SADC into a few centralised key departments will allow higher priority to e-Commerce policy.1'

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa COMESA)

COMESA, as a regional economic and trade promotion grouping, is

expected to set up an e-Commerce promotion programme that includes a policy element. It aims to be more proactive in terms of both assisting individual member states with implementation and setting up relevant bodies and legal frameworks to expedite the introduction of widespread e-Commerce activities. COMESA convened an expert consultative workshop in April 2001 to help it map out an agenda to take forward for review and approval at the COMESA Heads of State meeting scheduled for July 2001 in Cairo."'

5.6.3 Country-level e-Commerce Policies and Strategies in the SADC Region

Few countries in the SADC subregion have embarked on formal e- Commerce policy processes. However, as shown in Chapter 2 of this Handbook, a number of ICT-related policy processes are in various stages of development. These have an impact on, or are impacted by e-Commerce and therefore need to be considered. Appendix 12 brings together current information and perspectives on these for all countries in the subregion in a series of categories. Briefly:

e-Commerce Policies and Strategies. This category in the Appendix shows a wide range of activity, from nothing at all in several countries to Mauritius's clearly spelled out e-Commerce vision, the well-articulated ICT policy process in Mozambique, the imminent ICT Policy in Namibia, the multiple initiatives underway in South Africa, and the Seychelles, which is also in the process of developing an e-Commerce policy and has already passed some initial legislation on some of the issues in this area. It is clear that e-Commerce forms an integral part of current ICT policy processes.

Telecommunications Regulatory Regime. Government bodies or, in some cases, quasi-independent regulators, are overseeing the regulatory environment in virtually all SADC countries. In almost all cases state-run monopolies handle fixed-line telecommunications, although there is some movement towards deregulation.

13 The restructured SADC will comprise five core clusters instead of the current 21 sectors, with each country in SADC taking responsibility for one or more sectors. The core clusters will be established at the Secretariat in Gaborone, with national committees providing input to the Directorates. The clusters will be: trade, industry, finance and investment; infrastructure and services; food, agriculture and natural resources; social and human development; and special programmes. COMESA is presently implementing an ICT-based project to streamline tracking and movement of cross-border freight in the subregion. See also www.comesaec.org for the outcomes of the consultative workshop held in April 2001.

COMESA hosted a

think tank on e-

Commerce in April 2001 to discuss

regional approaches to the stimulation of e-Commerce in the region.

Information Policv Handbook 145

e-Commerce Policy

e-Commerce Practice. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, there is little e-Commerce activity in most SADC countries. Noteworthy exceptions include Mauritius-which appears to be the only country that has achieved an appropriate legal structure supporting e-Commerce - Zimbabwe, Seychelles and South Africa.

Internet Service Provision supporting e-Commerce. All countries in the subregion have more than one Internet Service Provider and in some cases mature structures involving multiple layers of bandwidth providers. The numbers of Internet domains and commercially oriented websites vary widely from country to country, but it can safely be assumed that at least electronic mail is in use in all SADC countries.

Growing the ICT Labour Pool for e-Commerce. Most countries in the subregion have universities and other training establish- ments offering some training and education in ICT subjects, and in some cases specifically e-Commerce. Information is not available however, as to course curricula, numbers of students graduating at different levels, quality of training, etc.

5.7 South Africa's e-Commerce Legislative Process

In 1998 South Africa commenced a process to put in place appropriate legislation to promote e-Commerce. Since then government, in collaboration with the private sector, academia, labour and civil society, has run a lengthy process that is not yet over.

The process was to be the "standard" process applied in South Africa several times before:

1.

A so-called "Green Paper" is produced which frames the questions and enables'

widespread comment

2.

Comment is assessed and government produces a

"White Paper" indicating expected legislation

4.

3.

Further responses are solicited and a Bill is placed

before Parliament

After debate, agreed policies are passed into law via an Act

of Parliament


e-Commerce Policy

During 1998, the national Department of Communications formed a Task Force on electronic commerce and commissioned a national research organisation, the CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research), to prepare a Discussion Document to initiate public debate and inform production of the Green Paper.

The framework for e-Commerce devised by the OECD was used to structure the document, namely:

Building trust for users and consumers;

Establishing ground rules for the digital marketplace;

Enhancing the information infrastructure for electronic commerce; and

Maximising the benefits of electronic commerce.1'

Subgroups tackled each element and produced the Discussion Document in early 1999.

At the same time the Task Force commissioned a firm of attorneys, Edward Nathan & Friedland, to carry out an audit of South African law by reviewing the law, identifying areas that could constitute barriers to the development of electronic commerce, and suggest options to eliminate such barriers. This comprehensive audit and Due Diligence Report was also completed during 1999.16 Among many elements, the recommendations highlighted the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce and suggested it as a basis to introduce primary legislation on commercial transacting (in particular to deal with legal recognition of data messages, contracting by electronic means, jurisdiction and evidence). Thereafter, secondary issues such as matters relating to consumer protection, intellectual property, ISP liability and taxation could be tackled within an environment enabling effective electronic commerce transacting.

A milestone in the e-Commerce process was the high-profile launch of the Discussion Document and the associated website'll by the Minister for Communications in July 1999. Many public and private-sector stakeholders interested in e-Commerce, both local and international, attended the launch to hear government's plans to foster e-Commerce. At that event, previously appointed convenors invited all participants to associate themselves with nine working groups, typically attracting 20-30 interested people each, to help carry the process forward:

Security and Privacy, Taxation and Customs

Intellectual Property

15 While most aspects of the Discussion Document would probably be directly relevant to countries of all stages of economic development, the section on Maximising the Benefits placed particular emphasis on the potential of e-Commerce for small enterprises and rural communities.

16 Funding for this report was provided by the IDRC. Available at www. e-comm-deba te. co.za/docs/report. html

"' Development of a website started around the same time and all documents referred to in this section may be found there: www.ecomm-debate.co.za

An e-Commerce discussion paper was produced in early 1999.

A Due Diligence Audit was conducted in 1998/99 to assess

areas of legislation that needed modification, or where new legislation was needed.

Working groups were established in July 1999. The working groups all relied on voluntary inputs from interested parties. It has been questioned whether this was the most appropriate mechanism for achieving quality inputs.


e-Commerce Policy

Close cooperation between

government and industry speeds up

the rate of learning and responsiveness at the policy level.

The skills base of ICT

experts in South Africa is small, and consistently being

called upon to serve on committees, workshops and

working groups. Several ongoing ICT-

related activities were taking place at

the time of the e-

Commerce policy process, with the

result that few could sustain their

participation.

The lengthy policy process undertaken in South Africa has

frustrated particularly the

private sector, since the required pace of

delivery was too slow in the fast-

changing e-

Commerce environment.

Infrastructure

Electronic Payment Systems

Internet Governance and Domain Naming

Maximising the Benefits1'

Technical Standards

Contracting and Trade Laws.

The working groups were asked to generate informed opinion leading to the Green Paper, promised some months later. In the ensuing months the convenors attempted to sustain the interest of their working group participants, calling for written input and organising workshops. The process commenced with a clear intention to cooperate closely with industry and other stakeholders on all the steps in the process. This intent was clear in the establishment and operation of the working groups. The process had mixed results. Some insightful commentary and reports were produced (and posted to the website). On the whole, however, the inputs were disappointing.

Attendance at the workshops was sporadic, due to several potential factors: the convenors had other jobs; all participants, many of whom were senior business people and academics, were volunteers; no fees were paid, nor any funding for travel; and the e-Commerce process was just one of many orchestrated by government at that time and calling on the time of a small ICT-

knowledgeable community. Deadlines were set for completion of the efforts of the

working groups, the outputs of which were to go to a Government Technical Task Team for assembly into the Green Paper.

Early in 2000 a parallel process commenced. The academic community in South Africa were invited to prepare and submit papers on specific aspects of e-Commerce in which they were then engaged as teachers and researchers. The intention was to deepen insights into issues related to infrastructure, security, privacy, trade laws, etc. It was envisaged that the papers would be available at about the time the Green Paper was issued, so that the community at large would have two sets of input. In the end, the academic contributors submitted 10 papers, covering most of the topics tackled by the working groups.

Originally due for completion in March 2000, the process was delayed for many months, and the Green Paper was eventually published in November 2000. These delays received much criticism and stakeholders questioned the wisdom of such a delayed policy process, while e-Commerce initiatives were well underway without a policy framework. Perceptions also existed that the process lacked, at times, a clear direction, despite the establishment of an apparently fixed timeframe and clear outputs at the outset.

The Green Paper is almost a textual restatement of the e- Commerce Discussion Document, both in form and substance, and did not, on the face of it, narrow down issues for consideration in


e-Commerce Policy

the later policy document. With the benefit of hindsight, it is

apparent that the process could have been expedited by the first e-Commerce debate forming the basis of the Green Paper - consultation would still have been included in the process but the speed at which the policy was developed would have been accelerated, and an elevated rate of policy response would likely have been achieved. An alternative approach would have been to employ an expert team to write the Green Paper.

Further attempts at structuring public comment on the Green Paper then began, with stakeholder workshops organised for constituencies such as the private sector and labour. The deadline for public comment on the Green Paper was set as March 31 2001. Shortly before that date, there was a shift in emphasis and an announcement that certain aspects of the law would be considered for "fast-track" amendment by the end of 2001, while other aspects would continue to be subject to debate and possibly a White Paper.

The fast-track items include Digital Signatures, Certification Authority, Domain Name Authority, Cryptography and Encryption, Data Protection and Privacy, Consumer Protection, Computer Crimes, and Intellectual Property. An "e-Law" Conference was set for April 2001 to hear the feedback on the Green Paper and identify aspects that could move immediately to legislation. It now remains to be seen which items become candidates for immediate legislation (and how closely they match the prescriptions of the UNCITRAL Model Law).

5.7.1 Perspectives on the South African e-Commerce Policy Process

South Africa is well known for its earnest attempts to engage the populace as a whole in national decision making, by arranging and funding many participative processes. Even by South African standards, however, the e-Commerce process has been very long and very repetitive. There is little on the table today that was not recommended via the law audit completed some two years ago. There are also few questions posed in the Green Paper that were not posed in the original Discussion Paper.

The major problem that developed was the delay between starting the process and producing deliverables in the form of a

Green Paper or similar policy statement. The commencement of the e-Commerce debate signaled that the outcome would eventually be an e-Commerce policy. In certain cases, individual companies' forward planning was frustrated as a result. However, this was not necessarily fatal, as the pace with which e-Commerce development and deployment has operated is determined by a

number of global and domestic factors.

The e-Commerce policy formulation delay was of less concern, for example, to online service providers developing e-Commerce solutions and applications, than was the continued lack of clear telecommunications policy and regulatory oversight and redress in

The Green Paper was eventually launched in November 2000, with inputs derived from volunteer working groups and specialist inputs on specific e-Commerce related topics.

By March 2001, the South African government decided to fast-track the e-

Commerce policy process, moving directly to legislation in priority areas.

The South African e-

Commerce policy process was very long and repetitive, resulting in delays in the finalisation of the policy.

The continued lack of clear policy on other aspects of telecommunications, such as licensing and interconnection, was perceived as a

bigger problem than a delay in e-Commerce policy formulation.


e-Commerce Policy

The e-Commerce debate and Green

Paper process contributed to a

sense of "policy fatigue".

While logistical problems appeared

to affect most working groups,

some managed satisfactorily and

produced substantial outputs for

consideration.

Where a consensus- building policy

process along the lines of that

undertaken in South Africa is embarked upon, it should be

closely managed and speedily concluded. The ensuing delays

risk creating uncertainty, which

has a negative effect on forward

planning, and local and foreign investment.

e-Commerce policy processes worldwide

have been fairly similar in terms of

stakeholder involvement.

certain areas. This is so because the services and applications in e- Commerce are invariably less dependent on licensing and regulatory frameworks than the infrastructures over which they operate. A clear, implementable and "on track" telecommunications liberalisation framework will go a long way towards alleviating this concern.

The approach of consensus-building through the e-Commerce debate that was launched in June 1999 produced a type of "policy fatigue" in the industry by the time the Green Paper was launched for comment. At the start of the e-Commerce debate, many key stakeholders from the private sector, unions, etc. actively sought to participate in the process to establish a policy framework and participated initially through representation on all seven working groups. This process soon became unwieldy, with meetings either cancelled beforehand or so poorly attended as to be cancelled on arrival by the few working group committee members that appeared.

The Department of Communications' Coordinating Secretariat employed poor communication techniques and inefficient listservs in many cases. Working group members often arrived at meetings to discover that meetings had been cancelled or rescheduled and members had failed to be notified as their names and contact details were incorrectly represented on these lists. However, while these problems seemed to affect many of the groups, it did not affect all of them. One or two notable working groups managed their logistics satisfactorily and produced substantial and comprehensive documents for consideration.

Private-sector sentiment regarding the government's role in e- Commerce is probably worse now than at the beginning of the process, and it is likely that every move towards legislation will be even more closely scrutinised than before. Rather than the participative process bringing stakeholder groups together, this one has probably driven them apart.

During the research and international benchmarking phase of the e-Commerce policy process, it was discovered that policy approaches elsewhere were not dissimilar to that of South Africa. In most jurisdictions, a statement in one form or another of government policy, with requests for inputs from interested stakeholders, preceded public comment and input.

While the internal workings of government are not clear, it is

generally assumed that intra-government coordination, essential in the e-Commerce arena, has been difficult.

The e-Commerce policy process was led by the Department of Communications, which provided the necessary proactive leadership role in this regard. That it was not led, for example, by the Department of Trade and Industry, was not perceived to be a

significant problem, and the policy process did not lead to any particular emphasis on DoC-related issues in the Green Paper to the


e-Commerce Policy

exclusion of others. The document was clearly comprehensive and detailed in its treatment of the myriad issues. One possible area that did signal the communications emphasis was the inclusion of a section on "Infrastructure and Access" which dealt with clear delineated matters of telecommunications policy. While these issues should not be dealt with in e-Commerce legislation, their satisfactory treatment and resolution is integral to successful e- Commerce development. To that end, their mention in the Green Paper was warranted.

There are questions about the ability of the Department of Communications to adequately deal with the many specialised areas of technical legal concern such as contracts and tax, as well as matters more appropriately dealt with by specialist agencies and departments, such as consumer protection and multilateral trade commitments. In this light, the development of e-Commerce law or policy should be part of an effort to streamline the various policy processes currently underway in the sector and across

different government departments and portfolio organisations.

5.8 Problems Encountered in e-Commerce Initiatives in Southern Africa - What Lessons Can We Learn?

A National Vision for e-Commerce

A national vision for e-Commerce, taking into account the needs of government, business and citizens, is a necessary prerequisite for creating an e-Commerce policy that will address the priorities set by a particular country.

Once such a vision has been defined, through a roundtable consultation process with industry, government, civil society and other stakeholders, the vision needs to progress towards getting national e-Commerce policy and regulatory frameworks into place, and then move into defining and implementing a national strategy. e-Commerce policy is a necessary but not sufficient response to the "commerce via Internet" challenge. This needs to be addressed in the context of "maximising benefits" and approaching the Digital Divide in a holistic manner. South Africa and other developing countries could arguably benefit from experiences in jurisdictions such as Canada, to go beyond e- Commerce policy.

It appears that policy makers are approaching this question by addressing the need for policy, which may be a necessary short- term measure, but in itself not sufficient for the long term. The desperate need to "merely formulate" policy reflects a reactive response to the proliferation of the current and pervasive public hype around e-Commerce and the need for every country and region to have a definitive policy on it. If not carefully considered, this may not constitute a careful forward-thinking assessment of the building blocks of future economic competitiveness and readiness.

The management of the process by the Department of Communications has

not led to any specific focus to the exclusion of others. However, efforts should be made to streamline disparate and overlapping e-

Commerce policy processes underway in various government departments.

The nature of e-

Commerce policy formulation requires the involvement of many specialists, government departments and agencies. Inter- actions with all these agencies could be strengthened.

African countries need to go beyond e-Commerce policy to defining and implementing national e-business strategies through roundtable consultation with stakeholders.


e-Commerce Policy

There are wide discrepancies in the

e-readiness of SADC countries, which has

made it difficult to find common ground at the

subregional level to promote

harmonisation of policies and

strategies.

Regional collaboration on

training in support of e-Commerce

should be considered.

The private sector is

unlikely to invest in training programmes

- national institutions of higher learning will have to

take this role. Expertise developed

during the South African and Mauritian e-

Commerce process could be utilised in

the region.

The status of e-Commerce in SADC countries appears to be largely divided into three categories, illustrating the diverse levels of e- Commerce development within the subregion (and the difficulty of finding common ground to meet these differing needs):

Countries such as South Africa and Mauritius, where e-Commerce has been placed on the national agenda, and strategies and systems have already been developed to promote its adoption;

Countries such as Botswana and Zimbabwe that have recognised the potential of e-Commerce but are still developing the facilities and environment it; and

Countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola, where establishing an effective Internet infrastructure still poses a major national challenge.

Human Resources and Local Expertise

The available skills base in the SADC region is very limited, even in South Africa with its relatively well-developed ICT sector.18There also seem to be relatively few formal courses offered on e- Commerce. Skills development must be undertaken in several areas, either by the universities or private institutions, and should cover areas such as:

Legal aspects (taxation, private and corporate law)

Intellectual Property Rights

Privacy issues (security, encryption)

Technology aspects (software development, digital signatures, authentication, electronic payment systems)

Telecommunications infrastructure and access

Business aspects (the new economy, business models for e- Commerce, multilateral trading systems, consumer protection)

Policy development (corporate and government).

The possibility of regional collaboration on such training initiatives seems to present an opportunity for strengthening local capacity in the SADC region.

The development of e-Commerce skills will still depend heavily on the supply of candidates from national institutions of higher learning and in particular computer science, engineering, and commerce students. The private IT sector does not yet seem to be strong enough in most of the SADC countries to invest in the type of training programmes that could produce suitably qualified e-

Commerce personnel.

In the South African context, due to the recent e-Commerce policy processes that have been undertaken, local expertise and resources

18 Refer to Appendix 5 for a brief overview of ICT-related institutions in South Africa.


e-Commerce Policy

have been established - this local skills base could be well used in developing regional capacity.

The finalisation of an efficient e-Commerce policy requires expertise in a number of highly technical legal areas, e.g. taxation, online contracting, intellectual property and the resolution of the role of the ISP in the information value chain. This latter issue,

owing to the "disintermediation" effect of the Internet, goes to the heart of questions regarding the liability of ISPs for content provided by third parties on their networks. This is not limited only to the issue of pornography or race hate speech, but extends to contracts, intellectual property and other aspects of regulated content, such as defamation. The resolution of this matter, like others requiring technical input, is crucial to securing the adoption of e-Commerce services and promoting the development of new entrants in the market.

Levels of Participation

Those governments that have undertaken policy development have engaged, to a greater or lesser extent, in participatory processes with their key stakeholders. In the case of Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa this was achieved through awareness- raising workshops and launches, with a wide spectrum of participation from government, industry, NGOs, academia and, in the case of South Africa, labour. Opportunities for written submissions were an integral part of the policy formulation process. The longer duration involved in such participative processes has to be weighed against the deeper understanding and richer thinking that emerges from broader consultation. Such processes usually also create greater levels of commitment and buy-in to the policy process.

The Policy Formulation Process

Alternative mechanisms should be explored to address simultaneously the need for broad consultation and participation, while also taking cognisance of the need for more speedy e- Commerce policy formulation. The South African experience suggests that it would be useful to centralise meetings and also to hold them less frequently. A colloquium where interested stakeholders gather for one or two days of directed input and policy refinement would be one possibility.

The Role of the Private Sector

In most cases, the development of e-Commerce in Southern Africa has been driven by initiatives in the private sector. The exceptions seem to be Mauritius and South Africa, where the government has played an active and leading role in promoting and facilitating the development of e-Commerce. In most other countries where signs of e-Commerce are evident, government clearly lags behind in its development of policy and institutional support for e-Commerce. It

e-Commerce policy development requires very specialised expertise in areas such as

taxation, online contracting and intellectual property. Understanding the information value chain is critical.

If a policy route is

embarked upon, it needs to be closely managed and speedily concluded to facilitate the concerns and goals of all stakeholders in

the process. Delays may be detrimental to investment, broader socio- economic policy ideals and e-

Commerce adoption. An efficient and closely managed policy process should achieve this balance between innovation, delivery and development.

Future processes should rather assume the format of a one or two-day colloquium with centralised input and policy refinement. The process design was not necessarily flawed; rather, the weakness was in the lack of apparent resources to manage it efficiently in the face of competing demands.

The private sector should cooperate with government to increase learning and to ensure that government plays a

leadership role in e-

Commerce development.


e-Commerce Policy

ISPs play an integral role in promoting e-

Commerce.

Strong and ongoing cooperation

between different government

departments in areas of overlap affecting

e-Commerce policy is

essential for the successful

implementation of such policy.

e-Commerce policy development in

developing countries must be intrinsically linked to strategies to increase overall

access to ICTs, enable e-readiness and

increase literacy.

would appear in most cases governments have been consumed by addressing other national priorities.

Institutional frameworks for supporting e-Commerce look likely to be dominated by ISPs, as these tend to have both the entrepreneurial flair and the technological knowledge to identify and implement e-Commerce opportunities. Institutions such as the Botswana Technology Centre and the Mauritius National Computer Board, which have specific mandates to promote ICT

development, may also play important roles in developing e- Commerce standards.

The Role of Government

It is not the role of the private sector to manage or determine the necessary conditions for successful policy implementation. This is

the role of government, to be decided in a transparent manner on the basis of satisfactory resource and personnel allocation.

Strong cooperation and coordination are required between the different government departments responsible for the formulation of policy affecting e-Commerce in different ways. Mechanisms should be established that will facilitate working across Ministries to ensure an integrated approach to e-Commerce.

Government leadership has to be provided from the highest level to ensure that there is a coordinated policy and strategy. Establishing a leadership position within one Ministry will be difficult, if not impossible.

The Content of e-Commerce Policy

Key issues affecting e-Commerce are the recognition of electronic messages, electronic authentication, electronic payment systems, standards and interoperability, customs and taxation. Intellectual- property law faces the biggest challenge yet from on-line services and multimedia, and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) legislation may need to be strengthened.

In developing countries where ICT infrastructure is largely lacking, the development of an e-Commerce policy must be intrinsically linked to strategies to increase access to ICTs, enable e-readiness among consumers and government and increase both traditional and computer literacy. If this multi-pronged approach is not implemented, the risk remains that an excellent enabling framework for e-Commerce may develop, without sufficient users and economies of scale to make it efficient or beneficial to the general population. In ICT environments with limited monopolies to effect universal service goals, this must also include the expedited reduction in access and service costs, as well as a

reduction in facilities leasing to non-exclusive service suppliers.

