TH

E

AD

ULT

LEA

RN

ERSI

XT

H E

DIT

ION

TH

E

AD

ULT

LE

AR

NER

The

Def

initi

ve C

lass

ic i

n

Adul

t Ed

ucat

ion

and

Hum

an R

esou

rce

Dev

elop

men

t

MAL

COLM

S. K

NOW

LES

■EL

WOO

D F.

HOLT

ON II

I

RICH

ARD

A. SW

ANSO

N

SIX

TH

ED

ITIO

N

Am

ster

dam

• B

osto

n •

Hei

delb

erg

• L

ondo

n •

New

Yor

k •

Oxf

ord

• Pa

ris

• Sa

n D

iego

• S

an F

ranc

isco

• S

inga

pore

• S

ydne

y •

Toky

o

Els

evie

r30

Cor

pora

te D

rive

, 4th

Flo

orB

urlin

gton

, MA

018

03, U

SA52

5 B

Str

eet,

Sui

te 1

900,

San

Die

go, C

alif

orni

a 92

101-

4495

, USA

84 T

heob

ald’

s R

oad,

Lon

don

WC

1X 8

RR

, UK

Thi

s bo

ok is

pri

nted

on

acid

-fre

e pa

per.

Cop

yrig

ht ©

200

5, E

lsev

ier

Inc.

All

righ

ts r

eser

ved.

Pre

viou

s ed

itio

ns C

opyr

ight

© 1

973,

1978

, 198

4, 1

990,

199

8 by

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orth

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ogin

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Dat

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colm

She

pher

d, 1

913-

The

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lt le

arne

r : t

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efin

itive

cla

ssic

in a

dult

educ

atio

n an

d hu

man

res

ourc

e de

velo

pmen

t/

Mal

colm

S. K

now

les,

Elw

ood

F. H

olto

n II

I, a

nd R

icha

rd A

. Sw

anso

n.–

6th

ed.

p.cm

.In

clud

es b

iblio

grap

hica

l ref

eren

ces

and

inde

x.IS

BN

0-7

506-

7837

-2 (

alk.

pap

er)

1.A

dult

lear

ning

. 2.

Adu

lt e

duca

tion

. 3.

Tra

inin

g.I.

Hol

ton,

Ed,

195

7-II

. Sw

anso

n,R

icha

rd A

., 19

42-

III.

Tit

le.

LC

5225

.L42

K56

200

537

4–dc

2220

0402

4356

Bri

tish

Lib

rary

Cat

alog

uing

in P

ublic

atio

n D

ata

A c

atal

ogue

rec

ord

for

this

boo

k is

ava

ilabl

e fr

om t

he B

riti

sh L

ibra

ry

ISB

N: 0

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6-78

37-2

Prin

ted

in t

he U

nite

d St

ates

of

Am

eric

a04

0506

0708

099

87

65

43

21

�

DE

DIC

AT

ION

Mal

colm

S.

Kno

wle

s, t

he F

athe

r of

And

rago

gy i

n th

e U

nite

dSt

ates

, die

d on

Nov

embe

r 27

, 199

7.

Mal

colm

was

one

of

the

wor

ld’s

lea

ding

sch

olar

–pra

ctit

ione

rs o

fad

ult

lear

ning

. H

e w

as a

mem

ber

of a

gen

erat

ion

that

exp

erie

nced

the

fulle

st r

ange

of

char

acte

r-bu

ildin

g ph

ases

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es h

askn

own:

a m

assi

ve i

nflu

x of

im

mig

rant

s, s

ever

al w

ars,

an

econ

omic

depr

essi

on,

wav

es o

f te

chno

logi

cal

adva

nces

, th

e ci

vil

righ

ts m

ove-

men

t, t

he d

omin

ance

of

the

know

ledg

e w

orke

r, an

d an

opt

imis

mab

out

the

hum

an s

piri

t. W

hile

Mal

colm

par

tici

pate

d in

all

this

, he

was

one

of

the

thin

kers

and

doe

rs r

isin

g ab

ove

the

mili

eu a

nd p

oint

-in

g th

e w

ay f

or a

dyn

amic

dem

ocra

cy. E

quiv

alen

t le

ader

s of

his

gen

-er

atio

n, i

n su

ch a

reas

as

econ

omic

s, q

ualit

y im

prov

emen

t, r

elig

ion,

and

psyc

holo

gy, h

ave

fini

shed

the

ir w

ork

and

thei

r le

gacy

live

s on

inth

e ne

xt g

ener

atio

n. M

alco

lm’s

ear

ly u

nder

stan

ding

of

the

impo

r-ta

nce

of a

dult

lea

rnin

g ha

s pr

ovid

ed i

nsig

ht t

hat

will

gui

de t

he p

ro-

fess

ions

ded

icat

ed t

o ad

ult

lear

ning

into

the

nex

t m

illen

nium

.

