AgricultureAgriculture

Classifying Economic Classifying Economic ActivityActivity PrimaryPrimary

– concerned with extracting something from the concerned with extracting something from the EarthEarth

SecondarySecondary– concerned with the conversion of raw materials concerned with the conversion of raw materials

into intermediate or finished productsinto intermediate or finished products TertiaryTertiary

– Service industryService industry– Connect producers to consumersConnect producers to consumers

QuaternaryQuaternary– Concerned with information & the exchange of Concerned with information & the exchange of

money or capitalmoney or capital QuinaryQuinary

– Research and higher educationResearch and higher education

History of AgricultureHistory of Agriculture Hunter-GatherersHunter-Gatherers Neolithic RevolutionNeolithic Revolution

– Domestication of Plants and AnimalsDomestication of Plants and Animals

Agricultural IndustrializationAgricultural Industrialization– Using steel in agriculture, plows, cotton gin, Using steel in agriculture, plows, cotton gin,

combinecombine

The “Green Revolution”The “Green Revolution”– Hybrids, scientific application of fertilizer, Hybrids, scientific application of fertilizer,

pesticide, and waterpesticide, and water

Vegetative Planting Vegetative Planting HearthsHearths

Seed Agriculture Seed Agriculture HearthsHearths

Neolithic RevolutionNeolithic Revolution

Primary effects:Primary effects: UrbanizationUrbanization Social stratificationSocial stratification Occupational specializationOccupational specialization Increased population densitiesIncreased population densities

Secondary effects:Secondary effects: Endemic diseasesEndemic diseases FamineFamine ExpansionismExpansionism

Origins of AgricultureOrigins of Agriculture

Which of these areas are considered cultural hearths?

Agricultural Agricultural RevolutionsRevolutions

Technology allows much greater Technology allows much greater production (surplus) with less human production (surplus) with less human labor, but often has high social and labor, but often has high social and environmental costs.environmental costs.

Metal plows, Reapers, Cotton GinMetal plows, Reapers, Cotton Gin Tractors (Internal Combustion Engine)Tractors (Internal Combustion Engine) CombinesCombines Chemical Pesticides/FertilizersChemical Pesticides/Fertilizers Hybrid CropsHybrid Crops Genetically-modified CropsGenetically-modified Crops

Classifying Agricultural Classifying Agricultural RegionsRegionsSubsistence Subsistence

AgricultureAgriculture Shifting CultivationShifting Cultivation Pastoral Nomadism Pastoral Nomadism Intensive Intensive

Subsistence Subsistence AgricultureAgriculture

Commercial Agriculture

• Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming

• Dairy Farming• Grain Farming• Livestock Ranching• Mediterranean

Agriculture• Truck Farming

Labor Force in Labor Force in Agriculture, Agriculture, 20052005

Subsistence Agriculture Regions

Shifting CultivationShifting Cultivation Vegetation “slashed” and then Vegetation “slashed” and then

burned. Soil remains fertile for burned. Soil remains fertile for 2-3 years. Then people move 2-3 years. Then people move on.on.

where: tropical rainforests. where: tropical rainforests. Amazon, Central and West Amazon, Central and West Africa, Southeast Asia Africa, Southeast Asia

Crops: upland rice (S.E. Asia), Crops: upland rice (S.E. Asia), maize and manioc (S. America), maize and manioc (S. America), millet and sorghum (Africa)millet and sorghum (Africa)

Declining at hands of ranching Declining at hands of ranching and logging.and logging.

Shifting Cultivation in Shifting Cultivation in GuatemalaGuatemala

Dense vegetation has been cut and is being burned to open land for farming.

Pastoral NomadismPastoral NomadismThe breeding and herding The breeding and herding

of domesticated animals of domesticated animals for subsistence.for subsistence.

where:where: arid and semi-arid arid and semi-arid areasareas of N. Africa, Middle of N. Africa, Middle East, Central AsiaEast, Central Asia

animals:animals: Camel, Goats, Camel, Goats, Sheep, CattleSheep, Cattle

transhumance:transhumance: seasonal seasonal migrations from highlands to migrations from highlands to lowlandslowlands

Most nomads are being Most nomads are being pressured into sedentary life pressured into sedentary life as land is used for as land is used for agriculture or mining.agriculture or mining.