Given the nature of Internet technologies, it is vital that legal systems adopt the principle of technological neutrality (rules should neither require nor assume a particular technology) and be flexible, in order to address future developments and avoid


e-Commerce Policy

"locking in" rigid definitions and categories of services and suppliers. This is unlikely to occur without the development of clear and easily implementable policy - some of the critical success factors might not be achieved through simple augmentation of existing laws.

Consumer Education

A concerted educational campaign is also required to educate the public about the benefits and pitfalls of e-Commerce services, and to strengthen their consumer rights and consumer voice. There is

great opportunity within the development of e-Commerce policy to do so through rigorous education programmes, the establishment of industry codes of practice and the development of principles of consumer protection for e-Commerce. For example, through the institution of "Seal of Approval" programmes, ISPs that are involved in B2C transactions could join such a programme in order to facilitate further trust in the ISPs

and their services. It also presents an opportunity for active collaboration between industry and government in educating consumers on their rights and in developing partnerships to facilitate building trust in the electronic economy.

Building consumer trust through education programmes should be encouraged.


Conclusions

Conclusions This chapter summarises the main lessons learnt from the examples in this Handbook. The key conclusions are that successful policy formulation and implementation are largely dependent on political will, national vision and leadership, underpinned by policy processes that are inclusive, transparent and participative. Further, the need to focus more strongly on policy implementation, and to ensure that the realities of on-the-ground developmental challenges are kept in mind during the policy formulation stage, have to be considered. Good intentions and strong policy development processes alone cannot be regarded as successful measures if the resulting policies are unimplementable. Increased emphasis on strengthening African capacity in policy research, formulation and particularly implementation, will be necessary prerequisites to ensure that Southern African countries are in a position to exploit the opportunities offered by the new Information Economy.

6.1 Emerging Lessons for Policy Development in Southern Africa This Handbook has attempted to document the major ICT-related policy initiatives in Southern Africa and to analyse some of the problem areas that have emerged out of the many policy formulation processes. Several success stories have surfaced, with countries identifying and addressing the challenges and opportunities that an information economy can offer. In other cases, painful and sometimes costly mistakes have been made. Either way, the challenge for African decision-maker/s is to acknowledge both the successes and the failures and to ensure that the lessons are learnt, and are shared. These lessons should become part of a growing knowledge base for the African continent, providing the foundation on which present and future generations of decision-maker/s can build more solid policy interventions.

"Exploiting these opportunities (offered by ICTs) requires reflection on the experience that has already been accumulated in the use of ICTs. It also requires renewed commitment to learn from each other's failures as well as successes. Many of the hopes for the social and economic contribution of ICTs will not be realised, or will be realised in unexpected ways that could be disconcerting or destructive. National and regional ICT strategies can provide a

framework for strengthening the likelihood of positive outcomes and minimising the risk of negative outcomes. "19

So what are the requirements for good policy development? And can generic principles be extracted from current African policy experience? Judging from the similarities that were evident throughout the examples quoted in the Handbook, the answer

19 Mansell and Wehn (1998), p. 261.


Conclusions

would have to be a resounding "yes", and this in spite of the diverse levels of development and maturity in policy development. To conclude this Handbook, it would therefore be appropriate to highlight the predominant features that have emerged.

Sound policy interventions are underpinned by solid data and research

Well-informed decision-makers and key stakeholders are more likely to create policy that is forward-looking but based on current realities. Without solid research and baseline data, it becomes virtually impossible to monitor whether policy interventions have had the desired outcome and whether future fine-tuning needs to be considered. For example, the desperate need in most African countries is for increased access, at reduced costs, by the majority of their citizens. Having access to reliable data on the geographical distribution of telecommunications and an integrated database of service provision levels by operators becomes critical to ensure an equitable distribution in urban and rural areas. Should Universal Service Obligations be introduced as

a possible policy intervention, the ability to monitor and track such rollout becomes a critical implementation tool.

Broad participation in policy development processes strengthens the likely policy outcomes and encourages broader acceptance

Increasingly, the role of broad and transparent participatory processes in policy formulation is becoming accepted in African countries, although the level of participation varies widely across countries and there are some countries where little participation can be found. Participatory mechanisms such as workshops, colloquia, expert working groups and information sessions for the broader public are becoming a feature of policy development and are generally seen as a way of ensuring buy-in for future policy implementation initiatives, and ensuring that policy is focused on the actual needs of the people. Close cooperation between all stakeholder groups also accelerates learning and responsiveness at the policy level.

That said, the question of balance between achieving extensive participation and the need for accelerated policy development in a rapidly changing ICT environment has to be considered. There are no easy answers and countries will have to consider their own level of development, and assess the level of urgency required in producing their policies.


Conclusions

National vision and leadership at the highest levels of government are key success factors for effective policy development and implementation

One of the most striking features of successful policy interventions is the presence of a champion who provides the necessary visionary leadership to drive an ICT-related policy forward. The more successful national policies are also characterised by leadership from the highest levels in government. With political will and visionary leadership at those levels, the chances are higher that the necessary degree of integration and synergy between government departments will be reached. Because of the pervasiveness and crosscutting nature of ICTs, the need for an integrated approach is critical.

Policies should identify levels of priority - those for immediate and urgent attention and those requiring longer-term actions

African decision-makers are faced with many conflicting challenges, with ICT-related issues competing with other pressing matters such as poverty alleviation and HIV/AIDS. It is unlikely that all areas of need can be addressed immediately. Establishing priorities, and following through on these priorities, are more likely to result in sound, implementable policy. The added advantage is that decision-makers can achieve realistic objectives instead of trying to implement impossible feats that are doomed to failure from the outset.

- Regulation should also not be considered the only option - given the shortage of available human and financial resources for regulatory activities, the policy should ensure that what is to be regulated can actually be tracked on the implementation level. For example, establishing universal service obligations for operators is

admirable, but if there is no capacity to either collect data, or collect possible contributions, the policy becomes unimplementable.

Regional collaboration and the harmonisation of regional policies are necessary to ensure optimal telecommunications infrastructure development

There appears to be an increased realisation that it is no longer sufficient for countries to address telecommunications policy only at the national level. Large capital investments are required to address Africa's telecommunications backlog, and many countries are unable to meet the challenge on their own. Evidence of the growing emphasis on regional development can be seen in recent initiatives such as the African Connection"' and the restructuring of

180 www.africanconnection.org


Conclusions

bodies such as the African Telecommunications Union, all of which recognise the need for accelerated action to achieve more acceptable levels of telecommunications rollout. Without the appropriate telecommunications infrastructure, none of the policies covered in this Handbook can be implemented. The need for increased access at lower and affordable costs should therefore be the priority policy objective.

Common elements are emerging in most ICT related policies

Analysis of ongoing ICT policies shows that many common elements are emerging in the content of the policies. The development of a national ICT infrastructure is generally the first policy area to emerge. This, in most cases, includes aspects of regulation, universal service provision, the creation of mechanisms to fund universal service rollout, the structure of markets and competition, etc. The need to uncouple policy from technology also has to be considered, since-the rapid technology changes are likely to render technology-based policy redundant in a very short time. Issues of technology convergence are not yet being addressed in most ICT-related policies, and policies still tend to be split into the traditional broadcasting and telecommunications streams. As these boundaries blur, more attention will need to be given to this area. The challenge will be to transform regulatory bodies in such a way that the difficulties of managing content and infrastructure result in a converged management approach.

Some countries have developed umbrella-type ICT policies, which cover a broad range of areas such as creating broader use and exploitation of ICTs and the inclusion of sectoral applications such as education, health, agriculture and tourism, the latter depending on national priorities. Other elements include IT for Government, e-Commerce, the creation of local industry, and finally human resource development (in some countries this was assigned the highest priority).

Because of the overlap with other policy areas, the need to move beyond infrastructural policy towards a more integrated and streamlined approach has to be recognised. Synergies with other policies such as economy, labour, education and migration have to be taken into account.

Building human resource capacity - education and training is the key

Policy interventions have to take into consideration two aspects relating to human resources: firstly the scarcity of available ICT skills on the African continent; and secondly the lack of capacity within African institutions to deal with the growing demands of a new Information Economy. Further, the lack of policy research skills


Conclusions

has led to most of the work being carried out by researchers who are not based on the continent, and a low volume of research generated by local experts.

Growing the ICT skills base has to be tackled from two perspectives - developing a wider base of ICT-literate skills in the population and thereby ensuring that learners and citizens are equipped to use ICTs to participate in the Information Society; and using ICT-enhanced learning methodologies to reach a wider base of learners than could be reached through the one-teacher one- classroom approach. The power of distance education using ICTs and the opportunities that convergence presents should not be underestimated.

ICT and sectoral policies should explore and support the possible linkages between community radio, educational broadcasting and interactive Internet-based technologies, while keeping in mind that the policies should not be prescriptive about technologies but rather provide a framework within which technology choices can be made.

To date, the emphasis has been on capacity building at the school level, with little attention paid to tertiary education. Strengthening capacity at this level is important to ensure that future leaders develop who are conversant with the issues in the new economy.

The possibility of sharing resources and developing training programmes across the region should be addressed at the policy level. This would be a way of leveraging the existing levels of expertise and ensuring that the African knowledge base is rooted on the continent.

Institutional capacity has to be strengthened to ensure successful policy implementation

There need to be strong linkages between policy formulation and policy implementation - if a policy is unimplementable then the soundness of the policy needs to be brought into question. The analysis of policy interventions in this Handbook shows that many good policies have been produced in Southern Africa in this decade. What has become more problematic is implementation - unrealistic objectives and timeframes, and a lack of attention to the capacity of institutions to deliver, have resulted in a poor to average record for delivery. Implementation strategies are not always put in place, which makes it difficult to develop longer- term action plans and targets for delivery.

Likewise, at the regional level, the need to streamline activities between regional bodies is now being recognised. For example, institutions such as SADC are undergoing restructuring to address the need for a more responsive organisation in the subregion.


Conclusions

6.2 Conclusion

The purpose of this Handbook was to document the recent information policy processes that have been undertaken in Southern Africa and to provide a knowledge base for decision- makers (present and future) on which to build their positive and negative experiences. Through presenting case studies and in- depth analyses of some of the policy formulation processes, the Handbook has tried to show that there is enough commonality within the Southern African policy environment to build stronger ties within the subregion, and to ensure that others can build further on this knowledge base. The Handbook should provide decision-makers with information to assist them in future policy processes, while also encouraging those who are considering a

career path in policy to take up some of the challenges presented here, and thereby continue to add to the future knowledge base for African decision-makers, by contributing to the available research base or implementing sound policy.


Appendices


Appendix

A Brief Overview of Global and Regional Trends in Telecommunications Infrastructure The global telecommunications infrastructure has increased in both quantity and quality during the past decade, although unequally. This improvement is due to two main causes: the structural telecommunications reform process that has occurred in both developed and developing countries, and technological innovation that has expanded possibilities for access.

Table 5. Global Increase in Infrastructure for 1991-1996 and Forecast for 2001

Category Installed base, 1991

Source: World Bank (million) Installed base, 1996

(million) Forecast installed

base, 2001 (million)

Telephone main lines 545.0 741.0 1 000

Cellular subscribers 16.3 135 400

Personal computers 123.0 245.0 450

Internet host computers 0.7 16.1 110

Estimated Internet users 4.5 60.0 300

Ratios

Internet users per host computer 6.2 3.7 3.0

Internet hosts per 100 tel. lines 0.1 2.2 11.0

Internet users per 100 tel. lines 0.8 8.1 30.0

Internet hosts per 100 PCs 0.6 6.6 24.4

Internet users per 100 PCs 3.7 24.5 66.7

These factors have changed the dynamics of the telecommunications market radically. Structural reform has induced increased efficiency. Liberalisation encouraged private- sector participation and competition, resulting in a significant drop in prices. On the other hand, the economies of telecom-technology supply have also caused a decrease in the costs of technology. The collision of these forces has increased dynamism in the sector, with the explosion of new forms of information and communications services such as the Internet. This has made telecommunications infrastructure technology better and cheaper today.

This shift in the global telecommunications industry has created increased economic incentives to invest in the development of new technologies and the enhancement of existing ones, from copper-wire to fibre optic and broadband. Yet the most significant of recent technological developments is the development of mobile technology. Mobile telephony penetration today has surpassed that of fixed lines in many developing countries, and the development of third-generation mobile technology (3G) will become a world standard overcoming the barriers that stand today between GSM (European Standard) and CDMA (North American Standard).


Appendix 1

Telecommunications infrastructure is the means by which access is achieved, by which content is delivered, and the basis of a knowledge-based and learning society. But today, such development is largely unequal, and within that inequality may lie its greatest problem and paradoxically its greatest opportunity. The following table illustrates the differences in infrastructure development (and access) between the different income country groups according to the World Bank classification:

Table 6. Infrastructure Growth and Access per 1 000 People for High-income Countries (HIC) and for Low and Middle-income Countries (LMIC) 1990-1998 (Source: World Bank)

elephone lines per 1 000 people

World

146

Low income

37

Middle income

145

Low and middle income

69

High income

567

In largest city 213 131 269 171 Not available

Waiting list in millions 36.9 6.7 28.9 36.7 Not available

Waiting time in years 1.3 5.5 1.2 2.4 0

Revenue per line in USD 752 290 522 439 1 035

International outgoing traffic 113 195 85 108 142

mins/subscriber

High-income countries have 15 times as many lines as low-income countries, have negligible waiting lists for telephone lines, and produce four times more revenue per line. This is despite the fact that low-income countries have larger outgoing international traffic than anybody else. Some of the reasons for these differences are enterprise inefficiency, prevalence of monopoly or dominant operators pricing, and poor service. The future of information and Communication Technologies will depend greatly on the ability to close those gaps; without it there are no true economics of network, and the potential for economic development is likely to be greatly diminished. Yet, unlike in the past, investing in infrastructure development is not enough.

Telecommunications infrastructure development continues to be highly capital intensive and it requires a fair degree of technical expertise. Today developing countries face a formidable challenge, as it does not suffice for a country to have a

modern and advanced infrastructure, even if it can afford it, as new technology gaps are created almost instantly. Access is a fast-moving target and today it is broader in concept than the traditional notion of access to infrastructure. It evolves from narrow- band telephony to broadband online access, from urban to rural, from a telephony- centred notion to a knowledge-based vision, as new frontiers to information and communication are made. This represents an increasing "digital divide" as well as a

potential "digital opportunity ".181

81 The term "digital opportunity" was coined by David Souter, Executive Director of the Commonwealth Telecommunications Organisation (CTO) at a meeting in Cape Town in March 2001.


Appendix 1

Comparative regional perspectives

The following table illustrates the differences in infrastructure between developed and developing world regions:

Table 7. Regional Comparison for Infrastructure Development

Region Source: World Bank - 199811999

Data

Tel. lines per 1 000 people

PCs per 1 000 people

Internet hosts per 10 000 people

High-income countries 567.2 311.2 392.10

Europe & Central Asia 200.0 35.0 15.5

World 146.0 70.6 74.20

Latin America 122.8 33.9 9.60

East Asia & Pacific 70.0 14.0 2.39

Developing countries 69.0 15.7 3.10

Middle East & North Africa 81.8 12.1 0.30

South Asia 19.0 3.0 0.17

Sub-Saharan Africa 14.3 Not available 2.40

There is a wide discrepancy in infrastructure development among world regions, according to three measures on the previous table, even though some regions, such as Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Latin America have already reached a reasonable level of telephone access. Sub-Saharan Africa stands as the least developed of all the regions in the world, followed closely by the South Asia region.

Additional to these differences in regional infrastructure, are important differences in transcontinental infrastructure development, as is the case with the international Internet bandwidth, of which Africa is the least connected, as the following graphic shows:


Appendix 1

Latin America Africa

Source: ITU adapted from TeleGeography

Figure 6. International Internet Bandwidth Comparison

The Global Market in Telecommunications

Worth US$650 billion in 1997, the global telecommunications market is now rapidly approaching one trillion dollars in annual sales.18' Spending on telecom equipment and services is estimated to reach $983 billion by year-end (2000) in Canada, Mexico, Western and Eastern Europe, Latin America, and the Asia-Pacific region combined. Spending on telecom transport services, equipment, and support services will soar to $1.8 trillion in 2003 at a 16.7% compound annual growth rate. 113 Worldwide wireless technologies are playing a larger role as the limitations of fixed-wire line become exposed by the demands of services such as data access. By the third quarter of 2002, the number of worldwide wireless subscribers will reach the 1 billion mark, with a

worldwide penetration rate of almost 17%.114 Wireless user growth in Western Europe is expected to soar, and growth in emerging nations like Brazil, China and Eastern Europe is accelerating rapidly.18'

e-Commerce is a global phenomenon ready to take off and studies predict that by 2003, the worldwide business-to-business market will reach as high as $1.3 trillion in transaction value and this online buying power will represent about 40% of all transactions.196

82 US Trade Representative government releases 2000/12 183 ibid. 189 Cahners In-Stat Group 185 ibid. 186 International Trade Administration. U.S. Department of Commerce. Jan 8 2001 release


Appendix 1

Against this global background of a telecommunications industry experiencing soaring growth rates in user numbers, revenues in equipment and service industries, lies the World Trade Organization (WTO). In providing the binding global framework for a liberalised ICT industry, the WTO is the primer to the worldwide and dramatic shift in telecommunications regimes. To understand the role that this organisation plays in rearranging the global telecommunications sector, it is helpful to understand its impositions with regard to individual states as ICT players.

The African Market in Telecommunications

Africa's telecommunications hierarchy is characterised by disparity. South Africa, positioned at the top end, has a per capita GDP of US $2 800, and a teledensity (ratio of telephones per 100 persons) of around 10. Comparatively, the Democratic Republic of Congo has an estimated per capita GDP of US $400, and a teledensity of 0.08.181 So,

within Africa's telecommunications market lie great disparities. In fixed telephony, disparities abound with regard to volume, availability, and quality. South Africa has

the largest telephone network, accounting for 72% of 5.3 million lines on the continent.18' The island nations of Mauritius and Seychelles have far higher teledensities, followed by Namibia, Botswana and Swaziland.

The Internet has grown rapidly on the continent over the last few years. At the end of 1996 only 11 countries had Internet access, but by 2000 all 54 countries and territories had achieved permanent connectivity and the presence of local full-service dial-up ISPs.169The total number of computers permanently connected to the Internet in Africa (excluding South Africa) finally broke the 10 000 mark at the beginning of 1999 and in January 2000 it stood at almost 12 000, an increase of 20%.190 This means that Africa with a population UNICEF predicted would be 780 million in 1998 - roughly 13% of the total world population191 - has about as many hosts on the Internet as a small Eastern European country such as Latvia, the population of which is 2.5 million.

Almost 20 new mobile cellular networks came online in Africa in 1997 and 1998, a

clear indication of the dynamism of the continental market. The number of cellular subscribers in the region neared the two million mark in 1997; in 2001 South Africa alone has 8.9 million subscribers.

187 US Department of Commerce: Office of Telecommunications Technology. Country profiles 88 UDT Occasional Paper Number 7 - African Telecommunications Infrastructures for Information Access.

Summit Strategies. Nairobi. 89 Jensen, Mike (September 2000). African Country Internet Status Summary.

www3.sn.apc.org/africa/afrmain.htm 90 ibid. 91 ibid.


The African Information Society Initiative (AISI)

Adopted by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), the African Information Society Initiative (AISI) is the African mandate to use information and Communications Technology to accelerate economic and social development in Africa. The origin of the Initiative was in the April 1995 Regional Symposium on Telematics for Africa, jointly organised by ECA with the IDRC, Bellanet International, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and UNESCO. Some 400 pioneers in electronic communication in Africa and representatives of telecommunications authorities gathered in Addis Ababa and drafted a communique asking that government officials at the highest level pay attention to the growing momentum of this force in Africa and the cost to Africa of remaining outside of it.

The goal of AISI is the attainment of a sustainable information society in Africa by the year 2010, through:

developing national plans for building information and communication infrastructure;

eliminating legal and regulatory barriers to the use of information and communication technologies;

establishing an enabling environment to foster the free flow and development of information and communication in society;

developing policies and implementing plans for using information and communication technologies in the public sector;

identifying, developing, and introducing information and communication applications in areas of highest impact on socio-economic development at national level;

facilitating the establishment of locally based, low-cost and widely accessible Internet services and information content;

preparing and implementing plans to develop human resources in information and communication technologies;

adopting policies and strategies to increase access to information and communication facilities with priorities in servicing rural areas, grassroots society and other disenfranchised groups, particularly women and youth; and

creating and raising awareness of the potential benefits of African information and communication infrastructure.

Conceived in partnership, AISI has been implemented through partnership. The primary vehicle for its implementation is the Partnership for Information and Communication Technologies in Africa (PICTA), which is comprised of multilateral, bilateral, non-governmental and research organisations, private foundations and representatives of the private sector.


Appendix 2

The implementation of the Initiative has concentrated on seven component areas: policy awareness; national information and communication infrastructure policies and plans; connectivity; training and capacity building; democratising access to the information society; sector applications; and development information infrastructure (information management and content development).

Key activities undertaken in partnership since mid-1996 have included:

A policy awareness campaign on the Initiative (funded by the IDRQ

Organisation of national policy workshops in more than a dozen countries;

Organisation of workshops on technical, economic and social aspects of connectivity and the overall use of ICTs for development;

Advisory services on the elaboration of national information and communication plans; and

Projects on democratising access to the Information Society.


Key ICT related Institutions in Mozambique

Key Institutions in ICTs in Mozambique

Institution

Eduardo Mondlane University

wwwuem.mzl www. ci. uem. mz1

INCM

www.incm.gov.mz

ISCTEM (Instituto Superior de Ciencias e Tecnologia de Mogambique)

Focus areas

Relevant institutions include: Centre for African Studies Higher Institute for International Relations Centre for Strategic Studies Centre for Informatics (CIUEM)

Telecommunications Regulator for Mozambique:

Oversees activities of operators Represents government on international forums Deals with consumer complaints

Private institution which offers IT

Resources and Capacity

CIUEM has 80 employees. Concerns that the existing curriculum addresses computer science, and not IT skills. Agreement with the University of Stockholm to provide higher degrees to CIUEM students.

Contact: Venancio Massingue (Vice-Chancellor) [email protected] Americo Muchanga (Head: CIUEM) [email protected]

49 staff: 5 Executives 2 Legal experts 12 Engineers 2 Economists Accesses human resources through ISPU / ISCTEM / CIUEM and Brazil and Portugal.

Contact: Franciso Chate: incmcha to@teleda ta. mz

More modern, well designed. Regularly brings in international experts, organises special lectures.

www. isctem. com

ISPU

(Instituto Politecnico e Universitario)

www.ispu.ac.mz

Two schools: 1) Higher Institute of Judiciary

and Social Sciences: - Psychology / Communication Sciences / Judiciary Sciences

2) Higher Institute of Management and Technology - Admin & management of business / IT management / Civil Engineering /Accounting & Auditing/ Tourism & Management of Businesses

About 30 national experts.


Appendix 3

Key Institutions in ICTs in Mozambique

Institution Focus areas Resources and Capacity

Ministry of Education Emphasis on ICT teaching in schools

www.mined.gov.mz ICT curriculum development just started Introduced into technical and vocational education Teacher training (SIDA funding).

Ministry of Higher Education, Focus on: Science and Technology Capacity building for

education Working with the older, active workforce to encourage IT

competency (older, non- technical, teachers) Maintenance of systems, particularly in the provinces.

National ICT Policy Commission The ICT Policy Commission was

wwwinfopol.gov.mz established to provide support to the Mozambican ICT policy development process. It is

housed in the Office of the Prime Minister.

National Institute of Statistics Survey of IT facilities at 13 000

www.ine.gov.mz

Telecomunica46es de Mozambique (TDM)

www. tdm. mz

firms and government departments underway. Provinces will assist in collecting data - the Institute is mandated by law to provide data.

Monopoly telco in Mozambique: 75-80 000 lines, 99% in major towns:

TDM will have monopoly for 5 years after privatisation Also owns M-Cel. Tender for 2nd mobile operator in preparation.

Lacks resources. 150 secondary schools + vocational schools; 20-25 have introduced ICTs

SchoolNets with IDRC / WorLD support.

Contact: Minister Alcido Eduardo Nguenha Deputy Minister Telmina Paixao [email protected]

Emphasises development of youth and women, and addresses capacity problems.

Wants to define standards for equipment.

Contact: Minister Lidia Brito: [email protected]

Contact: Dr Salomao Manhica: cpinfo@infopoLgov. mz

Team of four and makes use of statisticians in the universities -

no problem with accessing skills.

Contact: Paulo Maculuve: [email protected]

Infrastructure rollout is

dependent on available resources - major constraint. Wireless will be deployed in rural areas.

TDM is redesigning competence development policies to improve quality.

Contact: Gomes Zita: [email protected]


Key ICT related Institutions in Namibia

Institution

Namibian College of Open Learning (NAMCOL)

www.grnnet.gov.na (Official Government of Namibia Website: Ministry of Basic Education and Culture)

Namibian Communications Commission

Key Institutions in ICTs in Namibia

Focus areas

Open and Distance Learning.

In February 2000, the two Ministries of Education concluded an agreement for the coordination of open and distance learning with the publicly funded, educational institutions - the University of Namibia, the Polytechnic of Namibia and the Namibian College of Open Learning. Preparations are at an advanced stage for the establishment of a

national trust, to be known as

the Namibian Open Learning Network (NOLNet), to act as a

legal vehicle for future developments.

Namibian Communications Regulatory Authority


Launched the first computer- learning centre in Katatura in March 2001, on the NAMCOL premises. The International Computer Driver's Licence (ICDL), an internationally accredited IT course, will be offered, together with other applications.

Small staff to run courses.

Contact: Ed du Vivier (Advisor for Institutional Development: Ministry of Basic Education) d [email protected]. na

6 commissioners 1 secretariat

Namibian Economic Policy Research Unit

www.nepru.org.na

Namibian Institute for Educational Development (NIED)

www. vied. edu, na

National Information and Communication Resource Network Group (RNG)

MIT

www.niit.com

General economic policy research

Development of curricula for schools, including ICT curricula

Continued process of ICT polity formulation and implementation.

Resides under the Department of Foreign Affairs, Information and Broadcasting.

MIT is an Indian MNC, delivering ICT training in many countries, including Namibia.

Contact: Vezera Bob Kandetu: [email protected]

Contact: Dirk Hansohm: [email protected]

Facilities are very limited.

Hoping for assistance from SchoolNet Namibia

Contact: Dr Jan Alberts: [email protected]

Twenty-member strong public/private sector group

Contact: Mocks Shivute (Dept of Foreign Affairs, Information and Broadcasting) [email protected]

Contact: Lodewyk van Graan: [email protected]


Key ICT related Institutions in South Africa

Institution

Key Institutions in ICTs in South Africa

Focus areas

National Government Departments

Department of Arts, Culture, Responsible Department for the Science and Technology Foresight project in 12 sectors, (DACST) including ICT.

www.dacst.gov.za Oversees National Advisory Council on Innovation (NACI).

Administers Innovation Fund, which applies about a third of its awards to ICT projects.


Leadership vacuum - staff driving Foresight have left DACST.

DACST driving the NACI process and secretariat.

Five-year road maps are currently under development. A Digital Road Map is examining gaps that need to be filled - being carried out by the CSIR's Icomtek.

There is currently no policy on govt-IP, for data created by the government. Policy for ownership of intellectual property / databases currently under development.

Contact: Ms Rykie Cillie: [email protected]

Department of Communications Telecommunications Policy

docweb.pwvgov.za e-Commerce policy

Information Society issues - including universal access

Universal Service Agency (USA); reports to the Director-General

Department has lost a number of staff over the past year (to the private sector and other government departments).

Generally regarded as having a

resource capacity problem in terms of:

no. of people, and depth of experience.

Through its HR Fund, it supports capacity building in tertiary institutions such as the LINK Centre, Wits Master's degree in Communications Law, and Houwteq.

Currently working with Sun Microsystems to develop Internet labs in all academic institutions (about 60 centres to develop Java programmers). Initiative will be driven by Houwteq.

Contacts: Andile Ngcaba (Director-General) [email protected] Phindile Dyani (International Relations) phindile@doc. p wv. govza Dillo Lethlokoe (e-Commerce): [email protected] Richard Gerber (Knowledge Management) [email protected]


Appendix 5




Dept of Education - Centre for Introduction of ICTs into Educational Technology schools.

education.pwv.gov.za

education. pwv.gov.zalteli2ldefa ult.htm

Integration of ICTs into teaching curricula.

Curriculum development.

Dept of Public Service Administration (DPSA)

wwwdpsa.gov.za

Dept of Trade and Industry (DTI)

www.dti.gov.za

Government Communication and Information System (GCIS)

www.gcis.gov.za

Responsible for developing IT

policy for government. Coordination of all government IT initiatives.

Implementation of policy resides with the State IT Agency (SITA) - includes govt IT procurement and maintenance.

Emphasis on industrial policy and economic growth.

Uses Trade and Industry Policy Secretariat (TIPS) for research programmes.

The host government department for the SAITIS project.

Communications arm of government.

Currently rolling out MPCCs in rural areas.

Internal management and capacity problems. Lack of management skills is regarded as a major shortcoming in implementation.

Contact: Mashala Kwape: [email protected]

One CIO and four staff in DPSA.

A CIO position was created in April 2000.

Contact: Ms Tembela Kulu (liaison): tembela k@dpsa. p wv. go v. za

Has undergone extensive restructuring to create structures to support a service-oriented economy. Department has classified software manufacture as a manufacturing process eligible for support. Stronger emphasis on ICTs through the SAITIS project.

Contacts: Alan Hirsch: [email protected] Neville Nicholas (SAITIS project): [email protected]

Director-level portfolio has been created around MPCCs as a

vehicle for providing access to government information to citizens.

About 60 MPCCs to be rolled out over the next year.

Contacts: Tony Trew: Trew@gcis. pwv. gov.za Nebo Legoabe (telecentres): [email protected]


Appendix 5




Information Systems, Electronics and Telecommunications Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority (ISETT SETA)

www.isett.org.za

Has three chapters for Information Systems, Electronics and Telecommunications. Responsible for overseeing allocation of training levies in its sectors.

A new body taking over assets of the IT Industrial Training Board. Apparently also receiving allocation of funds from the Telecommunications Act HR

Fund. Works closely with the Standards Generating Bodies for the ICT sector.

National Advisory Committee on Innovation (NACI)

www. da cst. go v. zalna cil index.htm

See also: DACST

Office of the President

www.gov.zalpresidentl index.html

State IT Agency (SITA)

www.sita.co.zal

Coordination and stimulation of the national system of innovation.

Accesses and targets critical science and technology research and information for the purposes of socio-economic development.

Policy coordination and management.

Contact: Errol Maherry: [email protected]

A Committee of 17 with an executive of five, and a

secretariat of three.

Little to show regarding the NSI

as yet. Volunteers are all senior people with little time. Some activity around funding and redefining Science Councils.

Contact: Or Sibusiso Sibisi: sibisis@bremner. uct.ac. za

Six policy coordination sections: Economics / Safety and Security / Social / Foreign Affairs / Public Administration / Finance

No ICT section, although an IT

Council has been formed with representation from international leaders of industry.

Contacts: Goolam Abubaker: [email protected] Bheki Khumalo (Liaison): [email protected]

Responsible for implementation Not all government departments of policy set by DPSA. have closed agreements with

SITA for the delivery of services. Government IT procurement and maintenance. Contact:

Gugu Msibi (Liaison) [email protected]


Appendix 5


Institution Focus areas

Universities and Research Institutions

Centre for Applied Legal Currently runninga Master's Studies (CALS), University of the programme in Communications Witwatersrand Law. Focus is on:

www.la w. wits. ac. za

CSIR -

e-Commerce telecommunications broadcasting law introduction to technology space/satellite law media law.

Based on the SA Constitution with emphasis on freedom of information and expression.

MPC provides technology policy support and futures research

Manufacturing Policy Centre for the CSIR.

(MPC) Closely linked to DTI regarding

Icomtek industrial policy.

www.csir.co.za Closely involved in the NACI process and developing five- year roadmaps based on Foresight outcomes.


Part-time Director

Makes extensive use of guest lecturers, and has strong linkages to McGill University, Leiden University, Netherlands.

Funded by Doc.

Students drawn from ICASA, legal depts in the private sector, Doc, SADC.

Contact: Justine White: [email protected]

MPC: 6 staff, 1 position dedicated to Knowledge Management (KM). Housed in the CSIR's M&MTEK (Materials and Manufacturing Technologies).

Makes use of interns that are linked to identified experts (associates).

Emphasis on developing international linkages.

Previously the Policy Centre was based in the CSIR's Corporate Office. Experience has prompted moving the policy environment closer to the operational environment to ensure closer linkages between policy, strategy and implementation.

Contact: Dr Rasigan Maharaj: [email protected]


Appendix 5




National Research Foundation Mandated by a no. of govt (NRF) depts to fund research: DEAT

www.nrf.ac.za (Environment & Tourism); DACST, DTI ; Doc.

NRF provides access to researchers, and a series of grants / funds to foster research in prioritised areas. ICT policy has been added in the latest call for proposals (July/Aug 2000). ICT research is further funded through the:

Competitive Industry Theme: Information and Infrastructure Systems Open Research Programme Exchange grants International Science Liaison

University of Cape Town Has separate Computer Science and Information Systems (IS)

ICT-related Departments Departments.

www.uct.ac.zal Development Policy Research Unit (DPRU) has spearheaded only ICT policy work at UCT,

although some work done on electronic privacy issues in Law Department. (www. uct.ac.zaldeptsldprulcont acts.htm)

University of Pretoria School for Information Technology brings together

ICT-related Departments several departments. Runs an active Doctoral programme.

wwwup.ac.zalacademicl Some focus on ICT policy emerging. (www. up. ac.zalacademiclsitl)

Has a separate School for Public Management and Administration with a strong interest in ICT policy topics (www. up.ac.zalacademiclsobal SPMlspma.html)


Due to the newness of the ICT

policy research focus, there is still uncertainty as to how the NRF

should proceed, or what is

expected of it. However, they are incorporating the South African Foresight ICT findings as a

criterion for research funding.

Contacts: Dr Rivka Kfir (Executive Director: Knowledge Management and Strategy): [email protected] William Blankley: [email protected]

Computer Science Dept has about 10 faculty members. Well regarded in terms of research.

IS Dept has 15 faculty members. Largely a teaching department with very large numbers of undergraduate students. Recent initiative to build on successful Honours and Masters programmes with a Doctoral programme. Focus is IT and National Development, but emphasis is on implementation rather than formulation of policy.

Key staff resignations have dep- leted the capacity of the DPRU.

Contacts: Prof Paul Licker: ticker@infosys. uct.ac. za Haroon Bhorat: bhorat@hiddingh. uct. ac.za

Establishing a reputation for academic innovation. Offers successful certificate programmes in ICT as well as under and post- graduate programmes.

School for Public Management and Administration appears to be starting. Collaboration with Icomtek at CSIR could substantially extend ICT research efforts.

Contact: Prof Dewald Roode: jdroode@postino. up.ac.za


Appendix 5




University of South Africa One of the largest distance education universities in the world.

Contact: Dr Bob Day: [email protected]

www. unisa. ac.zal

University of the Witwatersrand LINK centre

link.wits.ac.za

Offers courses in telecommunications policy, computer science and information systems.

Involved in the national plan for higher education (www.educa tion. pwv.gov.zal DoE-SiteslHigher_Educationl National%20Plan%20- %20Fina I %20Draft. htm).

Three focus areas: Training Research and consulting Networking.

Offers courses in: Telecommunications policy, regulation and management (300 graduates by 2000) Information management for the public sector (220 at national + 150 in provinces) ICT literacy (304 by 1999) Executive courses (55 by end 1999) ICT for empowerment (emphasis on SMMEs)

One Director + 7 staff.

Non-cost recoverable research and training made possible by a grant from the Vodacom Foundation.

Extensive international and local network of associates - partnership with Delft Technical University and Technical University of Denmark (LIRNE Initiative).

Research capacity limited due to lack of resources but produces South African Journal of Information and Communication.

Consultancy-based research extends to ITU study on broadband, ICASA satellite licensing regime, DFID Internet costing study and the like.

EU funding is being used to train 10 - 20 people per province per year to build SA provincial capacity through Information and Knowledge Management training - done through DPSA and SAMDI.

Extending existing telecommunications policy and regulatory course to SADC countries (TRASA-approved) - Australian Aid funded and supported by DPSA.

Contact: Alison Gillwald: [email protected]


Appendix 5



Labour Unions


Congress of South African Trade Clear focus on job creation and Has representation on national Unions (COSATU) job enhancement. projects such as SAITIS and the

N ITF.

www.cosatu.org.za

NGOs and Associations

Black IT Forum (BITF)

www.bitf.org.za

Ongoing concerns that ICT

initiatives will lead to job losses. This position is presented regularly in ICT forums.

COSATU is running a campaign for online rights for shop stewards. COSATU wants a

national Information Society vision.

Contact: Charley Lewis [email protected]

Relatively new body to support Largely volunteer-based. Relies individual black IT professionals on support from ITA and other and black-owned IT firms. bodies.

Most active in Gauteng and Western Cape.

Contact: Hasmukh Gajjar: [email protected]

Computer Society of South 42-year old association and Africa (CSSA)

www. cssa. org.za

major representative of 3 500- 4 000 ICT professionals.

Chapters and special interest groups throughout the country offer networking opportunities, conferences, seminars, magazines, etc. Flagship is

Tel.com.

Development Bank of Major focus of DIBU is on: Southern Africa: Information Analysis and Development Information Advice Business Unit (DIBU) Library services / public

information centre. www. dbsa. org

Major focus is on outreach through:

Staff secondments Facilitation SA Acacia Advisory Committee MPCCs NITF.

Four paid administration officials in Gauteng. International links through IFIP. SA Licensee for ICDL in Southern Africa. Represen- tation on national bodies such as

SAITIS, Foresight, ISETT SETA.

Strongly focused on building bridges between ICT professionals across public and private sector, academia, government and business. Concerned about mis- match between academic research and organisational needs.

Contact: Secretariat: [email protected]

DBSA seconded staff to the DPSA IT Policy for Govt Initiative.

Has access to DBSA staff for information analysis activities.

Contacts: Dr Stephen Mncube (Head:DIBU): [email protected] Shadrach Appana (Policy Analyst): [email protected]


Appendix 5



NGOs and Associations

e-Commerce Association of South Africa (ECASA)

Represents the interests of companies involved in e- Commerce.

A founding member of the IISA.

www.ecasa.org.zal

Electronics Industry Federation (EIF)

Represents the interests of a

small number of large electronics firms,

e-Commerce is such a new area that there is little training available, nor has it been assessed for quality.

Contact: Mike Lamb: mike.lamb@comcensa. co.za

Contact: Angus Grimbeck: [email protected]

www. eif. org.za

Electrotechnical Export Council (EEC)

Created to stimulate the ICT export market for SA companies

grow export increase no of exporters create more SMMEs.

A newly created structure established in May 2000. DTI is also setting up research capability in the export area. New DTI structure will promote a stronger export culture.

Information Industries South Umbrella body which Africa (IISA)

www. lnformationlndustry. org.za

National IT Forum (NITF)

web.sn.apc.org/nitf/

coordinates the activities of the representative bodies in the ICT

sector and provides a channel of communication between the industry and government. IISA also represents South Africa's interests in world bodies such as the World IT and Services Alliance (WITSA). Its mission is to promote the ICT

industry and the use of ICT for the benefit of the whole community.

Intended as a broad-based stakeholder body to foster the Information Society and in particular ICT policy research.

Contact: Eileen Leopoldt: [email protected]

Seed funding provided by founding members, but as yet no paid officials.

Contact: Adrian Schofield: [email protected]

Chair is at DBSA, which provides secretarial support. NITF's main activities have been regular videoconferences on topical matters sponsored by Telkom.

Contacts: Dr Stephen Mncube: [email protected] Gordon Coburne [email protected] Charley Lewis [email protected]


Selected Regional ICT related Institutions in Africa

Selected Regional ICT-related Institutions in Africa


African Connection (AC) AC is a critical component of the African Telecommunications

www.africanconnection.org Union, a specialised agency of the OAU on ICTs. It was created as a two-year secretariat, which will be disbanded after the period has expired. AC will manage the preparation of actionable recommendations and selected pilot projects to promote and help establish integrated ICT infrastructures, as well as unified telecommunications and IT

markets across Africa.

Two full-time staff members, with a third still to be employed.

Contacts: Mavis Ampah Sintim-Misa [email protected] Emmanuel Olekambainei [email protected]

African Telecommunications A specialised agency of the Contacts: Union OAU on ICTs, which was Jan Mutai: [email protected]

www.atu-uat.org recently restructured. The Secretariat: [email protected] mission of the Union is to promote the rapid development of info-communications in Africa in order to achieve universal service and access, in addition to full inter-country connectivity, in the most effective manner.

Common Market for Eastern COMESA is currently promoting Contact: and Southern Africa (COMESA) the establishment of a regional Secretary-General

www.comesa.int telecommunications network. [email protected] This regional telecommunications network will build and be managed by COMTEL Communications Ltd, which is a private limited company. This is with the view of facilitating increased trade relations within the regions of Eastern and Southern Africa. The COMTEL project covers the following countries; Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.


Appendix 6

Selected Regional ICT-related Institutions in Africa


Economic Commission for Africa The ECA is driving the African (ECA) Information Society Initiative

www. uneca. org (AISI), which is being implemented through partnerships involving governments, donors and the private sector. The ECA is

responsible for support to the country-level NICI programmes in Africa. It also cooperates with regional initiatives such as

COMESA and SADC.


Contacts: Karima Bounemra Ben Soltane: [email protected] Lishan Adam: [email protected] Makane Faye: [email protected]

Southern African Development SADC was established in 1992 Contacts: Community (SADC) to harmonise economic Elliot Odirile: [email protected]

www.sadc.int development among the Secretariat: [email protected] countries in Southern Africa. Director:SATCC: The 14 SADC Member states [email protected]

Southern African Transport and include: Angola, Botswana, Telecommunications Democratic Republic of Congo, Commission (SATCC) Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius,

www.satcc.org

Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Mozambique is

responsible for the SATCC and the Culture and Information sectors. The SATCC was responsible for drafting the Model Regulatory Framework for Telecommunications (SATCC- TU 98), with TRASA developing the SADC Model Telecommunications Bill.


The Info.com Programme of the Department of Communications - South Africa Table 8: The Implementation of the Info.com Programme up to mid-1999

Programme Components

Policy Information Government Education and Private sector management and access and information training development

institutional infrastructure technology framework

Objectives

To create specific To facilitate the To facilitate the To facilitate and To enhance policies institutional creation of physical development of promote education and facilitate support for infrastructure for specific Internet- and training activities that have managing the information access based public service through the use of direct impact on process of policy delivery telecommuni- labour market making applications cations technology demand and

Info.com Projects (responsible institution)

Centre for Telecentres-CIC Government Houwteq (DoC & Information and (USA, GCIS, DoC, Internet private industry) Communication etc.) Framework Technology Centres of Info.com Ltd. Telecentres (USA) Government On- Excellence

line (GCIS) (Telkom & DoC)

African Telecom Multipurpose Teledemocracy SchoolNet SA Fund Community Centres (parliament) (SchoolNet)

(GCIS)

Africa Telecom 98 Public Information Telemedicine Virtual Library (ITU Conference) Terminals (Post (pilot project DoC & (DACST)

Office) DOE)

Internet 2000 e-Commerce (DoC) Courses on ICT and (Thintana & policy at different Telkom) institutions

(Human Resources Fund)

Telkom 1 000 Schools (reworked on the above)

Web Internet Laboratory (DoC)

Projects outside of Info.com (responsible organisation)

MPCCs (GCIS) Telecentres (implemented by other institutions)

D New projects that were not foreseen under Info.com Projects in bold were priority projects under Info.com Source: Unpublished report by Townsend & Associates (1997)

opportunities for private-sector entrepreneurship

Tele-Micro- Enterprise

Electronic Commerce (Tradenet)

Cyber City

Cyber Malls

Global Access to Information Technology (Telkom)

e-Commerce (DoC)


Appendix

National Telecommunications Forum (South Africa) 192

The National Telecommunications Forum (NTF) was set up as a result of a three-day symposium on telecommunications policy organised by the Centre for the Development of Information and Telecommunications Policy (CDITP) in July 1993. One of the recommendations formulated at the end of the symposium was to establish a

forum open to all stakeholders in the telecommunications sector. The aim of the forum - in line with many forums under the Transition Period before the 1994 elections - was to formulate recommendations on telecommunications policy and issues for the new government. The forum was to work in a transparent way on the basis of discussion and negotiation between the stakeholders.