Bedouin Shepherd

Somali Nomad and Tent

Pastoral Nomads in Pastoral Nomads in IranIran

Intensive Subsistence Intensive Subsistence AgricultureAgriculture

The Fields of Bali

Wet Rice DominantWet Rice Dominant where: S.E. Asia, E. where: S.E. Asia, E.

India, S.E. ChinaIndia, S.E. China very labor intensive very labor intensive

production of rice, production of rice, including transfer to including transfer to sawah, or paddiessawah, or paddies

most important source most important source of food in Asiaof food in Asia

grown on flat, or grown on flat, or terraced landterraced land

Double croppingDouble cropping is is used in warm winter used in warm winter areas of S. China and areas of S. China and TaiwanTaiwanThai Rice Farmers

Commercial AgricultureCommercial AgricultureValue-AddedValue-Added

Very little of the Very little of the value of most value of most commercial products commercial products comes from the raw comes from the raw materialsmaterials

““adding value” is adding value” is the key to high the key to high profit marginsprofit margins

large scale large scale mono-croppingmono-cropping of of profitable products not able to be profitable products not able to be grown in Europe or U.S.grown in Europe or U.S.

where:where: tropical lowland Periphery tropical lowland Periphery crops:crops: cotton, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, sugar cane, coffee,

rubber, cocoa, bananas, tea, rubber, cocoa, bananas, tea, coconuts, palm oil.coconuts, palm oil.

What are potential problems with this What are potential problems with this type of agriculture? type of agriculture? Environmental? Environmental? Social?Social?

Plantation Farming

Dairy Dairy FarmingFarmingWhere:Where: near urban near urban

areas in N.E. areas in N.E. United States, United States, Southeast Canada, Southeast Canada, N.W. EuropeN.W. Europe- Over 90% of cow’s milk - Over 90% of cow’s milk is produced in developed is produced in developed countries. Value is added countries. Value is added as cheese, yogurt, etc.as cheese, yogurt, etc.

Dairy Farm, WisconsinVon Thunen’s theories are the beginning

of location economics and analysis (1826)Locational Theory : butter and cheese more common than milk with increasing distance from cities and in West.

Milkshed : historically defined by spoilage threat; refrigerated trucks changed this.

Mixed Crop and Livestock Mixed Crop and Livestock FarmingFarming

Mixed Crop and Livestock FarmingMixed Crop and Livestock FarmingWhere:Where: Ohio to Dakotas, centered on Ohio to Dakotas, centered on Iowa; much of Europe from France to Iowa; much of Europe from France to RussiaRussia

crops: corn (most common), soybeanscrops: corn (most common), soybeans In U.S. 80% of product fed to pigs and cattleIn U.S. 80% of product fed to pigs and cattle

Highly inefficient use of natural resources Pounds of grain to make 1 lb. beef: 10Pounds of grain to make 1 lb. beef: 10 Gallons of water to make 1 1b wheat: 25Gallons of water to make 1 1b wheat: 25 Gallons of water to make 1 1b. beef: 2500Gallons of water to make 1 1b. beef: 2500

Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming

Where:Where: U.S. Southeast, New England, U.S. Southeast, New England, near cities around the worldnear cities around the world

crops:crops: high profit vegetables and high profit vegetables and fruits demanded by wealthy urban fruits demanded by wealthy urban populations: apples, asparagus, populations: apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, tomatoes, etc.cherries, lettuce, tomatoes, etc.

mechanization:mechanization: such such truck farmingtruck farming is is highly mechanized and labor costs are highly mechanized and labor costs are further reduced by the use of cheap further reduced by the use of cheap immigrant (and illegal) labor.immigrant (and illegal) labor.

distribution:distribution: situated near urbansituated near urban markets.markets.

Grain FarmingGrain Farming

Where:Where: worldwide, but U.S. and worldwide, but U.S. and Russia predominantRussia predominant

Crops:Crops: wheat wheat winter wheat:winter wheat: Kansas, Colorado, Kansas, Colorado,

OklahomaOklahoma spring wheat:spring wheat: Dakotas, Montana, Dakotas, Montana,

southern Canadasouthern Canada

Highly mechanized:Highly mechanized: combines, worth combines, worth hundreds of thousands of dollars, hundreds of thousands of dollars, migrate northward in U.S., following migrate northward in U.S., following the harvest.the harvest.

Grain Importers & Grain Importers & ExportersExporters

Livestock RanchingLivestock RanchingWhere:Where: arid or semi-arid areas of western arid or semi-arid areas of western

U.S., Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Spain U.S., Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Spain and Portugal.and Portugal.

History:History: initially open range, now sedentary initially open range, now sedentary with transportation changes.with transportation changes.Environmental effects:

1) overgrazing has damaged much of the world’s arid grasslands (< 1% of U.S. remain!)

2) destruction of the rainforest is motivated by Brazilian desires for fashionable cattle ranches

Rice GrowingRice Growing

Thailand and Vietnam leading Thailand and Vietnam leading exporters followed by the U.S.exporters followed by the U.S.

Grown on small plots & is labor-Grown on small plots & is labor-intensiveintensive

SE Asia (subsistence & export SE Asia (subsistence & export production co-exist) most of production co-exist) most of subsistence farmerssubsistence farmers

Rice Harvesting, Rice Harvesting, IndonesiaIndonesia

Wet rice is often harvested by hand in Asia.

Mediterranean AgricultureMediterranean AgricultureWhere:Where: areas surrounding the areas surrounding the

Mediterranean, California, Oregon, Mediterranean, California, Oregon, Chile, South Africa, AustraliaChile, South Africa, Australia

Climate has summer dry season. Climate has summer dry season. Landscape is mountainous.Landscape is mountainous.

Highly valuable crops:Highly valuable crops: olives, grapes, olives, grapes, nuts, fruits and vegetables; winter nuts, fruits and vegetables; winter wheatwheat

California: high quality land is being California: high quality land is being lost to suburbanization; initially offset lost to suburbanization; initially offset by irrigationby irrigation

Von Thunen’s ModelVon Thunen’s Model Understanding the Spatial Layout of Understanding the Spatial Layout of

AgricultureAgriculture Observations:Observations:

– Each town surrounded by a set of concentric Each town surrounded by a set of concentric rings within which particular commodities or rings within which particular commodities or crops are producedcrops are produced

Perishable & command high prices (dairy & Perishable & command high prices (dairy & specialized crops)specialized crops)

Forest (wood for fuel & building)Forest (wood for fuel & building) Less perishable & bulkier (wheat/grains)Less perishable & bulkier (wheat/grains) Livestock raisingLivestock raising

Von Thünen Model and Von Thünen Model and Truck farmingTruck farming

The Green

Revolution in Agriculture

The Green Revolution in Agriculture

Green Revolution HistoryGreen Revolution History Acreage and Yield TrendsAcreage and Yield Trends Technical ProblemsTechnical Problems Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

The term green revolution refers to the development and adoption of high yielding cereal grains in the less developed world during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. Very large short term gains in grain output have allowed food supplies to grow faster than populations, until very recently.

History of Green History of Green RevolutionRevolution1943 Rockefeller Foundation begins

work on short stature hybrid corn in Mexico

1960s Hybrid strains of rice, wheat, and corn show great success in S.E. Asia, and Latin America.

1970 Head of Mexican corn program, Borlaug, wins Nobel Peace Prize

1990s Growth in food supply continues, but slows to below the rate of population growth, as the results of unsustainable farming practices take effect.

World Fertilizer UseWorld Fertilizer Use

World Tractor UseWorld Tractor Use

Acreage and Yield Acreage and Yield TrendsTrends

Gains were made by:

• Dwarf varieties: plants are bred to allocate more of their photosynthetic output to grain and less to vegetative parts.

• Planting in closer rows, allowed by herbicides, increases yields.

• Bred to be less sensitive to day length, thus double-cropping is more plausible.

• Very sensitive to inputs of fertilizer and water.

Technical and Resource Technical and Resource Limitation ProblemsLimitation Problems• Heavy Use of Fresh Water

• High Dependence on Technology and Machinery Provided/Sold by Core Countries

• Heavy Use of Pesticides and Fertilizer

• Reduced Genetic Diversity / Increased Blight Vulnerability

• Questionable Overall Sustainability

Ethical IssuesEthical Issues• Starvation of many prevented, but extra food

may lead to higher birth rates.

• Life expectancy in less developed countries increased by 10 years in less than two decades (43 in 1950’s to 53 in 1970’s).

• Dependency on core countries increased; rich-poor gap increased.

• Wealthy farmers and multinational companies do well, small farmers become wage laborers or unemployed – dependent.

• More at risk? More people malnourished/starving today than in 1950 (but lower as a percentage).

• U.S. spends $10,000,000,000 year on farm subsidies, damaging farmers and markets in LDCs.