A commission appointed at the symposium led negotiations regarding telecommunications between the political parties, government, business, the parastatals concerned, labour, civil society and academia. Agreement was reached and at the end of November 1993 the forum was officially launched. Its first chair was Lyndall Shope-Mafole, head of the policy division of the CDITP.

Although the NTF was to be a negotiating forum in its own right, it did not become the central negotiating platform for a new policy framework on telecommunications after the elections. The reasons for this are probably politically motivated. Within government there was a certain fear that the NTF might be driven too much by business interests. It was therefore decided to lead the negotiations from a separate and independent organisation, the National Telecommunications Policy Project (NTPP). Nevertheless, the NTF played a leading role in the negotiations. Its impact was felt in two areas:

By internally preparing agreement on certain issues; and

Through its ability to appoint delegates to the different bodies set up to guide and prepare steps in the process.

Apart from the Minister, the NTF was responsible for appointing experts to the Technical Task Team and the Advisory Panel. Both bodies played an important role in synthesising inputs, formulating intermediate reports and preparing policy. However, at decisive moments the NTF was not able to negotiate internal agreement between the different stakeholders. Both at the Colloquium on National Telecommunications Policy in November 1995 and at its own NTF Conference in February 1996, the issues

of market structure and the partial privatisation of Telkom remained unresolved. At this point the negotiations seemed to be narrowed down to three main actors: labour, the government and Telkom. The outcome was a political compromise between these parties.

However, the NTPP did succeed in negotiating a common vision on telecommunications policy for South Africa, with inputs from the NTF, among others. The process led to common agreement on the paramount importance of universal service. More important, it succeeded in getting consensus between all parties on this view.

There is no doubt the NTF contributed to the NTPP. It could therefore be concluded that the organisation was successful in its efforts. The NTF was dissolved after the NTPP

came to its end, but revived and was present at the 2001 Telecommunications Policy Colloquium.

"'This section was contributed by Fikile Khumalo, former Secretary-General of the NTF.


Appendix

National Information Technology Forum (South Africa) The National Information Technology Forum (NITF) was founded in November 1995 at the instigation of the CDITP. The NITF, like the NTF, was to become a forum comprising representatives of the five social sectors: government, business, labour, academia, and civil society. The executive consisted of five representatives from each sector.

The main goal of the NITF was to foster discussion and prepare an integrated policy on the Information Society. The NITF, shortly after its inception, prepared the South African Position Paper for the May 1996 ISAD Conference. Under the heading "Forging cooperation between societal sectors", the NITF proposed to start a policy process among the five social sectors and geared at planning and implementing the Information Community (NITF, 1996). The NITF defined a strategic role for itself in the negotiations leading to an integrated policy.

Objectives of the NITF in the South African Position Paper

The NITF will be key to mobilising the various sectors to participate in the process of creating an Information Community and to ensure input into the formulation of a national information policy framework. Such national Information Community policy will need to address many areas, such as broadcasting, computers, telecommunications, and perhaps most importantly, guidelines for information content production. (NITF, 1996)

After the conference the NITF proceeded on the chosen track. The NITF organised several workshops on related themes and actively contributed in policy processes such as the Presidential Review Commission (PRC) concerning the public service, the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) for the educational sector and the South African Information Technology Industry Strategy Project (SAITIS). Under its auspices, the first study on existing Multipurpose Community Centres (MPCCs) in South Africa was conducted.19' The study will have an influence on the working of the Universal Service Agency (USA), with which the NITF maintains close ties (NITF, 1997).

During the first half of 1997, however, the NITF's main goal remained the development of a broad consultative policy process on the Information Society. At a

Strategic Planning Workshop in April 1997 it was decided that the NITF should proceed with the conceptualisation of concrete recommendations for such a process. The result was a first draft of an Information Society Process Proposal and a first outline of a

Green Paper on the Information Society (NITF, 1997a,b). The organisation pleaded to organise a Green Paper-White Paper process that closely resembled the National Telecommunications Policy Project that led to the White Paper on Telecommunications and the Telecommunications Act of 1996. The NITF stressed that the process should be led from the highest level in government, i.e. the Presidential Cabinet. The Department of Communications could function as the secretariat of the process.

193 www. communitysa.org.za


Appendix 9

In the first half of 1997 it appeared as if the NITF might be successful in its pursuit of a policy process on the information Society. Talks were held between the NITF and the Department of Communications and towards mid-1997 the consultation seemed far advanced. However, the Department of Communications decided not to continue the process for the following reasons:

The relationship between the NITF and the Minister was rather tense after the Minister's introduction of a Telecommunications Act, which was perceived to be in opposition to the agreement reached in terms of the consultative process;

Within the Department of Communications suspicion arose about the internal composition of the NITF. As with the NTF, there was a fear that specific groups might more heavily influence the organisation;

Part of the NITF's proposals were in conflict with the role of the Department. From 1997 onwards the Department itself was taking the lead in many initiatives on the Information Society while the NITF proposed steering the processes from the Presidency;

Within the Department a shift was taking place away from the idea of a policy process on Information and Communications Technology to a project-based approach. Info.com 2025 was certainly an example of this change in thinking.

By the end of 1997 the NITF had lost most of its legitimacy. Much of the work was carried out by a small group of people. Due to the declining attendance at public meetings, the Board remained the only organisational structure where the visions and interests of the different sectors were discussed. During the years to come a few volunteers tried to change the NITF into an awareness-raising platform at which members were kept abreast of new initiatives and technological developments. As such it resembles initiatives such as Telematics for African Development (TAD). Although the organisation still plays a certain clearinghouse function, without a direct political goal, it has currently lost much of its negotiating and political power.

What must be acknowledged, however, is the critical role that the NITF played during the mid-90s, and the period thereafter, in bringing a much broader group of interested stakeholders together for policy discussions, and the important role that many individuals in the NITF played in raising the debate on the Information Society.


The South African National Qualifications Framework (NQF) and the Development of ICT Skills194

The combined impact of the forces of globalisation, trade liberalisation and innovations in ICTs on the South African economy underscored fundamental weaknesses of the country's apartheid education system.

Key weaknesses of that education and training system were:

The artificial separation of formal education and vocational training. Education focused primarily on knowledge, with no emphasis on skills acquisition. Training, on the other hand, focused on skills acquisition without requiring knowledge. There was minimal articulation between education and training service providers and the needs of the labour market. This did not facilitate worker mobility within and between economic sectors.

Lack of a nationally integrated qualifications structure. Qualifications structures were mainly linked to types of institutions, for example, schools, universities and colleges. There were no nationally agreed standards for qualifications. Learner/worker mobility across education and training institutions was almost non-existent. Knowledge and skills acquired in one setting were not readily transferable or portable across different contexts.

Lack of a formal qualification structure outside of formal education. Knowledge and skills acquired outside of the formal education system were not recognised.

Unequal access to quality education and training. This accounts for the country's poor skills base. Blacks, women and the disabled were deprived of access

to quality education and training opportunities. In 1998 the authoritative World Competitiveness Report ranked South Africa last (out of 47 middle-income countries) on people skills. Grave shortages of high-level skills impact negatively on the country's global competitiveness.

The country's education and training system was at odds with the demands of a

rapidly changing world. The emergent Information Economy requires not only a

broader base of a skilled workforce but also increased responsiveness to the demands of today's fast-changing environments. In order to address the structural problems of the education and training system, and to adequately respond to these needs, a

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was put in place.

This is an overarching system that seeks to:

provide an integrated framework for learning achievement. All qualifications and skills, whether acquired in educational institutions, workplaces or vocational training, would have to be registered with the NQF;

enhance mobility within education and training by allowing for portability of knowledge and skills across environments;

ensure quality of education and training;

"'This section was contributed by Johannes Tselanyane, LINK Centre, University of the Witwatersrand.


Appendix 10

provide access to education and training systems by recognising competencies acquired outside of the formal education and training system and by allowing for flexible entry and exit points to education and training opportunities. This brings about added flexibility and enables learners to change careers.

The following framework has been put in place:

Learning will be underpinned by essential (generic) outcomes. These are general fundamental outcomes that all education and training programmes should seek to achieve.

In addition to these, specific areas of learning will have their own specific outcomes informing the competencies that learners should acquire. This is to ensure that all learning is competency-based.

The NQF is made up of eight levels that have been grouped into three broad bands, i.e. General Education and Training, Further Education and Training, and Higher Education and Training.

Level 1 is referred to as the General Education and Training Band. It covers the first 10 years of compulsory education (Grades 0 to 9). It also includes adult basic education and training. A general Education and Training Certificate is issued upon successful completion of a competency-based exit examination in Grade 9.

Levels 2 to 4 constitute the Further Education and Training Band. Formal high school education (Grades 10 to 12) falls within these levels.

Levels 5 to 8 comprise the Higher Education and Training Band. This includes all occupational certificates, diplomas, and degrees.

The NQF has been divided into 12 organising fields. These are:

1. Agriculture and nature conservation

2. Culture 1 arts

3. Business, commerce and management studies

4. Communication studies and language

5. Education, training and development

6. Manufacturing, engineering and technology

7. Human and social studies

8. Law, military science and security

9. Medical science, health and social services

10. Physical, mathematical, information technology and life sciences

11. Utility services

12. Planning and construction.


Appendix 10

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)

The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) is a statutory body, established by the SAQA Act of 1995. It is charged with the overall administration and regulation of all matters related to the NQF.

SAQA is responsible for:

implementing the NQF;

approving and registering all unit standards and qualifications on the NQF;

maintaining uniform standards in institutions;

controlling the quality of all qualifications; and

accrediting Education and Training Quality Assurance bodies. This function can and has been delegated to the various Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs).

In pursuance of these objectives, SAQA has set up National Standards Bodies (NSBs). These are integral parts of SAQA. Each of the 12 critical fields has its own NSB.

They are accountable to the Authority and have jurisdiction over all matters relating to education and training within their respective fields.

NSBs may recognise and/or establish Standards Generating Bodies (SGBs) within the framework of the subfields. The SGBs are charged with the generation of standards and qualifications in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the Authority. They are also responsible for reviewing unit standards every three years and making recommendations to the Authority, as well as attending to matters referred to it by the NSB.

The NSBs and the SGBs are representative structures comprising relevant field / subfield stakeholders that make recommendations to the Authority on all matters relating to the NQF. The approval and registration of the standards, unit standards and qualifications are vested in SAQA.

A Brief History of the Information Systems, Electronics and Telecommunications Technologies Sector Education Training Authority (ISETT SETA)

It has been indicated that one of the fundamental flaws of the South African education and training system was its separation of education from training. To bring about a better match between the needs of the workplace and educational institutions, Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) have been established. These structures provide linkages between workplace learning and the NQF.

The ISETT SETA is one of the 25 SETAs established by the Skills Development Act of 1998. The South African economy has been divided into 25 economic sectors, each with its own SETA. These structures are responsible for developing human resources within their respective sectors.

Given the rapid changes that characterise today's economic markets, and the convergence of technologies and skills used within the IT, Telecommunications and Electronic subsectors, it was necessary to create structures that reflect these realities. The advent of the SETAs has also, to a large extent, been informed by the perceived inadequacies of the Industrial Training Boards (ITBs) to address HR challenges in an


Appendix 10

increasingly globally competitive environment. ITBs were voluntary employer- employee organisations established under the Manpower Act of 1981.Their impact on skills upgrading was fairly minimal.

SETAs seek to foster greater coordination and cooperation between all relevant stakeholders with regard to education and training issues.

The ISETT SETA Structure

The SETA'S main board is constituted by an equal number of employer and employee representatives. Business and labour are entitled to nine representatives (three per subsector); three representatives are from the Departments of Communications, Labour, and Trade and Industry. A further three seats can be allocated to special interest groups.

The structure is reflective of the industry it serves. Business and labour are the primary drivers of skills development within the SETA. It is important that the ISETT SETA should not be perceived as a government agency. If this structure were government controlled, the impact of business and labour on skills would be minimal. Stakeholder consultations leading to the establishment of the ISETT SETA were characterised by a great deal of cooperation.

Challenges Facing the ISETT SETA

The ISETT SETA brings together three distinct sectors with different backgrounds:

IT Sector, which has been dominated by the private sector, comprising predominantly multinationals;

Electronics Industry Sector; and

Telecommunications Sector, which has been government controlled. Government still has a sizeable equity in Telkom, the only licensed PSTN service provider. Government is committed to privatising Telkom, and to licensing the second PSTN operator. However, there are simmering tensions within the sector with regard to the continuing monopoly of Telkom and delays in the licensing of the second operator. This is a potentially divisive issue.

There are concerns that the privatisation of Telkom might lead to job losses in an economy that suffers from high unemployment levels. The challenge for ISETT

representatives is to remain focused on the sectoral skills agenda, in spite of these potentially divisive issues. The Canadian experience informs that it is important to keep human resource development issues separate from other issues.

The ISETT SETA has to secure buy-in from enterprises. It is difficult at this stage to determine the extent of enterprise support for the sectoral approach. The SETA has to market its products to increase the level of awareness for its products and services.

The sector is largely a buyer and distributor of services and products developed abroad. For example, it is estimated that over 95% of hardware revenue by local distributors is from imported products and components. The software industry is also completely dominated by imported products. It is imperative that the sector generates the requisite skills to make the country a leader in product development. This requires accelerated programmes in skills development, particularly among previously disadvantaged communities.


Appendix 10

The spread of ICT skills is uneven across the country. Gauteng, the Western Cape and Durban share 95% of these skills. If the concept of an Information Society is to become a reality, it is imperative that massive investments be made in rural and remote areas. Skills within the sector also reveal gender and race dimensions. There are proportionately fewer women and blacks in strategic positions within the sector.

The sector, particularly the IT subsector, is dominated by multinational companies. Black ownership of and participation in the sector is relatively small. The growth of the sector will depend, among others, on its ability to stimulate and accelerate black participation and ownership within the sector.


Appendix

ICT Research Priorities for the South African National Research Foundation

More detailed information can be obtained from the NRF's website, www.nrf.ac.za.

Rationale

The convergence of information technology and communication technology to form the new field of information and communication technology (ICT) has had a

revolutionary impact on the way we do business, live and learn. This convergence has brought about the Information Age, the Knowledge Era, the New Economy and the Information Society - popular concepts in use today.

We are living through this revolution, which brings together people from different environments. In these circumstances, people may learn from one another, but they also need basic access to and understanding of ICT. Not only do people need to understand the rapid evolution of new information and communication technologies, they also need to keep pace with the rapid changes imposed on the social structure at work, at home, in the classroom and in the entertainment field. It is indeed necessary to shape the South African information society by harnessing the key information and communication technologies and skills required for the socio-economic development of the country. This understanding needs to take shape within the context of the realities of the country in terms of information literacy. Interfaces between technology and society will need to be different, as levels of understanding may be very different from those that occur in other parts of the world. If South Africa does not become a

major player in ICT, the country will struggle to compete. ICT can be regarded as both a driver and an enabler. In many of the other NRF focus

areas, ICT is treated as an enabler - influencing how things are done - but this focus area considers the aspects of ICT as the driving force for current or future change.

South Africans need to be part of the information society to be globally competitive, play their rightful role in the region and benefit as individuals. Access to information and awareness of the possibilities of the effective use of ICT form part of this initiative. Broader online literacy is required, as ICT is becoming a popular service delivery channel increasingly used by the government, business and financial sectors. It is important to address the growing functional illiteracy that disempowers people from living effectively in a modern society, by taking away people's fears of ICT.

In many respects, South Africa can at best be a fast follower in this expansive world of technology. There should be a clear distinction between the need to develop ICT

capacity and the need to conduct research in this area. Fostering capacity is as

important as conducting research. Many of the issues listed in this focus area can only be addressed effectively through partnerships between the NRF, industry, government and social communities. The main business of the NRF, however, remains the support and promotion of research into these issues, whereas building ICT capacity may be the responsibility of the partner.

A primary reason for establishing this focus area is to address the country's lack of capacity in ICT specialisation and to recognise the problems created by the high mobility of people with this expertise.

This focus area was developed in close conjunction with the recommendations of the National Research and Technology Foresight "Information and Communication Technology" working group.


Appendix 11

Aims

The primary aims of this focus area will be to:

generate, design and apply new information and communication technologies in an innovative way

enable South Africans, through research, to remain dynamic and accommodate the fast-moving changes and developments of this field

form appropriate partnerships to strengthen ICT capability through research capacity building, as well as redress in all sectors

raise the status and understanding of ICT and the use of information, and

ensure that a critical base of ICT specialists is trained and maintained so as to effectively contribute to the information needs of industry and society.

Research issues

Three main areas of interest have emerged:

Technologies for the South African information society of the future Integration and application of ICT in commerce, industry and government, and

ICT and information for the encouragement of social development in South Africa.

Research Issue 1: Technologies for the South African information society

These technology areas include:

Access technologies

Distributed cooperating application platforms

Digitisation technologies Spatial numeric technologies Human language technologies

Security technologies, and

Bio-informatics.

Research Issue 2: Integration and application of ICT in commerce, industry and government

This section highlights the impacts that ICT may have on business and service delivery. It includes the economic and social aspects, as well as the influence these have on technology design and development.

ICT and new workforce environments:

ICT and labour

The knowledge worker Telecommuting

Virtual offices.


Appendix 11

Service delivery:

Business and financial systems

Electronic service delivery channels and interfaces

Customer relationship management in the electronic world Data warehousing and data mining e-Commerce.

Research Issue 3: ICT and information for social development

in view of the divide between South Africa's technological capability and the application of this technology to improve the quality of life of all citizens, there is a

need for research that concentrates on the social, cultural and developmental aspects of ICT.

Universal Access

This area has significant research importance and will draw on a wide range of disciplines. The major emphasis is not on technology development, but on the application of technologies.

User interface:

The usability of computers by illiterate people

Voice input and output Local content and language Values and cultures and different user interfaces.

Smart cards:

Digital cash and its applications "Banking the unbanked" Personal identification, transaction security, and provision of access.

Knowledge management:

Knowledge management methodologies

Effective location and evaluation of information Methods for capturing intangible information Community information needs

Dissemination of local knowledge.

Community "infonomics" (economics of information): Bridging the divide between the use value of information in communities and conventional economic understanding of exchange value.


Appendix 11

Use of telecentres and information terminals:

Models for long-term sustainability Opportunity for telework Government information points

Community information and training.

Service delivery by government:

Governance

Community training Types of services to be delivered through ICT

Delivery media

User acceptance.

Social Context and Dynamics of Technological Change

This area of research deals specifically with the impact and implications of ICT on the social culture.

"Social fabric": Aspects of the information society that are culturally acceptable

Culture changes as a result of ICT.

Family:

Human impact of computing and connectivity

Changes in family life as a result of ICT.

Equity in ICT:

Gender and population group differences in the field of ICT.

Transport:

Role and potential of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).

Social justice:

Democratic rights

Receiving or disseminating ideas

Legal rights.

Digital Divide - Local and Global

This area of research focuses on the increasing divide within and between developing and developed countries that is driven by developments in the field of ICT. As such, it relates to the sociopolitical aspects of globalisation, such as:


Appendix 11

ICT and its impact on globalisation ICT and its impact on business

Information literacy

Regulatory environment - interface between policy and ICT.

Role of electronic media in the South African Information Society

This research issue highlights two main areas of interest in terms of the interaction between people and electronic media:

How people communicate with technology: New media: human-machine interfaces (the relationship between warm-ware and software) Psychological impact of human-machine interaction

How humans use technology to communicate with one another:

Application of relevant technologies in the process of communication

Sociopolitical impact of ICT media used for communication

Quality of electronic publishing

ICT as creative media

Multimedia as a new art form: Entertainment content and form Technoculture (for example, film, hypertext novels and graphic arts)

Cultural issues of the information superhighway.

Impact of and Solutions to Cyber Crime

The impact of electronic crime on the cyber world of business and on the individual is

an issue of serious concern, and solutions need to be found.

Typical areas of research include:

Electronic viruses

Intellectual property rights

Ownership

Ethics

Electronic fraud

Privacy

Legal aspects and systems.


An

Ove

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arch

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, ec

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d in

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nal

and

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ities

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re a

re tw

o IS

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shas

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pany

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terC

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est,

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i, an

d m

ore

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ntly

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tarN

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of t

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nal

tele

com

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ha

s op

ened

ser

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s.

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win

g th

e IC

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r P

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r e-

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mer

ce

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iste

re d

e I'E

nsei

gnem

ent S

uper

ieur

et

Uni

vers

itaire

is

resp

onsi

ble

for

the

acad

emic

sec

tor.

In

the

last

fe

w y

ears

a g

reat

var

iety

of

educ

atio

nal

inst

itutio

ns h

as

open

ed u

p, in

clud

ing

man

y sm

all

univ

ersi

ties.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

Pol

icie

s an

d S

trat

egie

s fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Dem

ocra

tic

Rep

ublic

of

Con

go (

cont

d)

Leso

tho

As

part

of t

he L

elan

d In

itiat

ive,

the

Min

istr

y of

T

rade

and

Ind

ustr

y ha

s es

tabl

ishe

d an

e-C

omm

erce

co

mm

ittee

to

exam

ine

the

issu

es fo

r po

licy

deve

lopm

ent

and

to p

ilot

the

prom

otio

n of

in

tern

atio

nal t

rade

th

roug

h a

craf

ts w

ebsi

te.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

ICT

reg

ulat

ory

polic

y is

the

dom

ain

of t

he L

esot

ho

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ions

C

orpo

ratio

n (L

TC

), a

sta

te-

owne

d co

mpa

ny,

and

the

Pos

ts a

nd

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ions

D

epar

tmen

t w

ithin

the

Min

istr

y of

Wor

ks a

nd

Com

mun

icat

ions

. It

has

impl

emen

ted

swee

ping

se

ctor

ref

orm

, in

clud

ing

the

esta

blis

hmen

t of

an

inde

pend

ent

regu

lato

ry

body

and

the

priv

atis

atio

n of

the

PT

O w

ith s

ale

of a

m

ajor

ity s

take

to a

str

ateg

ic

equi

ty p

artn

er.

LTC

and

the

go

vern

men

t ar

e al

so

curr

ently

wor

king

with

the

In

tern

atio

nal

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ion

Uni

on

to d

evel

op a

lo

ng-r

ange

pl

an f

or th

e di

gitis

atio

n of

te

leco

mm

unic

atio

ns.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

in g

ener

al,

both

nat

iona

l ne

twor

king

and

the

use

of

info

rmat

ion

and

com

mun

icat

ion

tech

nolo

gies

hav

e be

en

poor

in

Leso

tho.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Tw

o pr

ivat

e or

gani

satio

ns

have

had

an

inte

rest

in

prov

idin

g In

tern

et S

ervi

ces

-

the

Cen

tre

Info

rmat

ique

po

ur l

a F

orm

atio

n et

la

Rec

herc

he a

nd T

elec

el,

whi

ch a

ttem

pted

to r

un a

n e-

mai

l se

rvic

e, b

ut t

his

was

sh

ort-

lived

bec

ause

of

diffi

culti

es w

ith th

e lo

cal

phon

e sy

stem

.

Thr

ee I

SP

s ex

ist

in L

esot

ho

and

an in

tern

atio

nal

gate

way

has

bee

n es

tabl

ishe

d at

LT

C.

Apa

rt

ftom

thi

s, m

ost

Inte

rnet

co

nnec

tivity

rest

s w

ith

gove

rnm

ent-

rela

ted

inst

itutio

ns s

uch

as th

e N

atio

nal

Uni

vers

ity o

f Le

soth

o, th

e C

entr

al B

ank

of L

esot

ho,

and

the

Leso

tho

Hig

hlan

ds D

evel

opm

ent

Aut

horit

y.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-C

omm

erce

The

re a

re a

t le

ast

3 la

rge

long

-sta

ndin

g un

iver

sitie

s,

incl

udin

g th

e U

nive

rsity

of

Kin

shas

a, t

he I

nstit

ut

Sup

erie

ur d

es T

echn

ique

s A

ppliq

uees

(IS

TA

) in

K

insh

asa

and

Ebo

nda

and

the

Fac

ulte

Pol

ytec

hniq

ue

Uni

vers

ite d

e Lu

mum

bash

i (F

PU

L).

The

com

pute

r sc

ienc

e pr

ogra

mm

e at

the

Uni

vers

ity o

f Le

soth

o (N

UL)

of

fers

a B

ache

lor

degr

ee i

n C

ompu

ter

Sci

ence

. In

ad

ditio

n a

few

tech

nica

l co

llege

s of

fer

com

pute

r tr

aini

ng.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

Pol

icie

s an

d S

trat

egie

s fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Mal

awi

The

gov

ernm

ent

laun

ched

co

nsul

tatio

ns a

mon

g al

l st

akeh

olde

rs o

n th

e de

sign

an

d im

plem

enta

tion

of a

n al

l-inc

lusi

ve p

olic

y to

dire

ct

the

deve

lopm

ent o

f te

leco

mm

unic

atio

ns a

nd

info

rmat

ion

serv

ices

in

the

coun

try.

The

out

com

e is

the

C

omm

unic

atio

n S

ecto

r P

olic

y S

tate

men

t. T

he

polic

y co

vers

te

leco

mm

unic

atio

ns,

post

al

and

broa

dcas

ting

serv

ices

an

d fo

cuse

s on

the

effo

rts

of s

ervi

ce p

rovi

ders

mor

e cl

osel

y an

d th

e ne

ed to

re

stru

ctur

e ex

istin

g in

stitu

tions

to m

eet

chal

leng

es th

at li

e ah

ead.

T

he p

olic

y st

atem

ent h

as

set

perf

orm

ance

targ

ets

and

stra

tegi

es in

clud

ing

liber

alis

ing

the

mar

ket i

n re

spec

t of

the

prov

isio

n of

se

rvic

es s

uch

as In

tern

et,

e-m

ail,

data

and

pag

ing.

Mau

ritiu

s e-

Com

mer

ce a

dopt

ion

in

Mau

ritiu

s is

exp

ecte

d to

be

a ca

taly

st th

at w

ill h

elp

prop

el M

aurit

ius

to

beco

me

a se

rvic

e-ba

sed

soci

ety.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

Mal

awi

Com

mun

icat

ions

R

egul

ator

y A

utho

rity

(MA

CR

A),

und

er th

e M

inis

try

of I

nfor

mat

ion,

P

osts

and

T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns,

regu

late

s th

e te

leco

mm

unic

atio

ns s

ecto

r.

No

spec

ific

polic

y or

le

gisl

atio

n ex

ists

for

e-

Com

mer

ce.

The

ind

ustr

y is

reg

ulat

ed b

y th

e M

aurit

ius

Tel

ecom

mun

i- ca

tions

Aut

horit

y, w

hich

w

as e

stab

lishe

d in

199

8 an

d is

res

pons

ible

to th

e M

inis

try

of T

elec

omm

uni-

catio

ns a

nd I

nfor

mat

ion

Tec

hnol

ogy.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

No

e-C

omm

erce

act

ivity

. In

Oct

ober

200

0, h

owev

er,

Inte

rnat

iona

l C

ompu

ters

Li

mite

d (I

CL)

ini

tiate

d a

mul

ti-m

illio

n do

llar

proj

ect

to b

ring

e-C

omm

erce

to

Mal

awi.

The

pro

ject

will

in

volv

e tw

o of

the

cou

ntry

's

Inte

rnet

pro

vide

rs -

Web

an

d In

tern

et S

olut

ions

S

ervi

ces

and

Mal

awi

Net

an

d w

ill re

ceiv

e co

nsul

tanc

y se

rvic

es fr

om E

lect

roni

c C

omm

erce

of B

otsw

ana

and

Net

com

in

Sou

th

Afr

ica.

Mau

ritiu

s ha

s a

stro

ng

netw

ork

of e

-Com

mer

ce

rela

ted

inst

itutio

ns a

nd

serv

ice

prov

ider

s in

volv

ed i

n th

e fo

llow

ing

area

s:

Net

wor

k &

Com

mer

ce

Ser

vice

Pro

vide

rs &

Sol

utio

n P

rovi

ders

, O

nlin

e S

ervi

ces,

P

aym

ent S

ervi

ces,

Tra

inin

g,

and

Logi

stic

s S

ervi

ces.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Mal

awi P

osts

and

T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns

Cor

pora

tion

(MP

TC

) in

a

join

t ve

ntur

e ef

fort

with

C

omN

et o

f U

SA

, an

d B

j

Tru

st o

f Mal

awi,

esta

blis

hed

Mal

awiN

et in

199

7 as

the

fir

st c

omm

erci

al I

nter

net

Ser

vice

Pro

vide

r.

Oth

er

serv

ice

prov

ider

s in

clud

e C

LCO

M a

nd I

nter

AC

CE

SS

, th

e co

mm

unic

atio

ns

divi

sion

of

Com

pute

r S

olut

ions

Ltd

, w

hich

pr

ovid

es In

tern

et W

eb

Hos

ting

and

rela

ted

serv

ices

. A

n in

form

al g

roup

ca

lled

the

Inte

rnet

Sup

port

G

roup

(IS

G)

was

est

ablis

hed

to in

crea

se l

ocal

aw

aren

ess

of th

e be

nefit

s of

the

In

tern

et.

Apa

rt f

rom

the

str

ong

netw

ork

of M

aurit

ian

ICT

in

stitu

tions

and

ser

vice

pr

ovid

ers,

the

gov

ernm

ent

has

also

trie

d to

enc

oura

ge

othe

r lo

cal

and

fore

ign

busi

ness

es to

do

e-

Com

mer

ce in

Mau

ritiu

s.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-C

omm

erce

The

Dep

artm

ents

of

Ele

ctro

nic

Eng

inee

ring

and

Mat

hem

atic

s at

the

Uni

vers

ity o

f Mal

awi o

ffer

cour

se p

rogr

amm

es le

adin

g to

und

ergr

adua

te a

nd

post

grad

uate

deg

rees

in

Ele

ctro

nic

Eng

inee

ring

and

Com

pute

r S

cien

ces

resp

ectiv

ely.

Com

pute

r W

orld

, a

subs

idia

ry o

f C

ompu

ter

Sol

utio

ns L

td,

open

ed th

e co

untr

y's

first

In

tern

et C

afe

that

offe

rs

faci

litie

s fo

r tr

aini

ng.

The

Fac

ulty

of E

ngin

eerin

g of

the

Uni

vers

ity o

f M

aurit

ius

has

two

depa

rtm

ents

pro

vidi

ng

trai

ning

in

info

rmat

ion

and

com

mun

icat

ion

tech

nolo

gies

: Dep

artm

ent

of E

lect

rical

and

Ele

ctro

nic

Eng

inee

ring

and

Com

pute

r S

cien

ce a

nd E

ngin

eerin

g (C

SE

) D

epar

tmen

t.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Mau

ritiu

s M

aurit

ius

aim

s to

bec

ome

(con

td)

the

regi

onal

ele

ctro

nic

hub

for

busi

ness

es a

nd

gove

rnm

ent

entit

ies

with

in

alre

ady

esta

blis

hed

trad

ing

com

mun

ities

suc

h as

SA

DC

an

d C

OM

ES

A,

and

it is

envi

sage

d th

at th

e O

ffsho

re a

nd F

reep

ort

sect

ors

will

pla

y cr

ucia

l ro

les

in t

erm

s of

attr

actin

g in

vest

men

t and

pro

vidi

ng a

logi

stic

s pl

atfo

rm f

or e

- C

omm

erce

.

As

a co

untr

y M

aurit

ius

wan

ts to

ens

ure

that

its

busi

ness

es, in

stitu

tions

and

co

mm

uniti

es a

t la

rge

will

ha

ve a

cces

s to

the

soc

ial

and

econ

omic

op

port

uniti

es c

reat

ed b

y th

e ne

w te

chno

logi

es,

info

rmat

ion

infr

astr

uctu

re

and

digi

tal c

onte

nt.

Thi

s w

ill r

esul

t in

busi

ness

gr

owth

and

dev

elop

men

t, ne

w a

nd i

nnov

ativ

e jo

bs,

impr

oved

cap

acity

for

co

mm

unic

atio

ns a

nd

impr

oved

abi

lity

to e

xten

d its

rea

ch t

o ot

her

coun

trie

s.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

gov

ernm

ent

inte

nds to

op

en u

p th

e se

ctor

to

com

petit

ion

by 2

004

to

fulfi

l its

WT

O c

omm

itmen

t on

bas

ic t

elec

omm

unic

atio

n se

rvic

es. T

he M

aurit

ian

gove

rnm

ent

has

reco

gnis

ed

that

set

ting

up th

e ap

prop

riate

lega

l fr

amew

ork

is e

ssen

tial fo

r M

aurit

ius

to p

ositi

on i

tsel

f to

exp

loit

the

new

op

port

uniti

es o

f e-

Com

mer

ce a

nd t

o en

able

en

terp

rises

to p

artic

ipat

e m

ore

activ

ely

in t

he

emer

ging

glo

bal e

cono

my.

The

Ele

ctro

nic

Tra

nsac

tions

A

ct (

ET

A)

rem

oves

leg

al

obst

acle

s an

d es

tabl

ishe

s a

mor

e se

cure

leg

al

fram

ewor

k fo

r bu

sine

ss a

nd

gove

rnm

ents

to

func

tion

in

an e

nviro

nmen

t of

trus

t. P

rovi

sion

s ha

ve a

lso

been

m

ade

to e

nabl

e go

vern

men

t to

adap

t its

ow

n ad

min

istr

ativ

e pr

oced

ures

and

pro

cess

es

to e

nabl

e e-

gove

rnm

ent.

Bes

ides

the

ET

A,

othe

r le

gisl

atio

n al

so e

xist

s, s

uch

as th

e C

opyr

ight

Act

and

th

e IT

Act

, w

hich

mak

es

prov

isio

n fo

r D

ata

Pro

tect

ion

as w

ell

as th

e P

rote

ctio

n of

Priv

acy.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

Par

ticip

atio

n in

e-

Com

mer

ce i

s sp

read

acr

oss

vario

us s

ecto

rs in

clud

ing

bank

ing,

tou

rism

, re

tail,

m

anuf

actu

ring,

fr

eigh

t &

logi

stic

s, u

tiliti

es,

and

real

es

tate

.

Tra

deN

et is

a pu

blic

-sec

tor

and

priv

ate-

sect

or jo

int

colla

bora

tive

ED

I pr

ojec

t th

at h

as b

een

set

up to

fa

cilit

ate

the

elec

tron

ic

subm

issi

on o

f tr

ade

docu

men

ts a

nd f

ast

proc

essi

ng o

f the

se

docu

men

ts b

y th

e C

usto

ms

auth

ority

. Ano

ther

exa

mpl

e is

the

Cen

tral

Dep

osito

ry

Sys

tem

(C

DS

) se

t up

by th

e S

tock

Exc

hang

e of

M

aurit

ius

(SE

M) to

faci

litat

e al

l st

ock

deal

ings

.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

The

gov

ernm

ent

has

prop

osed

the

follo

win

g in

cent

ives

: ta

x-fr

ee p

rofit

s fo

r the

firs

t fiv

e ye

ars,

ag

gres

sive

mar

ketin

g ca

mpa

igns

to a

ttrac

t fo

reig

n co

mpa

nies

to lo

cate

th

eir

serv

ers

in th

e M

aurit

ian

Offs

hore

/ F

reep

ort s

ecto

r, a

nd r

apid

pr

oces

sing

of

resi

denc

e/w

ork

perm

its f

or

fore

ign

engi

neer

s.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool f

or e

-Com

mer

ce

The

Indu

stria

l an

d V

ocat

iona

l Tra

inin

g B

oard

(I

VT

B)

prov

ides

trai

ning

in

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

. A

num

ber

of p

rivat

e co

mpa

nies

, in

clud

ing

Sta

te

Info

rmat

ics

Tra

inin

g C

entr

e Li

mite

d (S

ITR

AC

), D

CD

M

Bus

ines

s S

choo

l, an

d P

enta

four

pr

ovid

e tr

aini

ng

cour

ses

in in

form

atio

n an

d co

mm

unic

atio

n te

chno

logi

es.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Moz

ambi

que

The

Pol

itica

Nat

iona

l de

Info

rmat

ica

was

app

rove

d by

the

Cou

ncil

of M

inis

ters

in

Dec

embe

r 20

00.

Pre

pare

d by

a C

omm

issi

on

chai

red

by th

e P

rime

Min

iste

r, w

ith f

ive

othe

r M

inis

ters

and

thre

e in

divi

dual

s as

mem

bers

. C

onsu

ltatio

ns h

eld

with

so

me

part

ies

outs

ide

gove

rnm

ent.

See

ww

w.in

fopo

Lgov

.mz.

The

new

IC

T p

olic

y id

entif

ies

six

mai

n an

d ei

ght

"oth

er"

area

s fo

r pr

iorit

y ac

tion.

e-C

omm

erce

is

num

ber

four

of t

he

"oth

er"

list.

It in

clud

es

elem

ents

suc

h as

aw

aren

ess

build

ing,

sup

port

for

SM

E

e-C

omm

erce

, in

telle

ctua

l pr

oper

ty l

aws,

and

sec

urity

of

ele

ctro

nic

tran

sact

ions

an

d na

tiona

l as

soci

atio

ns o

f in

tern

et s

ervi

ce a

nd

softw

are

prov

ider

s.

The

int

rodu

ctio

n of

e-

gove

rnm

ent

is th

e si

xth

of t

he m

ain

prio

ritie

s in

the

P

oliti

ca N

atio

nal d

e In

form

atic

a. T

he d

raft

polic

y se

ts o

ut o

bjec

tives

in

this

are

a bu

t do

es n

ot,

as

yet,

assi

gn o

vera

ll re

spon

si-

bilit

y fo

r le

ader

ship

of

the

proc

ess,

nor

hav

e an

y re

sour

ces

been

allo

cate

d.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

Gov

ernm

ent

inte

nds

to

mov

e to

war

ds p

rivat

isat

ion

of th

e m

ain

tele

com

op

erat

or,

TD

M,

in th

e ne

xt

two

year

s. D

etai

ls o

f th

e po

licy

for

this

pro

cess

are

no

t yet

ava

ilabl

e.

If go

vern

men

t pr

ocee

ds

with

ref

orm

of t

he T

elec

om

syst

em, t

hen

a ne

w

regu

lato

ry r

egim

e w

ill b

e ne

cess

ary.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

The

re i

s ve

ry li

ttle

e-C

omm

erce

act

ivity

in

Moz

ambi

que.

T

he

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

op

erat

or,

TD

M,

sees

its

elf

beco

min

g a

mul

timed

ia

Inte

rnet

pro

vide

r in

the

near

fut

ure,

but

has

no

plan

s fo

rmul

ated

for

a 62

13

initi

ativ

e.

Som

e in

tern

atio

nal

firm

s ar

e pl

anni

ng t

o in

vest

in

a

back

bone

of s

atel

lites

de

dica

ted

to d

ata

tran

smis

sion

. T

here

is n

o e-

C

omm

erce

act

ivity

pla

nned

be

twee

n go

vern

men

t an

d bu

sine

ss.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Moz

ambi

que

has

an

unde

rdev

elop

ed

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

in

fras

truc

ture

with

abo

ut

82 0

00 l

ines

and

a

tele

dens

ity o

f ab

out

0.40

ph

one

lines

/100

peo

ple

for

fixed

lin

es a

nd a

bout

0.1

0 fo

r m

obile

pho

nes

(199

9).

Sta

tistic

s sh

ow th

e ex

iste

nce

of a

bout

13

500

com

pute

rs.

Inte

rnat

iona

l In

tern

et

conn

ectiv

ity is

pro

vide

d th

roug

h a

num

ber

of

inte

rnat

iona

l gat

eway

s du

e to

the

der

egul

atio

n of

dat

a se

rvic

es a

llow

ing

anyo

ne to

us

e te

rres

tria

l w

irele

ss a

nd

VS

AT

for

data

/Inte

rnet

. T

he

coun

try

has

5 In

tern

et

Acc

ess

Pro

vide

rs a

nd a

bout

6

000

dial

up I

nter

net

subs

crib

ers.

T

hree

go

vern

men

t M

inis

trie

s (o

ut

of a

tota

l of

24)

hav

e w

ebsi

tes,

alth

ough

the

y sh

ow o

nly

limite

d de

velo

pmen

t. T

here

is

also

an

offi

cial

gov

ernm

ent

web

site

.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-C

omm

erce

Moz

ambi

que

has

a ve

ry

limite

d po

ol o

f IC

T a

nd e

- C

omm

erce

pro

fess

iona

ls.

Tra

inin

g co

urse

s ar

e ge

nera

lly o

f a l

ower

st

anda

rd f

or in

form

atic

s te

chni

cian

s; t

here

is

little

lo

cal

indu

stry

for

softw

are

and

hard

war

e, w

hich

cou

ld

stim

ulat

e tr

aini

ng a

nd

spec

ialis

atio

n. H

owev

er,

som

e in

itiat

ives

are

und

er-

way

in

the

area

s of

ed

ucat

ion

and

trai

ning

. T

he e

duca

tion

syst

em w

ill

in fu

ture

inc

lude

ICT

di

scip

lines

and

sch

ools

will

in

clud

e IC

T t

rain

ing.

T

elec

entr

es h

ave

been

set

up

in

rura

l are

as a

nd

Inte

rnet

Caf

es a

re b

eing

in

stal

led

in u

rban

are

as.

Uni

vers

ities

offe

r 3

and

5-

year

trai

ning

in I

CT

s, an

d th

ere

are

prof

essi

onal

sc

hool

s th

at o

ffer

trai

ning

on

Int

erne

t acc

ess.

Com

- pa

nies

use

con

trac

t tra

inin

g or

sen

d em

ploy

ees

over

seas

to

obt

ain

thei

r tr

aini

ng.

The

Nat

iona

l C

omm

issi

on

for

ICT

ran

a s

oftw

are

deve

lopm

ent c

ours

e un

der

the

ausp

ices

of t

he U

nite

d N

atio

ns U

nive

rsity

.

Labo

ur m

igra

tion

is n

ot a

pr

oble

m d

ue to

a l

ack

of

skill

ed l

ocal

lab

our

pool

.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

Pol

icie

s an

d S

trat

egie

s fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Nam

ibia

A

team

of

Nam

ibia

n an

d S

outh

Afr

ican

con

sulta

nts

has

prep

ared

a d

raft

ICT

Pol

icy

whi

ch h

as be

en

subm

itted

to t

he M

inis

try

of F

orei

gn A

ffairs

, In

form

atio

n &

Bro

adca

stin

g. S

ome

100

role

play

ers

have

bee

n co

nsul

ted

and

thre

e w

orks

hops

hel

d, a

s w

ell

as

othe

r em

piric

al r

esea

rch.

T

he d

raft

ICT

Pol

icy

will

de

al w

ith e

-Com

mer

ce

spec

ifica

lly,

incl

udin

g re

com

men

datio

ns fo

r ex

tens

ive

legi

slat

ive

refo

rm

in li

ne w

ith t

he U

NC

ITR

AL

Mod

el L

aw fo

r E

lect

roni

c C

omm

erce

. The

re i

s a

unit

in t

he O

ffice

of t

he P

rime

Min

iste

r re

spon

sibl

e fo

r IT

in g

over

nmen

t, bu

t ob

serv

ers

say

that

it h

as

had

mix

ed s

ucce

ss a

t bes

t, du

e to

the

limita

tions

in

expe

rienc

e of

mos

t of

its

st

aff.

The

Min

istr

y of

A

gric

ultu

re a

nd W

ater

is

repu

ted

to h

ave

mad

e th

e be

st jo

b of

int

rodu

cing

IT

into

its

oper

atio

ns.

Bey

ond

this

, th

ere

is n

o ev

iden

ce o

f a

cohe

rent

pro

gram

me

of

activ

ities

rel

atin

g to

e-

gove

rnm

ent.

The

re is

cu

rren

tly a

n at

tem

pt t

o es

tabl

ish

MP

CC

s in

eac

h of

th

e re

gion

s.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

Nam

ibia

n C

abin

et

appr

oved

a F

ram

ewor

k fo

r T

elec

om D

ereg

ulat

ion

in

1999

, bu

t th

is d

ocum

ent

was

nev

er f

orm

ally

pu

blis

hed.

It

was

sai

d to

pr

opos

e so

me

limite

d fo

rm

of p

rivat

isat

ion

of N

amib

ia

Tel

ecom

by

Mar

ch 2

000,

bu

t th

at d

ate

has

pass

ed

with

out a

n an

noun

cem

ent.

Tho

se i

nter

view

ed d

id n

ot

see

the

Nam

ibia

n re

gula

tory

sys

tem

as

bein

g in

nee

d of

im

med

iate

re

form

.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

Nam

ibia

has

an

emer

ging

e-

Com

mer

ce c

ultu

re.

Mos

t st

ate-

run

and

priv

ate

tour

ism

fac

ilitie

s ha

ve a

n on

line

pres

ence

and

a

natio

nal t

ouris

m p

orta

l is

unde

r co

nstr

uctio

n. In

som

e ca

ses

book

ings

can

be

mad

e on

line.

The

ban

king

se

ctor

pro

babl

y le

ads

in e

- C

omm

erce

sop

hist

icat

ion

with

maj

or b

anks

rec

ently

la

unch

ing

Inte

rnet

ban

king

. O

nlin

e cl

eara

nce

of c

redi

t ca

rd tr

ansa

ctio

ns i

s

imm

inen

t. T

he g

over

nmen

t ha

s a

nasc

ent

Intr

anet

and

pl

ans

to e

xten

d se

rvic

es

into

all

regi

ons.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Nam

ibia

has

a go

od

tele

com

m i

nfra

stru

ctur

e th

at c

urre

ntly

offe

rs fi

bre

conn

ectiv

ity to

all

maj

or

cent

res

in t

he c

ount

ry.

Nam

ibia

has

app

roxi

mat

ely

six

meg

abits

per

sec

ond

of

inte

rnat

iona

l Int

erne

t co

nnec

tivity

, m

uch

of w

hich

go

es v

ia S

outh

Afr

ica.

The

re

is a

n ac

tive

ISP

se

ctor

with

fo

ur s

igni

fican

t lea

sed-

line

and

dial

up s

ervi

ce p

rovi

ders

(U

UN

ET

, M

Web

, A

fric

a O

nlin

e an

d IW

AY

). T

elec

om

Nam

ibia

offe

rs a

nat

iona

l In

tern

et a

cces

s ex

chan

ge t

o se

rvic

e pr

ovid

ers

at

subs

idis

ed r

ates

. Tog

ethe

r th

e IS

Ps

have

abo

ut 1

2 00

0 di

alup

cus

tom

ers.

The

la

rger

bus

ines

ses

repr

esen

t a

rapi

dly

grow

ing

mar

ket

and

have

som

e 15

000

- 20

000

w

orks

tatio

ns a

cces

sing

the

In

tern

et v

ia L

AN

s lin

ked

to

leas

ed li

nes.

Ser

vice

pr

ovid

ers

can

offe

r th

e fu

ll ra

nge

of s

ervi

ces

requ

ired

for

onlin

e tr

ansa

ctin

g of

bu

sine

ss. A

bout

2 0

00

gove

rnm

ent w

orks

tatio

ns

are

conn

ecte

d vi

a th

e go

vern

men

t Int

rane

t.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Com

pute

r lit

erac

y an

d IC

T

trai

ning

and

edu

catio

n ar

e

set to

gro

w r

apid

ly i

n N

amib

ia. T

he g

over

nmen

t D

epar

tmen

ts o

f B

asic

and

H

ighe

r E

duca

tion

supp

ort

incr

easi

ng e

mph

asis

on

com

pute

r-re

late

d cu

rric

ula.

S

choo

lNet

Nam

ibia

, an

N

GO

bac

ked

by s

ubst

antia

l do

nor

fund

ing

(Sid

a),

is

spea

rhea

ding

com

pute

rs

and

conn

ectiv

ity in

all

1 50

0+ N

amib

ian

scho

ols.

T

he U

nive

rsity

of

Nam

ibia

of

fers

com

pute

r sc

ienc

e an

d in

form

atio

n sy

stem

s co

urse

s, a

s do

es th

e P

olyt

echn

ic o

f Nam

ibia

. T

he N

amib

ian

Col

lege

for

Ope

n Le

arni

ng (

NA

MC

OL)

ha

s ju

st o

pene

d its

firs

t on

line

com

pute

r tra

inin

g fa

cilit

y an

d, a

mon

g ot

her

qual

ifica

tions

, of

fers

the

inte

rnat

iona

lly c

ertif

ied

Com

pute

r D

rivin

g Li

cenc

e.

The

re is

als

o a

smal

l bu

t ac

tive

priv

ate

trai

ning

se

ctor

.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Sey

chel

les

Sin

ce th

e S

eych

elle

s is

heav

ily d

epen

dent

on

tour

ism

and

oth

er

inte

rnat

iona

l com

mer

ce i

t is

qu

ickl

y ad

optin

g IC

Ts

in i

ts

effo

rts

to p

rovi

de a

n in

tern

atio

nal b

anki

ng

serv

ice,

to p

rom

ote

fore

ign

inve

stm

ent

and

its

inte

rnat

iona

l fre

e tr

ade

zone

. It

is a

lso

in t

he

proc

ess

of a

dopt

ing

a fu

ll ra

nge

of e

-Com

mer

ce

polic

ies

and

has

alre

ady

pass

ed s

ome

legi

slat

ion

in

this

are

a.

Sou

th A

fric

a T

he D

epar

tmen

t of T

rade

an

d In

dust

ry h

as a

m

ajor

do

nor-

fund

ed p

roje

ct

unde

rway

to d

evel

op a

st

rate

gy f

or th

e IC

T in

dust

ry

(SA

ITIS

Pro

ject

). T

he

Min

iste

r for

Tra

de a

nd

Indu

stry

form

ally

acc

epte

d a

key

outp

ut,

the

ICT

Sec

tor

Dev

elop

men

t Fra

mew

ork,

in

Nov

embe

r 20

00. S

ever

al

follo

w-o

n pr

ojec

ts a

re

unde

rway

. The

pro

ject

is

unde

rpin

ned

by a

co

mpr

ehen

sive

ICT

Bas

elin

e S

tudy

, in

tern

atio

nal

inpu

t an

d ex

tens

ive

loca

l co

nsul

tatio

n. S

ee

ww

w.s

aitis

.co.

za.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

Tec

hnic

al S

uppo

rt

Ser

vice

s D

ivis

ion

(TS

SD

) of

th

e D

epar

tmen

t of

Indu

stry

is

res

pons

ible

for

nat

iona

l sc

ienc

e an

d te

chno

logy

in

form

atio

n po

licy.

The

M

inis

try

of F

inan

ce a

nd

Com

mun

icat

ions

is

resp

onsi

ble

for

regu

latio

n of

the

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

se

ctor

.

Tel

ecom

sys

tem

priv

atis

ed

with

initi

al m

onop

oly

to

expi

re 2

002

or 2

003;

deb

ate

on h

ow m

any

new

lic

ence

s sh

ould

be

appr

oved

re

cent

ly l

ed t

o an

an

noun

cem

ent o

f a

duop

oly

that

will

last

fiv

e ye

ars

afte

r de

regu

latio

n;

two

cell-

phon

e ne

twor

ks i

n op

erat

ion,

with

a th

ird

licen

ce r

ecen

tly is

sued

.

New

reg

ulat

ory

body

for

te

leco

mm

unic

atio

ns a

nd

broa

dcas

ting

esta

blis

hed

with

bro

ad m

anda

te,

but

may

suf

fer

from

inad

equa

te

reso

urci

ng.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

ISP

s A

tlas

and

Kok

onet

of

fer

cust

omer

s e-

C

omm

erce

sol

utio

ns to

fit

thei

r req

uire

men

ts a

nd

need

s. S

pace

95,

ano

ther

IT

com

pany

, al

so o

ffers

e-

Com

mer

ce s

olut

ions

. P

rivat

e e-

Com

mer

ce

enab

led

web

site

s do

exi

st,

e.g.

Spa

ce 9

5 - c

ompu

ter

reta

il, b

ut n

o la

rge-

scal

e e-

C

omm

erce

pro

ject

s w

ere

iden

tifie

d.

Sou

th A

fric

a's

prac

tice

of

e-C

omm

erce

is

com

para

ble

with

that

of m

ost

deve

lope

d co

untr

ies.

The

re

are

a nu

mbe

r of

ful

ly-

fledg

ed e

-Com

mer

ce

port

als,

ful

l-ser

vice

Int

erne

t ba

nkin

g, a

nd m

any

com

pani

es o

fferin

g 13

2C

and

82B

ser

vice

s. T

he

over

all

valu

e of

Int

erne

t-

gene

rate

d pu

rcha

ses

and

B2B

tran

sact

ions

for

1999

w

as e

stim

ated

at

$1 bi

llion

w

hile

in 2

000

dire

ct

cons

umer

pur

chas

es o

ver

the

Inte

rnet

wer

e of

the

orde

r of

$10

mill

ion.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Atla

s, w

hich

is

a co

nsor

tium

of

thre

e co

mpu

ter

com

pani

es,

laun

ched

ful

l In

tern

et s

ervi

ces

in

Sep

tem

ber

1996

: V

CS

, M

BM

an

d S

pace

95.

Mor

e re

cent

ly

a ne

w I

SP

, K

okon

et,

has

been

lau

nche

d, a

lso

by a

cons

ortiu

m o

f priv

ate

inve

stor

s.

Sou

th A

fric

a ha

s a

mat

ure

coun

tryw

ide

tele

com

m

infr

astr

uctu

re,

alth

ough

th

ere

rem

ain

maj

or

urba

n/ru

ral

disc

repa

ncie

s.

Som

e 11

2 In

tern

et s

ervi

ce

prov

ider

s us

e th

e na

tiona

l ba

ckbo

ne a

nd in

199

9 of

fere

d se

rvic

es t

o ne

arly

2

mill

ion

user

s: n

early

a

mill

ion

in th

e co

rpor

ate

leas

ed-li

ne s

ecto

r, 6

00 0

00

dial

up c

usto

mer

s an

d 40

0 00

0 ac

adem

ic u

sers

(s

choo

ls a

nd u

nive

rsiti

es).

T

he c

ount

ry h

as a

bout

750

M

b of

int

erna

tiona

l co

nnec

tivity

.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool f

or e

-Com

mer

ce

The

re a

re a

nu

mbe

r of

ICT

trai

ning

sch

ools

.

Maj

or n

atio

nal

and

regi

onal

pro

ject

s ar

e un

derw

ay to

rev

amp

and

expa

nd l

earn

ing

abou

t, an

d le

arni

ng w

ith I

CT

. T

he

Sch

oolN

et

NG

O a

s w

ell a

s ot

hers

suc

h as

the

C

ompu

ter

Soc

iety

of S

outh

A

fric

a ar

e ac

tivel

y su

ppor

ting

the

rollo

ut o

f In

tern

et c

onne

ctiv

ity in

the

sc

hool

sys

tem

. R

ecen

tly

gove

rnm

ent

decl

ared

its

in

tent

ion

to r

equi

re a

ll te

leco

mm

ope

rato

rs t

o of

fer

publ

ic s

choo

ls a

n "e

- ra

te"

for

Inte

rnet

co

nnec

tions

at a

50

%

disc

ount

.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

Pol

icie

s an

d S

trat

egie

s fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Sou

th A

fric

a e-

Com

mer

ce p

olic

y dr

aftin

g (c

ontd

) pr

oces

s st

arte

d by

Dep

t of

C

omm

unic

atio

ns J

uly

1999

. G

reen

Pap

er la

unch

ed i

n N

ovem

ber

2000

afte

r ex

tens

ive

cons

ulta

tions

. F

ast-

trac

k le

gisl

ativ

e pr

oces

s ha

s se

t ou

t to

hav

e so

me

legi

slat

ion

in p

lace

by

end-

20

01. W

hite

Pap

er o

n ad

ditio

nal e

lem

ents

will

be

publ

ishe

d in

due

cou

rse.

Dep

t of

Pub

lic S

ervi

ce &

A

dmin

istr

atio

n in

itiat

ed

som

e ac

tivity

. S

tate

IT

A

genc

y (S

ITA

) es

tabl

ishe

d an

d in

pro

cess

of r

ole

defin

ition

. C

onsi

dera

tion

bein

g gi

ven

first

to

IT u

se

with

in g

over

nmen

t, se

cond

to

gov

ernm

ent-

to-b

usin

ess

tran

sact

ions

for

go

vern

men

t pur

chas

e of

go

ods

and

serv

ices

and

th

ird to

gov

ernm

ent-

to-

citiz

en c

omm

unic

atio

ns a

nd

tran

sact

ions

.

Sw

azila

nd

In 1

998

the

Sw

azila

nd P

osts

an

d T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns

Cor

pora

tion

(SP

TC

) an

d th

e U

ND

P (

Uni

ted

Nat

ions

D

evel

opm

ent

Pro

gram

) si

gned

a "M

emor

andu

m O

f U

nder

stan

ding

" fo

r the

im

plem

enta

tion

of a

n In

tern

et p

roje

ct,

calle

d th

e "I

nter

net

Initi

ativ

e fo

r S

waz

iland

".

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

Sw

azila

nd P

osts

and

T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns

Cor

pora

tion,

a bo

dy

corp

orat

e, w

as e

stab

lishe

d in

Apr

il 19

86 u

nder

Act

No.

11

of

198

3. T

his

Act

re

gula

tes

all t

he a

ctiv

ities

of

the

Cor

pora

tion.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

The

re is

a t

hriv

ing

e-C

omm

erce

ser

vice

s se

ctor

of

ferin

g ba

ck-o

ffice

/fron

t-

offic

e in

tegr

atio

n of

bu

sine

ss tr

ansa

ctio

ns.

To

date

, ho

wev

er, n

o go

vern

men

t- r

elat

ed

e-pr

ocur

emen

t is

in p

lace

.

The

two

mai

n IS

Ps

Afr

icaO

nlin

e an

d R

eal

Imag

e bo

th o

ffer

e-

Com

mer

ce s

ervi

ces

to S

waz

i bu

sine

sses

.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

The

re is

wid

espr

ead

gove

rnm

ent

conn

ectiv

ity a

t th

e na

tiona

l an

d re

gion

al

leve

ls,

but

inco

mpa

tibili

ties

betw

een

netw

orks

ham

pers

e-

gove

rnm

ent.

The

dis

tanc

e le

arni

ng m

arke

t is

set

to

expa

nd r

apid

ly w

ith

gove

rnm

ent

enco

urag

emen

t and

rec

ent

agre

emen

ts to

com

bine

the

dist

ance

lear

ning

effo

rts

of

maj

or t

ertia

ry in

stitu

tions

. T

here

are

sev

eral

su

bsta

ntia

l do

nor-

fund

ed

proj

ects

to e

stab

lish

mul

ti-

purp

ose

tele

cent

res

in r

ural

an

d pe

ri-ur

ban

area

s.

UU

NE

T S

waz

iland

(no

w

know

n as

Afr

icaO

nlin

e S

waz

iland

) w

as t

he f

irst

ISP

in t

he c

ount

ry.

Sub

sequ

ently

, R

eal

Imag

e In

tern

et e

stab

lishe

d fu

ll In

tern

et s

ervi

ces.

Rea

l Im

age

Inte

rnet

sta

rted

its

op

erat

ion

in 1

996.

Bas

ed i

n an

arc

hite

ctur

e bu

reau

in

Mba

bane

, th

ey o

ffer

full

Inte

rnet

acc

ess

via

M-W

eb

SA

.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool

for e

-Com

mer

ce

Mos

t un

iver

sitie

s an

d po

lyte

chni

cs h

ave

larg

e an

d gr

owin

g pr

ogra

mm

es i

n IC

T, w

ith th

e em

phas

is

shift

ing

from

fun

dam

enta

l co

mpu

ter

scie

nce

to

info

rmat

ion

syst

ems

and

e-co

mm

erce

(es

peci

ally

in

the

busi

ness

sch

ools

).

With

in th

e pr

ofes

sion

al

trai

ning

are

na,

man

y fir

ms

offe

r IC

T t

rain

ing

and

ther

e is

a g

row

ing

num

ber

of

spec

ialis

ed e

-Com

mer

ce

trai

ning

offe

rings

.

The

Com

pute

r Sci

ence

D

epar

tmen

t at

the

Uni

ver-

si

ty o

f Sw

azila

nd (

Uni

Sw

a)

offe

rs c

ompu

ter

scie

nce

cour

ses

in 2

sub

ject

maj

ors,

na

mel

y M

athe

mat

ics

and

Eng

inee

ring

. Tw

o on

goin

g pr

ojec

ts i

n th

e M

inis

try

of

Edu

catio

n ar

e ai

med

at

intr

oduc

ing

com

pute

rs a

s pa

rt o

f the

cur

ricul

um in

lo

cal

scho

ols.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal

Pol

icie

s an

d S

trat

egie

s fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Sw

azila

nd

The

vis

ion

of th

e pr

ojec

t (c

ontd

) ta

kes

into

acc

ount

tha

t .'a

lread

y it

is p

ossi

ble

in a

lot

of c

ount

ries

to d

o on

e's

shop

ping

and

ban

king

ove

r th

e In

tern

et.

In t

he f

utur

e,

ther

e w

ill b

e ot

her

serv

ices

th

at w

ill h

elp

one

cond

uct

one'

s ev

eryd

ay l

ivin

g m

ore

spee

dily

and

effe

ctiv

ely.

It

is

ther

efor

e a

chal

leng

e in

S

waz

iland

to s

ee h

ow w

e ca

n sp

eed

up th

e sp

read

of

the

Inte

rnet

to b

ring

us i

n pa

r with

wor

ld s

tand

ards

".

The

mai

n ob

ject

ive

of th

e pr

ojec

t is

to p

rovi

de

Inte

rnet

acc

ess

to e

very

one

in S

waz

iland

.

Tan

zani

a T

he T

anza

nia

Com

mis

sion

fo

r S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

y (C

OS

TE

CH

) is

res

pons

ible

fo

r th

e na

tiona

l re

sear

ch

cent

re a

nd a

cade

mic

ne

twor

king

. A

side

from

the

ac

tiviti

es o

f CO

ST

EC

H,

ther

e is

no

high

-leve

l na

tiona

l in

form

atio

n in

fras

truc

ture

pl

anni

ng a

nd p

olic

y de

velo

pmen

t pr

oces

s in

T

anza

nia.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

In

1994

Tan

zani

a se

t up

an

inde

pend

ent

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

re

gula

tory

aut

horit

y, th

e T

anza

nia

Com

mun

icat

ions

C

omm

issi

on (

TC

C),

whi

ch i

s

empo

wer

ed to

lice

nse

and

to o

vers

ee th

e op

erat

ion

of

all

form

s of

com

mun

icat

ion

serv

ices

in

the

coun

try.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

The

eT

hink

Tan

k is

an

info

rmal

gat

herin

g of

ove

r 80

IC

T-o

rient

ed

prof

essi

onal

s fr

om t

he

priv

ate,

pub

lic a

nd n

on-

prof

it/no

n-go

vern

men

t se

ctor

s. T

he p

eer

grou

p w

as

star

ted

on 2

4 F

ebru

ary

2000

to

dis

cuss

, in

vest

igat

e,

artic

ulat

e an

d in

itiat

e m

easu

res

to c

atal

yse

the

mom

entu

m o

f de

velo

pmen

t in

Tan

zani

a's

ICT

env

ironm

ent.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Ful

l In

tern

et a

cces

s is

prov

ided

by

thre

e "t

op-

leve

l" IS

Ps.

The

nat

iona

l re

gula

tor

calle

d fo

r te

nder

s fo

r in

tern

atio

nal d

ata

carr

iers

in

1996

and

thr

ee

licen

ces

wer

e is

sued

for

a

perio

d of

up

to 1

0 ye

ars

(sub

ject

to

revi

ew a

fter

5

year

s) t

o th

ree

loca

lly

regi

ster

ed c

ompa

nies

with

in

tern

atio

nal o

wne

rshi

p -

SIT

A, W

ilken

/Afs

at a

nd

Dat

el.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool

for

e-C

omm

erce

The

Uni

vers

ity o

f D

ar-e

s-

Sal

aam

has

a D

epar

tmen

t of

Ele

ctric

al E

ngin

eerin

g w

ith u

nder

grad

uate

cou

rses

le

adin

g to

a B

.Sc.

in

E

lect

rical

E

ngin

eerin

g. T

he

depa

rtm

ent

also

offe

rs

post

grad

uate

stu

dies

le

adin

g to

M.S

c. (

Eng

.) a

nd

Ph.

D.

(Eng

.) d

egre

es.

The

Com

putin

g C

entr

e w

as

esta

blis

hed

in 1

980

as a

n au

tono

mou

s in

stitu

tion

answ

erab

le to

the

Sen

ate.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Tan

zani

a T

he I

nter

natio

nal

Inst

itute

(c

ontd

) fo

r Com

mun

icat

ion

and

Dev

elop

men

t (I

ICD

) fa

cilit

ated

a N

atio

nal

ICT

Rou

ndta

ble

held

in

Dar

es

Sal

aam

in J

une

1998

. T

he

purp

ose

of th

e N

atio

nal I

CT

R

ound

tabl

e w

as to

dee

pen

the

shar

ed/c

omm

on

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

the

po

tent

ial r

ole

of IC

T i

n th

e de

velo

pmen

t of

Tan

zani

a an

d to

dev

elop

a se

ries

of

anno

tate

d pr

ojec

t ide

as.

Zam

bia

The

re i

s no

pol

icy

proc

ess

for

deve

lopi

ng a

na

tiona

l in

form

atio

n in

fras

truc

ture

pl

an o

r a

natio

nal

acad

emic

/res

earc

h ne

twor

k pr

ojec

t in

Zam

bia.

The

of

ficia

l bo

dy in

Zam

bia

resp

onsi

ble

for

acad

emic

/res

earc

h ne

twor

king

is t

he N

atio

nal

Sci

entif

ic R

esea

rch

Cou

ncil

(NS

RC

), w

hich

suf

fers

fro

m

criti

cal

inst

itutio

nal

unde

rdev

elop

men

t and

la

cks

even

bas

ic c

ompu

ter

equi

pmen

t.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ion

Act

of

Jul

y 19

94 e

stab

lishe

d th

e Z

ambi

a C

omm

unic

atio

ns

Aut

horit

y (Z

CA

), w

hose

m

ain

resp

onsi

bilit

ies

are

to

regu

late

and

mon

itort

he

prov

isio

n an

d op

erat

ion

of

tele

com

mun

icat

ion

serv

ices

in

the

cou

ntry

and

to

over

see

the

coex

iste

nce

of

the

vario

us e

ntiti

es

invo

lved

in

the

sect

or.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

The

eT

hink

Tan

k's

mis

sion

is

to o

ffer

ICT

lead

ersh

ip b

y ca

taly

sing

pol

icy

chan

ges

and

by s

uppo

rtin

g re

late

d de

velo

pmen

ts ai

med

at

enab

ling

Tan

zani

ans

to

part

icip

ate

effe

ctiv

ely

in

the

mod

ern

Inte

rnet

-bas

ed

glob

al e

cono

my.

Non

e.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

Pro

vide

rs

incl

ude

Cyb

erT

wig

a (T

anza

nia'

s fir

st c

omm

erci

al

full

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

), T

Z

Onl

ine,

Int

erne

t Afr

ica,

C

ats-

Net

, R

aha,

Zan

zine

t (I

nter

net Z

anzi

bar)

and

A

fric

aOnl

ine

Tan

zani

a.

The

re a

re 3

pub

lic I

nter

net

acce

ss p

rovi

ders

in Z

ambi

a.

The

lar

gest

and

one

of t

he

first

in

Afr

ica

is t

he

Uni

vers

ity o

f Z

ambi

a's

Zam

Net

, w

ith a

bout

3 0

00

subs

crib

ers.

T

he s

econ

d-

larg

est

ISP

is

Cop

perN

et,

whi

ch w

as c

reat

ed o

ut o

f Z

CC

M's

priv

atis

ed IT

divi

sion

and

has

abo

ut

2 70

0 su

bscr

iber

s. T

he

natio

nal t

elec

om o

pera

tor,

Z

amte

l, ha

s al

so l

aunc

hed

an I

nter

net s

ervi

ce i

n co

mpe

titio

n w

ith t

he

priv

ate

serv

ices

.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

The

prim

ary

obje

ctiv

es o

f th

e C

ompu

ting

Cen

tre

incl

ude:

tea

chin

g co

mpu

ter

and

com

pute

r-re

late

d co

urse

s; c

ondu

ctin

g re

sear

ch i

n in

form

atic

s; a

nd

prov

idin

g co

mpu

ting

serv

ices

and

con

sulta

ncy

to

the

univ

ersi

ty c

omm

uniti

es.

Sof

t Tec

h T

rain

ing

Cen

tre

esta

blis

hed

in 1

993

in

reco

gniti

on o

f the

loca

l ne

ed f

or In

form

atio

n T

echn

olog

y S

ervi

ces

and

Tra

inin

g to

mee

t th

e ch

alle

nges

of

21st

Cen

tury

T

anza

nia.

Sof

t Tec

h is

com

mitt

ed to

dev

elop

ing

loca

l ex

pert

ise

in

Info

rmat

ion

Tec

hnol

ogy.

The

Com

pute

r C

entr

e of

th

e U

nive

rsity

of Z

ambi

a es

tabl

ishe

d a

com

mer

cial

C

onsu

ltanc

y an

d T

rain

ing

Uni

t (C

TU

). T

he S

choo

l of

E

duca

tion

of th

e U

nive

rsity

of

Zam

bia

(UN

ZA

) of

fers

a

four

-yea

r pr

ogra

mm

e le

adin

g to

the

Bac

helo

r of

A

rts

degr

ee w

ith L

ibra

ry

and

Info

rmat

ion

Stu

dies

. T

he S

choo

l of

Eng

inee

ring

with

in t

he u

nive

rsity

has

a

degr

ee p

rogr

amm

e in

Ele

ctric

al E

ngin

eerin

g.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Zam

bia

The

IIC

D c

oord

inat

ed a

(con

td)

Nat

iona

l IC

T R

ound

tabl

e,

held

in L

usak

a in

19

98.

Som

e of

the

re

com

men

datio

ns re

sulti

ng

from

the

wor

ksho

p in

clud

ed:

1) C

ontin

uity

and

co

ordi

natio

n of

ICT

pol

icy,

w

hich

will

allo

w

inte

grat

ion

as w

ell

as

ensu

re s

usta

inab

le

deve

lopm

ent;

and

2) I

CT

po

licy

shou

ld p

rovi

de f

or

adeq

uate

trai

ning

and

ca

paci

ty b

uild

ing.

Zim

babw

e T

here

is n

o fo

rmal

go

vern

men

t pol

icy

proc

ess

for

deve

lopi

ng a

nat

iona

l in

form

atio

n in

fras

truc

ture

. W

ith th

e ch

angi

ng

envi

ronm

ent i

n th

e S

AD

C

regi

on, t

he M

inis

try

of

Info

rmat

ion,

Pos

ts a

nd

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ions

has

be

gun

look

ing

at p

lans

for

liber

alis

atio

n of

the

tele

com

mun

icat

ions

sect

or.

Thi

s is

ref

lect

ed i

n th

e P

osts

an

d T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns

Cor

pora

tion'

s pl

ans

in

whi

ch th

e ch

alle

nge

of a

liber

alis

ed m

arke

t, ba

sed

on t

he W

TO

ref

eren

ce

pape

r, i

s ci

ted

as a

rea

son

for

refo

rm.

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

re i

s cu

rren

tly n

o se

para

te r

egul

ator

and

the

se

ctor

is

the

resp

onsi

bilit

y of

the

Min

istr

y of

In

form

atio

n, P

osts

and

T

elec

omm

unic

atio

ns.

The

go

vern

men

t pu

blis

hed

a

draf

t C

omm

unic

atio

ns B

ill,

the

purp

ose

of w

hich

is t

o es

tabl

ish

a re

gula

tory

au

thor

ity th

at w

ill r

egul

ate

and

licen

se te

leco

mm

uni-

catio

n sy

stem

s an

d po

stal

se

rvic

es p

rovi

ders

.

The

Res

erve

Ban

k of

Z

imba

bwe

has

also

bec

ome

invo

lved

in

the

field

of

e-

Com

mer

ce. T

he R

eser

ve

Ban

k is

int

eres

ted

in

ensu

ring

that

con

fiden

tial

info

rmat

ion

is s

ecur

e at

all

times

.

e-C

omm

erce

Pra

ctic

e

Am

ong

the

sect

ors

that

ha

ve b

egun

usi

ng th

e In

tern

et f

or b

usin

ess

is t

he

finan

cial

ser

vice

s se

ctor

, w

here

som

e ba

nks

now

al

low

clie

nts

to o

pen

new

ac

coun

ts a

s w

ell a

s ap

ply

for

cred

it ca

rds

onlin

e. T

he

reta

il se

ctor

has

als

o be

en

intr

oduc

ed t

o e-

Com

mer

ce

by a

loc

al c

ompa

ny,

Tra

dane

t, w

hich

offe

rs

elec

tron

ic d

ata

inte

rcha

nge,

al

low

ing

reta

ilers

' co

mpu

ters

to p

ass

impo

rtan

t tr

adin

g da

ta

betw

een

them

selv

es.

In t

he

hosp

italit

y an

d to

uris

m

sect

ors,

som

e ho

tels

and

to

uris

m o

pera

tors

now

al

low

cus

tom

ers

to m

ake

rese

rvat

ion

inqu

iries

ove

r th

e In

tern

et.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

A n

umbe

r of

dia

l-up

e-m

ail

serv

ice

prov

ider

s ha

ve

exis

ted

in Z

imba

bwe

sinc

e 19

90.

The

re i

s a

varie

ty o

f IS

Ps,

incl

udin

g: I

nter

Dat

a,

Zim

babw

e O

nlin

e, I

nter

net

Afr

ica,

Afr

icaO

nlin

e, M

Web

Z

imba

bwe

and

Tel

co

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

s, Z

imsu

rf,

Zam

bezi

Net

and

Z

imba

bwe

Onl

ine.

All

the

ISP

s de

pend

on

the

inte

rnat

iona

l gat

eway

pr

ovid

ed b

y th

e P

TO

.

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-C

omm

erce

ZA

MT

EL

Sta

ff T

rain

ing

Col

lege

is a

Tec

hnic

al a

nd

Voc

atio

nal

Tra

inin

g C

olle

ge

regi

ster

ed u

nder

the

Dep

artm

ent o

f Tec

hnic

al

Edu

catio

n an

d V

ocat

iona

l T

rain

ing

(DT

EV

T),

and

is

who

lly o

wne

d by

the

Zam

bia

Tel

ecom

mun

icat

ions

C

ompa

ny L

imite

d.

Apa

rt f

rom

IC

T-r

elat

ed

cour

ses

offe

red

at

univ

ersi

ties

and

colle

ges

arou

nd t

he c

ount

ry,

ther

e is

also

Zim

babw

e-In

tera

ctiv

e,

owne

d by

Glo

bal V

illag

e C

om C

orp.

, an

info

rmat

ion

tech

nolo

gy c

ompa

ny

oper

atin

g bo

th in

the

US

and

in Z

imba

bwe.

Z

imba

bwe-

I me

ra ct

i ve'

s m

issi

on

is "

to ta

ke t

he le

ad

in e

duca

ting

the

publ

ic a

nd

the

busi

ness

com

mun

ity a

t la

rge

on th

e ap

plic

atio

ns o

f th

e In

tern

et w

hile

pr

ovid

ing

the

Inte

rnet

de

stin

atio

n of

cho

ice

with

in

the

Sou

ther

n A

fric

an

Reg

ion

thro

ugh

cont

ent

deliv

ery,

com

mer

ce

faci

litat

ion

and

com

mun

ity

build

ing"

.

Cou

ntry

N

atio

nal P

olic

ies

and

Str

ateg

ies

for

e-C

omm

erce

Zim

babw

e (c

ontd

)

Tel

ecom

m R

egul

ator

y R

egim

e

The

cen

tral

ban

k w

ill b

e w

orki

ng w

ith th

e le

gal

auth

oriti

es in

est

ablis

hing

th

e sp

ecifi

c le

gal

prov

isio

ns

that

will

add

ress

sec

urity

an

d ot

her

conc

erns

re

gard

ing

e-ba

nkin

g.

e-Commerce Practice

Tw

o st

ockb

roki

ng f

irms,

S

agit

Sto

ckbr

oker

s an

d C

ontin

enta

l Sec

uriti

es,

have

la

unch

ed f

acili

ties

that

en

able

inve

stor

s to

buy

and

se

ll eq

uitie

s on

line.

Inte

rnet

ser

vice

pro

vide

r M

- W

eb Z

imba

bwe

laun

ched

el

ectr

onic

com

mer

ce

faci

litie

s th

at a

llow

co

nsum

ers

to b

uy g

oods

w

ithou

t pa

ssin

g cr

edit

card

in

form

atio

n ov

er th

e In

tern

et, w

hich

is r

egar

ded

as a

maj

or b

arrie

r to

e-

Com

mer

ce i

n Z

imba

bwe.

T

he e

-Com

mer

ce f

acili

ties

are

avai

labl

e on

tw

o w

ebsi

tes

belo

ngin

g to

m

usic

ret

aile

r S

pina

long

an

d th

e pu

blis

hers

of

com

pute

r m

agaz

ine

PC

Wor

ld.

Inte

rnet

Ser

vice

P

rovi

sion

Sup

port

ing

e-C

omm

erce

Gro

win

g th

e IC

T L

abou

r P

ool fo

r e-

Com

mer

ce

Appendix

References on Information Policy in Southern Africa

For a comprehensive listing of international and African ICT-related institutions and donor organisations supporting ICT-related initiatives, see:

Quansah, Y. (2000). Survey of International and African ICT Policy and Research Institutions, available from the Handbook website: www.dbsa.org/publications/ictpoisa


Association for Progressive Communications. Draft Internet Rights Policy. www. a pc. org/eng/ish/righ tslindex.shtm/

Cammaerts B. and Burgelman J-V (eds) (2000). Beyond Competitions: Broadening the Scope of Telecommunications Policy. VUB University Press, Belgium.

International Labour Office (ILO) (2001). World Employment Report 2001: Life at Work in the Information Economy www.ilo.org/Pub/ic/eng/ish/Support/Pub//wer/index2.htm

Mansell, R. and Wehn, U. (eds) (1998). Knowledge Societies: Information Technology for Sustainable Development. Carried out for the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD). Oxford University Press.

ICT Policy Initiatives in Southern Africa

Adam, Lishan (April 2000). National Information and Communication Infrastructure Development in Southern Africa. Presentation made in Windhoek, Namibia, 11-12 April, 2000. Sixth Meeting of the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts for Southern Africa (ICE).

COMESA Website. www.comesa.int

COMESA. www.itu.intlafricainternet2OOOlDocuments1doc5O-e.htm

COMESA (1998). Information - A Tool for Increased Trade and Investment in COMESA. Final Communique of the Third Summit of the COMESA Authority of the Heads of State and Government. www.comesa.intlnewslcommunique.htm

COMESA (1998). The COMESA TREATY. www.comesa.intlbackgrndlbacktrty.htm

COMESA (April 2001). COMESA Workshop on e-Commerce, Seychelles. www.comesaec.org

COMESA (undated). The ASYCUDA - EUROTRACE Regional Project. www.unicc.org/unctad/en/Pressref/mtlhome.htm

COMTEL Initiative. www.comesa.intlcommslcomtelb.htm


Appendix 13

Insys: Africa. www.insysafrique.org

Miller, J. and James T. (August 2000). Assessing the Need for and Potential Nature of a

Regional Policy Secretariat for Information and Communications Technology (ICTs)

in Southern Africa. Unpublished report prepared for the International Development Research Centre (IDRC).

Mozambican ICT Policy Commission. Mission and Programme of Action (brochure).

Namibia Trade Directory (2000 and 2001). www.tradedirectory.com.na

Republic of Mozambique. ICT- Human Resource Development (1998 - 2002). www, cica t. tudel ftllPenSll. cfm ?lPage1D=2752

Republic of Mozambique (May 2000). Draft Policy For Information and Communication Technologies (in English; final policy available in Portuguese only). www.infopol.gov.mz

Republic of Namibia (1999). Telecommunications Policy and Regulatory Framework for Namibia. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Namibia.

SADC (March 1998). SADC Protocol on Transport Communications and Meteorology. Southern Africa Transport and Communications Commission Technical Unit (SATCC-TU).

SADC (1999). 1999 Theme Document - The Challenges and Opportunities of IT for SADC in the New Millennium. Lusaka, Zambia.

SADC (January 2000). Summary of IT/MIS Workshop held in Gaborone, Botswana. Unpublished report.

SATCC - TU. Proposed Organisational Structure and Staffing. Unpublished document. See also www.satcc.org

The Namibian (5 December 2000). SADC approves Restructuring Report. www. namibian. com. nal2000lDecemberlnewsl00BCD 1 FADE. h tml

TRASA (February 2001). Workshop on Universal Service / Universal Access, Social and Economic Development and Promoting a Regional Framework for Licensing Practices (USAID / RCSA Rapid Task Order 2.1), 19 - 21 February, Swaziland. Unpublished papers.

United National Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The African Information Society Initiative (AISI). www.un.org/Depts/eca

United National Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). African Development Forum (ADF) '99, Addis Ababa. www.un.org/depts/eca/adf

United National Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). NICI Country Profiles. www.un.org/Depts/eca/adf/nici/n/*ci %20subregion. h tm

United National Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) (2000). Draft versions of Post ADF Forum Summit Papers: ICT Policies and Strategies. www.un.org/Depts/eca/adf


Appendix 13

USAID (1999). The Rural Telecommunications Restructuring Project (RTR). www. tiaonlnie. org/intema tiona I/regional/a frica/rtr. cfm ?I D=6


African National Congress (1994). The Reconstruction and Development Programme. A policy framework. www.polity.org.za/govdocslydplydp.html

Berger, G. (25 August 1994). International experience: Government communication and media policy. Arniston Conference on Government Communication and Media Policy, Government Communication and Information System, www.gov.za/speeches/

Dot Force (Markle Foundation). www.markle.org/dotforce.htm/

Government Communication and Information System (2000). Vision and mandate, Government Communication and Information System, www.gcis.govzalourdeptlvision.htm

Harfoush, N. and Wild, K. (1994). National Information Management Project. South Africa. Report of the preparatory mission, Johannesburg, IDRC.

Henten, A. (2000). Regulation in a liberal, international and converging communication market. In: Cammaerts B. and Burgelman J-C (eds), Beyond Competition: Broadening the Scope of Telecommunications Policy, VUB University Press, Belgium.

Horwitz, R. (1997). South Africa Telecommunications: History and Prospects, Virtual Institute of Information, www.vii.org

ITWeb (9 April 2001). Examining the Panoply of ICT Policy Processes. i tweb. co. zalsectionslquickprin tlprin t. asp ?StorylD=43691

James, T., Esselaar, P.; Bowmaker-Falconer, A.; Quansah, Y.; Sibthorpe, C.; Mosebi, J.;

Mokoena T.; BMI-Tech Knowledge (January 2000). SAITIS South African IT Industry Strategy Baseline Studies: A Survey of the IT Industry and Related Jobs and Skills in South Africa. Prepared for the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), www.saitis.co.za

Mandela, N. (3 October 1995). Address by President Nelson Mandela at the opening ceremony of Telecom 95, The 7th World Telecommunications Forum and Exhibition Geneva, www.gov.zal

Mbeki, T. (24 February 1995). South Africa and the Information Superhighway, G7

Conference on the Information Society, Brussels, Belgium, 24 February 1995, in Mbeki, T. (ed.)(1998) Africa: the time has come. Selected speeches. Cape Town: Tafelberg Publishers & Mafube Publishing, pp.181-185.


Appendix 13

Mandela, N. (1997) Foreword, in Ministry of Posts Telecommunications and Broadcasting, Partnership for the future. Pretoria, Ministry of Posts Tele- communications and Broadcasting.

Naidoo, J. (1997) Speech by Mr J. Naidoo, Minister for Post, Telecommunications and Broadcasting at the official launch of SATRA, Department of Communications. d ocweb. pwv. go v.za/docslsp119971sp970210. h tmI

Naidoo, J. (1997). Speech by Mr J. Naidoo, Minister for Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting, Taking South Africa into the 21st Century, Department of Communications, docweb.pwv.gov.zaldocslspll9971

National Information Technology Forum (1996). The Information Society and the Developing World. NITF. www.sn.apc.org/nitf

National Information Technology Forum (1997). Annual Report 1996197, Johannesburg, NITF.

National Information Technology Forum (1997a) Towards an Information Society Policy for South Africa: A proposal from the NITF, National Information Technology Forum, www.sn.apc.orglnitf/

National Information Technology Forum (1997b) National Information and Communications Technology Policy Framework. Building the Information Community: A South African Approach. Proposed Green Paper Structure, National Information Technology Forum, www.sn.apc.org/nitf/

National Information Technology Forum. MPCC Audit. www.communitysa.org.za

National Research Foundation. www.nrf.ac.za

Office of the Executive Deputy President (15 October 1997). Statement on Cabinet acceptance of recommendations of committee appointed to implement the COMTASK Report Government Communication and Information System, www.gov.za

Office of the Executive Deputy President (1997). Statement on Cabinet acceptance of recommendations of committee appointed to implement the COMTASK Report Government Communication and Information System, www.gov.za

CG'Siochru, S. (September 1996). Telecommunications and Universal Service: International Experience in the Context of South African Policy Reform. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada.

Presidential Review Commission (1998). Developing a culture of good governance. Report of the Presidential Review Commission on the reform and transformation of the public service in South Africa, Government Communication and Information Service, www.gov.zal.

Republic of South Africa (1996). Telecommunications Act No. 103 of 1996, Government Gazette, (17581).


Appendix 13

Republic of South Africa (1997). Notice 768 of 1997. Licence issued to Telkom SA Limited to provide telecommunication services under section 36 of the Tele- communications Act, 1996, Government Gazette, 383(17984), pp.1-128.

Republic of South Africa (1997a). Notice 773 of 1997. Minister for Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting. Ministerial policy direction on fees and charges for telecommunication services, Government Gazette, 383(17984), pp.182 183.

South Africa Advertising Research Foundation (2000). First quarter, Johannesburg, South Africa.

South African Department of Arts Culture Science and Technology (1996). White Paper on Science and Technology. Preparing for the 21st Century. Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, www.dacst.gov.za/science_technology/sc&tecwp.htm

South African Department of Arts Culture Science and Technology (1999). The National Research and Technology Foresight Project 2020. www.dacst.gov.za

South African Department of Arts Culture Science and Technology (1999). Foresight: Information and Communication Technology. The National Research and Technology Foresight Project 2020. www.dacst.gov.za

South African Department of Communications (1998). Info.com 2025. The dawning of a new information age for Africa, Pretoria, Department of Communications.

South African Department of Communications. www.docweb.pwvgov.za

South African Department of Public Service and Administration. www. dpsa.gov.zaldocumentlpolicyframework

South African IT Industrial Strategy (SAITIS) (November 2000). South African ICT Sector Development Framework. www.saitis.co.za

South African Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting (1995). Green Paper on Telecommunications Policy, Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting, docweb.pwvgovza/docs/policy/telecomms.html

South African Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting (1996). White Paper on Telecommunications (Second Draft), Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting, www.sn.apc.org/Sangonet/techno/ogylte/ecoms/te/ewhite.htm/

South African Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting (1996a). White Paper on Telecommunications, Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting. www.docweb.pwv.gov.zaldocslpolicyltelewp.html

South African Ministry of Posts Telecommunications and Broadcasting (1997) Partnership for the future. Pretoria, Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting.

South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) (February 2000). The National Qualifications Framework: An Overview. See also www.saqa.org.za


Appendix 13

Technical Task Team (1995). Interim narrative report on the responses to the Green Paper on Telecommunications Policy, Ministry for Posts, Telecommunications and Broadcasting, www.sn.apc.org/Sangonet/technology/telecoms/narrev.htm

TELI Committee (1996). Technology Enhanced Learning Investigation in South Africa. A discussion document. Report of the Ministerial Committee for the Development Work on the Role of Technology that will Support and Enhance Learning, Pretoria, Government Printer.

TELI Strategic Planning Committee (1997). Technology Enhanced Learning Initiative in South Africa: A strategic plan. A discussion planning document prepared for the directorate, Pretoria, Department of Education, National Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education.

Townsend & Associates (1997). Department of Communications of the Republic of South Africa. Telecommunications sector consultancy for specialised policy advice, Pretoria, David N. Townsend & Associates, Unpublished Report.

Universal Service Agency. www.usa.org.za

Education

Acacia Programme (IDRC). www.idre.calacacial5_e.htm

ADF '99 Theme Papers. www.un.org/dept5/eca/adflpub.htm

ADF '99 PostForum Summit Paper on The African Learning Network. www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/Pforum.htm

African Information Society Initiative (AISI). www.bellanet.org/Partners/aisi

Busang, C. and Oabile, M. (July 2000). A Botswana Information and Communications Technology (ICT) Educational Development Perspective. Paper presented at the SchoolNet Africa Conference, 17 - 20 July 2000.

Commission for Information and Communication Technology Policy (2000). Draft Policy for Information and Communication Technologies. www.infol.gov.mz

Global Distance Education Network Southern African Website. www.saide.org.zalworldbanklDefault.htm or wwwl.worldbank.org/disted/

Independent Broadcasting Authority (1995). Triple Enquiry Report. Johannesburg: IBA.

International Development Research Centre. Ottawa, Canada. www.idre.ca

Joint Technical Mission (2000). Knees, Blackboards, and Logs. Unpublished paper.

Mozambique MAAC website. www.mozambique.mzlinformatlmaacslomaacse.htm


Appendix 13

NICL NICI Malawi Country Report. www.bellanet.org/Partners/aisi/nici/ma/awi/ma/ab.htm

Parliament of South Africa (1993). Independent Broadcasting Authority Act No. 153 of 1993, Cape Town. wn.apc.org/iba//egis.htm

SchoolNet SA. www.school.za

Sibthorpe, C. (August 2000). School Networking in Africa Compendium: Draft. Prepared for the IDRC as part of an initiative to develop SchoolNet Africa.

South African Department of Communications (4 June 1998). White Paper on Broad- casting Policy, www.polity.org.za/govedocs/white-papers/broadcastingwp.html

South African Departments of Communications and Education. (1999). The Feasibility of Establishing a Dedicated Educational Broadcasting Service in South Africa. Unpublished paper.

South African Department of Education (1996). A Distance Education Quality Standards Framework for South Africa, Discussion document prepared by the Directorate: Distance Education, Media and Technological Services, Department of Education, Pretoria.

South African Department of Education (undated). Technical Standards and Protocols. education. pwv.gov.za/teli2/policydocuments/std-protocol/Default. html

South African Parliament (1993). Independent Broadcasting Authority Act No. 153 of 1993, Cape Town. wn.apc.orgliba//egis.htm

TELI Committee (1996). Technology Enhanced Learning Investigation in South Africa. A discussion document. Report of the Ministerial Committee for the Development Work on the Role of Technology that will Support and Enhance Learning, Pretoria, Government Printer.

TELI Strategic Planning Committee (1997). Technology Enhanced Learning Initiative in South Africa: A Strategic Plan. A discussion planning document prepared for the directorate, Pretoria, Department of Education, National Centre for Educational Technology and Distance Education.

University of the Western Cape Education Policy Unit (2000). Audit of information and communication technologies in South African schools. education. pwv. gov.za/teli2/research/default. htm

WorLD project. www.worldbank.org/wor/dlinks/english/htm/


Appendix 13

Southern Africa e-Commerce Related Websites

General References

ADF '99 Conference Papers. www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/Pub.htm

ADF '99 Post-Forum Summit Paper on e-Commerce. www.un.org/depts/eca/adf/Pforum.htm

Bank for International Settlements (BIS). www.bis.org

Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). www.comesaec.org

Economic Commission for Africa (2000). Post-ADF Forum Summit: Paper on e-Commerce. www.un.org/Depts/eca/adf/Pforum.htm

ECA/IDRC Pan-African Study on e-Commerce. www.comesaec.org

Edward, Nathan & Friedland (1999). Due Diligence Audit on Electronic Commerce Legal Issues. www.e-commdebate.colzaldocslreport.html

International Telecommunication Union. www.itu.int

Jensen, M. (September 2000). African Country Internet Status Summary. www3.sn.apc.org/africa/a frma in. h tm.

McConnell / WITSA (August 2000). Global e-Readiness Report. www.mcconnellinternational.com/ereadiness/EReadiness Report.htm

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). www.oecd.org

South African Department of Communications (November 2000). Green Paper on e-Commerce: "Making it your business". www.ecomm-debate.co.za

UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce. www. un. or. a t/uncitral/textalel ectcomlml-ec. h tm

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). www.unctad.org/ecommerce/

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The NICI initiatives. www.bellanet.or/partnerslaisi

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). www.unesco.org/webwor/d/observatoryl

World Bank. www.worldbank.org

World Customs Organization. www.wcoomd.org/

World Intellectual Property Organization. www.wipo.org


Appendix 13

Country-specific References for e-Commerce

Angola Angola Telecom EBONET NetAngola SNET

www.angolatelecom.com/ www.ebonet.net/ www.netangola.com/ www.snet.co.aol

Botswana Botswana Technology Centre Government Computer Bureau Ministry of Works, Transport and Communications

Botswana Telecommunications Corporation GIA Info Botswana Mega

Democratic Republic of Congo Societe General des Telecommunications (SOGETEL) StarNet Inter-Connect

Lesotho ilesotho Lesotho Office Equipment National University of Lesotho Central Bank of Lesotho

Malawi MalawiNet InterACCESS

Mauritius National Computer Board Mauritius Telecom Ministry of Telecommunications and Information Technology Mauritius Government National Computer and Information Technology Resource Centre National IT Strategy Plan (NITSP) Electronic Transactions Act

www. info.bwl-botec www.gov.bwl www.gov.bw1government/ ministry-of

- works_tra nsp o rt_

and communications.html

www. btc. bwl www.gia.bwl www.info.bwl www.mega.bwl

www.sogetel. cd

www.starnet.cd www. ic. cd

www.ilesotho.com/ www. lesoff. co.zal www. nulls/ www.lesoff. co.zalcentralbank

www.malawi.net/ www. is c. co. m wl

ncb.intnet.mul www.intnet.mul

ncb.intnet.mu/mtit.htm ncb.intnet.mulncblgovint.htm

ncb.intnet.mulmeduhrd. html ncb. intnet.mulncb/nitsp/nitsp2.htm ncb.intnet.mu/ncb/ict/policy/ actslministryl etblindex.htm


Appendix 13

Information Technology Act 1998

e-Commerce in Mauritius

Seychelles

Atlas Space95

Swaziland Swaziland Posts & Telecommunications Africa Online RealNet

Tanzania Africa Online Tanzania Cats-Net CyberTwiga

Internet Africa Raha

TZ Online Zanzinet eThinkTank Tanzania

Zambia Zamtel CopperNet ZamNet University of Zambia Computer Centre Zambia Online

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Posts and Tele- communications Corporation (PTC)

Africa Online Zimbabwe Internet Africa Zimbabwe MWeb Zimbabwe Utande Internet Zimbabwe Online Zimweb Internet

ncb. in tnet. mulncblictl policy/acts/ministrylitact. htm ncb. in tnet. mulncblecomlmuin tro. h tm

www.seychelles.net/ a tlaso ld/spa ce95/

www. sptc. co.sz/ www.africaonline.co.szl www. real net. co. sz/

www. a frica online. co. tz/ www.cats-net.com/ www. cybernet. co. tz/ www.intafrica.com/ www.raha.com/ www.tzonline.com/ ras.zanzinet.coml www. eThinkTankTz. orgl

www.zamtel.zml www. coppernet.zml www.zamnet.zml

www. unza.zml www.zambia.co.zm1

www. zptc. co.zw/ www. africaonline. co.zw/ www.harare.iafrica.com/ www.mweb.co.zw1 www.utande.co.zw1main.htm www.zo/.co.zw/ www.zimweb.co.zw1


Neil Butcher ([email protected]) Neil Butcher has been responsible for SAIDE's interventions in higher education, technology-enhanced learning, and planning and administration of education. He has worked extensively with the South African National Department of Education in the areas of distance education and technology-enhanced learning, helping to develop quality standards frameworks for the former and policy positions for the latter. He also recently led a national study into the feasibility of establishing a dedicated educational broadcasting service, and recently led a Department of Education project on open learning in General and Further Education.

Neil has worked with various institutions of higher education - including the Universities of Cape Town, the Western Cape, Port Elizabeth, and the Witwatersrand - assisting with institutional transformation efforts that focus on harnessing the potential of distance education methods and educational technology as effectively as

possible. He coordinated planning exercises for the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC), which have led to the implementation of a school-based educational broadcasting service, and will lead to services to support a national literacy campaign. Neil runs the Telematics for African Development Consortium, an information network designed to keep South Africans (and gradually - Southern Africans) in touch with key initiatives taking place with respect to use of the Internet to support development initiatives. He has recently been asked to sit on the Advisory Board of the World Bank's Global Distance Education Network, and to coordinate the development of a Southern African website for this network. He is also a member of the American Journal on Distance Education's editorial board. He recently participated in the generation of a World Bank Strategy Paper on distance education and educational technology use in Africa.

Tracy Cohen ([email protected]) Until commencing doctoral studies at the University of Toronto's Law School, Tracy Cohen was a senior lecturer at the LINK Centre, Graduate School of Public and Development Management, Wits University, Johannesburg. Prior to joining LINK, Tracy was an Assistant to Council on the telecommunications regulator in South Africa. Tracy currently advises the Internet Service Providers Association of South Africa (ISPA) on regulatory issues. Immediately prior to doctoral studies in Toronto, Tracy was a visiting graduate research fellow at the Columbia Institute for Tele-Information (CITI) at Columbia University in New York, where she focused on comparative policy on convergence and regulation. Tracy has a Masters in Law (LLM) focusing on the regulation of content on the Internet. Her doctoral work is concerned with international trade in telecommunication services, comparative regulatory theory and design.

Daniel Espitia ([email protected]) Daniel Espitia is an international consultant with 14 years experience in more than 20 countries in the field of telecommunications regulation and sector restructuring. He has made important contributions in the fields of universal access policy, telecentre implementation, competition strategies, rural development strategies and in knowledge-managed organisations, both private and government. Daniel lives in South Africa at present, although he remains involved in a variety of international projects funded by the World Bank and the ITU, among others.


Appendix 14

Anriette Esterhuysen ([email protected]) Anriette Esterhuysen became the Association for Progressive Communications' Executive Director in May 2000. Her area of expertise is information and communications for development. Anriette has served on the African Technical Advisory Committee of the Economic Commission for Africa's African Information Society Initiative, is a member of the Canadian International Development Research Centre's South African Acacia Advisory Committee, a member of the governing council of the Society for International Development and a board member of several NGOs. Prior to her post with APC, Anriette spent seven years as Executive Director at SANGONeT, an electronic information and communications service provider for the development sector in Southern and South Africa, and one of APC's strongest member networks. Before SANGONeT, Anriette worked as the chief information and documentation officer at the South African Council of Churches (SACC) from 1987 to 1991, and was the Director of Information Services at the Development Resources Centre from 1992 to 1993. She is based in Johannesburg, South Africa.

Alison Gillwald (Gillwald.A @pdm. wits. ac. za) Alison Gillwald is the director of the LINK Centre at the Graduate School of Public and Development Management, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. Prior to this Alison did an inaugural term on the first Council of the South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority. She was responsible for setting up the Policy Department at the independent Broadcasting Authority when it was established in 1994. Alison lectured before that for several years in journalism and politics and has worked as a journalist on a number of the major newspaper titles in South Africa. Alison was recently appointed by the Minister of Communications to chair the Digital Broadcasting Advisory Body and is a member of the Minister of Communications Advisory Group. Alison led the participation of the LINK Centre in this project.

Tina James ([email protected]) Tina James is an independent consultant with 18 years experience in various aspects of ICTs in Southern Africa, but particularly in underdeveloped areas. Work undertaken to date has drawn on a wide range of expertise in the management of multidisciplinary projects, strategic planning, programme design, facilitation of participative processes at community and corporate level, and is based on an in-depth understanding of ICT-

related activities in the subregion. Tina has led several large, multidisciplinary projects in both the ICT and environmental management arena. These include the recently completed baseline studies for the CIDA-supported South African IT Industry Strategy (SAITIS, www.saitis.co.za); preparatory papers on The African Learning Network for the UN Economic Commission for Africa; and a recent study on regional and national ICT policy support for Southern African countries. Additional expertise includes research on gender and ICTs, community telecentres, universal access, and the use of ICTs to support entrepreneurs in developing countries. As Senior Advisor to the Canadian International Development Research Centre's Acacia Programme, which addressed the use of ICTs by disadvantaged, rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa, she was responsible for project development and implementation as well as support for strategic planning activities. Tina was appointed by the South African Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology to serve on the ICT working group for the national Foresight Initiative, which developed a technology strategy for ICTs. She was recently appointed to serve for a two-year term on the ECA's African Technical Advisory Committee for the African Information Society Initiative (AISI). She has operated as an independent consultant since 1997, prior to which she was in various ICT-related management positions at the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.


Appendix 14

Mike Jensen (mike]@sn.apc.org) Mike Jensen is an independent consultant with experience in over 33 countries in Africa assisting in the establishment of information and communications systems over the last 15 years. A South African based in Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape, he became involved in ICTs more than 20 years ago while studying rural planning and development in Canada.

He subsequently returned to South Africa to work as a journalist on the Rand Daily Mail in Johannesburg in 1983. When the paper closed he moved back to Canada and in 1986 he co-founded the country's national Internet service for NGOs, called coincidentally, The Web. After helping to set up a similar ISP in Australia in 1989, he returned to South Africa where he works with international development agencies, NGOs and governments assisting them in the formulation, management and evaluation of their Internet projects.

Mr Jensen is a trustee of the African IT Education Trust, a board member of the South African ISP for NGOs - SANGONeT, and was a member of the African Conference of Ministers High Level Working Group, which developed the African Information Society Initiative (AISI) in 1996. He manages a popular website on the status of Internet in Africa - www3.sn.apc.org/africa.

Jonathan Miller [email protected]) In 1999, together with Philip Esselaar, Jonathan formed Miller Esselaar & Associates, a

consultancy offering education, consulting and research services in ICT policy and practice. Recent assignments include work on the South African Electronic Commerce Green Paper, a study into research support for the ICT policy process in the SADC region, drafting an ICT Policy for Namibia, ICT surveys in Rwanda, Tanzania and Mozambique and contributing to the ECA Post-ADF '99 process. Previously Jonathan held management positions in IT and Operations Research in the manufacturing and oil industries and was for many years on the faculty of the University of Cape Town's Graduate School of Business. He continues to play a volunteer role in major national projects, including the Foresight long-range scenario-planning study for information and communications technologies and the development of a national policy for the IT

industry (SAITIS). Jonathan recently founded CentraTEL (www.centratel.com), an NGO committed to

supporting the worldwide multi-purpose telecentre community. He chairs the Board of the International Computer Driving Licence (ICDL) Foundation, an NGO delivering international certification of basic computer skills to South African learners and is on the Board of the Cape IT Initiative (CITI), an NGO committed to the growth of the IT industry in the Western Cape. Jonathan gained his PhD on the subject of Information Systems Effectiveness. He is the immediate past President of the Computer Society of South Africa (CSSA) and a Past President of the Operations Research Society of SA. Jonathan was elected Computer Person of the Year by the CSSA, Western Cape, in 1994 and became a Fellow of the CSSA in 1999.

Michael Milazi ([email protected]) Michael Mlazi is a Researcher at the LINK Centre at the Graduate School of Public and Development Management, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. He holds a BA degree from the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill and the LLB degree from Wits University. Previously he worked in Washington DC for a year doing consulting work and was involved with a South African legal journal.


Appendix 14

Nigel Motts ([email protected]) Nigel Motts has 15 years experience in rural economic and small enterprise development in Southern Africa. For the last four years, his work has focused on electronic commerce at the policy, strategy and practical levels as a Senior Program Specialist with the IDRC, where he led the IDRC's Electronic Commerce Research Programme. He has also worked with the Economic Commission for Africa and is

presently advising COMESA on electronic commerce.

Sean U Siochru ([email protected]) Sean O Siochru is a member of NEXUS, a not-for-profit research institute based in Dublin, Ireland. Sean has worked on the use of information and communication technologies in development at both policy and programme levels, in Europe since 1985 and mainly in Africa and Asia / Pacific since 1995. He works closely with the UN Economic Commission for Africa, IFAD, International Development Research Centre, DG Dev and others, and has also published many papers and two books, one of which was an IDRC publication called Telecommunications and Universal Service: International Experience in the Context of South African Policy Reform (September 1996).

Gordon Oyomno (Oyomno. G@pdm. wits. ac.za) Gordon Oyomno is a senior lecturer at the LINK Centre of the Graduate School of Public and Development Management, University of the Witwatersrand (Wits), South Africa. Before joining Wits in May 1999, Gordon was a lecturer in the Department of Management Science at the University of Nairobi's Faculty of Commerce. Prior to this, he held several positions in Kenya's public and private sector including heading a

major IT consulting firm with international affiliation, senior advisor to Kenya's Ministry of Finance on the development and institutionalisation of financial information for the government, and a principal lecturer and head of Department of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science at the Kenya Polytechnic.

Yokow Quansah ([email protected]) Yokow holds a Bachelor of Business Science degree and a Masters in Technology Management. His key areas of interest revolve around business research and analysis. Currently he works as a business analyst for South African Airways Cargo where he is

involved in managing route profitability for national and international cargo routes. His other key responsibilities involve developing management reporting systems to enable decision-making at senior management level. Yokow previously worked for the Information Resources Group as a research analyst where he managed research projects in a diverse set of business and social fields. Key projects were undertaken for a number of clients such as the Black Economic Empowerment Commission, Saratoga Worldwide, Department of Labour, MTN, Unilever, Development Bank of Southern Africa, Woolworths, SAA, PQ Africa, UCT (Breakwater Monitor), and the South African IT Industry Strategy (SAITIS) project office.

Claire Sibthorpe ([email protected]) Claire first started working for the Canadian International Development Research Centre (IDRC) in January 1999, where she assisted on the National Information and Communication Project, which focused on ICT-policy project initiatives in South Africa. She also collaborated on several projects under the IDRC's Acacia Programme, but particularly projects dealing with school networking. Claire was one of the driving forces behind establishing SchoolNet Africa, an Africa-wide initiative to accelerate the introduction of ICTs into schools on the African continent. Claire was one of the team


Appendix 14

members that developed the baseline studies for the South African IT Industrial Strategy (SAITIS), which was completed in January 2000. Prior to working for the IDRC, she assisted on a similar IT industrial strategy project in Vietnam. She now lives in London and continues her development work through KPMG in the UK.

Johannes Mowatshe Tselanyane Johannes Mowatshe Tselanyane is an education specialist within the Gauteng Department of Education in South Africa. Prior to this, he was a tutor in Educational Psychology at the Qwaqwa campus of the University of the North. He is currently studying for a Masters degree in Public and Development Management (Information and Communications Technology stream) at the University of the Witwatersrand. He is

conducting research into the viability of the newly established Information Systems, Electronics and Telecommunications Technologies Sector Education and Training Authority.

Leo Van Audenhove (Leo. [email protected]) Leo Van Audenhove is researcher at the Centre for Studies on Media, Information and Telecommunication (SMIT) at the Free University of Brussels. He has written on media policy, information society policy, telecommunications policy and inter-university development cooperation. He is currently finishing his PhD on South Africa's Information Society policy. Since 1997 he has been actively involved in education and research at the University of South Africa (UNISA) as part of two cooperation agreements between UNISA, the Human Sciences Research Council, the Free University of Brussels and the Catholic University of Brussels. The current research partnership takes place under the Bilateral Scientific and Technological Co-operation Programme, financed by the Ministry of the Flemish Community, Science, Innovation and Media Department and the South African National Research Foundation (NRF). The research focuses on South Africa's communication policy in a changing global context.

Kate Wild ([email protected]) Kate Wild has been Senior Advisor, Information and Communication in the IDRC's Regional Office for Southern Africa in Johannesburg since 1995. During this period, she has played a major role in shaping IDRC's Acacia Initiative, which aims to test the empowerment potential of the new information and communication technologies at the community level in Sub-Saharan Africa. She has also worked closely with organisations in South Africa and Mozambique on projects in a number of areas including telecommunications and broadcasting policy reform, school networking and telecentre implementation and evaluation. Prior experience includes programme responsibilities in the IDRC's first Information Sciences Division in the '70s, management at a senior level of a number of information activities and programmes within the International Labour Office in the '80s and early '90s and consulting assignments in the broad area of information and development for a number of United Nations organisations.

In 1999 and 2000, Ms Wild was seconded to the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa to coordinate the inaugural African Development Forum - which addressed the challenge to Africa of globalisation and the information age - and its follow-up activities.


Appendix

Workshop Participants - Information Policy Handbook March 2001

The following participants were invited to a two-day workshop to discuss a

preliminary draft of the Information Policy Handbook. Valuable insights arose out of the discussions and were consolidated in the Handbook.

Name Organisation E-mail

Emanuel OleKambainei

Dr Melvin Ayogu

Neil Butcher

Dr Rashad Cassim

Dr Bob Day

Anriette Esterhuysen

Richard Gerber

Alison Gillwald

The African Connection P O Box 1234 Halfway House Midrand 1685 South Africa

School of Economics University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7701 South Africa

South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE) P O Box 31822 Braamfontein 2017 South Africa

Trade and Industrial Policy Secretariat (TIPS) P O Box 477 Wits 2050 South Africa

[email protected]

mayogu@commerce. uct.ac.za

[email protected]

[email protected]

Department of Information and [email protected] Communications Technology University of South Africa (UNISA) P O Box 392 Pretoria 0003 South Africa

Association for Progressive Communications (APC) PO Box 31

Johannesburg 2000 South Africa

Department of Communications Private Bag X860 Pretoria 0001 South Africa

LINK Centre Graduate School of Public and Development Management University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa

[email protected]

[email protected]

Gillwald.A@pdm. wits. ac.za


Appendix 15

Name

Allan Hirsch

Shafika Isaacs

Tina James

Mashala Kwape

Charley Lewis

or Salomao Manhica

Dr Stephen Mncube

Nigel Motts

Gert Nulens

Organisation E-mail

Dept of Trade and Industry [email protected] Private Bag X84 Pretoria 0001 South Africa

International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Regional Office Southern Africa P O Box 477 Wits 2050 South Africa

[email protected]

Tina James Consulting P O Box 72267 Lynnwood Ridge 0040 South Africa

[email protected]

Centre for Educational [email protected] Technology and Distance Education Department of Education Private Bag X239 Pretoria 0001 South Africa

Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) P O Box 1090 Johannesburg 2000 South Africa

[email protected]

ICT Policy Commission salomao.manhica@infopoLgov. Office of the Prime Minister mz 20 Av. Guerra Popular, 2nd floor Maputo, Mozambique

Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) / Sentech P O Box 1234 Halfway House 1685 South Africa

[email protected]


[email protected]

Centre for the Study of Media, [email protected] Information and Telecommunication (SMIT) Free University of Brussels Pleinlaan 2

B-1050 Belgium


Appendix 15

Name Organisation E-mail

Marc van Ameringen

Leo Van Audenhove

Kate Wild


Centre for the Study of Media, Information and Telecommunication (SMIT) Free University of Brussels Pleinlaan 2 B-1050 Belgium

[email protected]

Leo. [email protected]

International Development [email protected] Research Centre (IDRC), Regional Office Southern Africa P O Box 477 Wits 2050 South Africa


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