Thi

s re

vise

d si

xth

edit

ion

of M

alco

lm’s

197

3 bo

ok i

s a

test

imon

yto

his

ow

n le

arni

ng j

ourn

ey a

nd h

is p

erso

nal

conf

iden

ce i

n th

e in

di-

vidu

al l

earn

er.

In h

onor

of

Mal

colm

S.

Kno

wle

s, t

he A

cade

my

ofH

uman

Res

ourc

e D

evel

opm

ent

has

nam

ed i

ts d

octo

ral-

diss

erta

tion

-of

-the

-yea

r aw

ard

in h

is n

ame.

Tho

se w

ishi

ng t

o m

ake

a do

nati

on t

oth

is s

tude

nt-a

war

d en

dow

men

t sh

ould

con

tact

the

Aca

dem

y.

Elw

ood

F. H

olto

n II

I,E

d.D

, is

the

Jon

es S

. D

avis

Dis

ting

uish

edPr

ofes

sor

of H

uman

Res

ourc

e D

evel

opm

ent

and

Adu

lt E

duca

tion

at

Lou

isia

na S

tate

Uni

vers

ity,

whe

re h

e co

ordi

nate

s th

e B

.S.,

M.S

., an

dPh

.D.

degr

ee p

rogr

ams

in H

RD

/AE

. H

e is

the

aut

hor

and

edit

or o

fnu

mer

ous

book

s an

d ar

ticl

es o

n le

arni

ng a

nd h

uman

res

ourc

e de

vel-

opm

ent

as w

ell

as t

he f

ound

ing

edit

or o

f H

uman

Res

ourc

e D

evel

op-

men

t R

evie

w.

Dr.

Hol

ton

is a

lso

a Pa

st-P

resi

dent

of

the

Aca

dem

y of

Hum

an R

esou

rce

Dev

elop

men

t. H

e is

an

expe

rt o

n ad

ult

lear

ning

appl

icat

ions

in

publ

ic a

nd p

riva

te s

etti

ngs

and

cons

ults

ext

ensi

vely

wit

h or

gani

zati

ons

in b

oth

sect

ors.

Ric

hard

A.

Swan

son,

Ed.

D.,

is P

rofe

ssor

of

Hum

an R

esou

rce

Dev

elop

men

t an

d A

dult

Edu

cati

on a

t th

e U

nive

rsit

y of

Min

neso

ta.

He

has

wid

e-ra

ngin

g te

achi

ng a

nd c

onsu

ltin

g ex

peri

ence

and

has

publ

ishe

d ex

tens

ivel

y in

the

are

as o

f le

arni

ng a

nd h

uman

res

ourc

ede

velo

pmen

t. H

e re

ceiv

ed t

he D

isti

ngui

shed

Alu

mni

Aw

ard

from

the

Uni

vers

ity

of I

llino

is C

olle

ge o

f E

duca

tion

and

has

bee

n in

duct

edin

to b

oth

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Adu

lt a

nd C

onti

nuin

g E

duca

tion

Hal

l of

Fam

e an

d th

e H

uman

Res

ourc

e D

evel

opm

ent

Scho

lar

Hal

l of

Fam

e.D

r. Sw

anso

n is

a l

eadi

ng a

utho

rity

on

how

to

deve

lop

and

unle

ash

hum

an p

oten

tial

in o

rgan

izat

ions

.

Co

nte

nts

Pre

face

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.xi

ch

ap

te

r1

Intr

oduc

tion

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

1

Part

1: T

he R

oots

of

And

rago

gy6

Ch

ap

te

r

2

Exp

lori

ng t

he W

orld

of

Lea

rnin

g T

heor

y .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.7

Ch

ap

te

r

3

The

orie

s of

Lea

rnin

g .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.18

Ch

ap

te

r

4

A T

heor

y of

Adu

lt L

earn

ing:

And

rago

gy .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.35

Ch

ap

te

r

5

The

orie

s of

Tea

chin

g .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.73

Ch

ap

te

r

6

An

And

rago

gica

l P

roce

ss M

odel

for

Lea

rnin

g .

. .

. .

. .

115

Part

2: A

dvan

cem

ents

in A

dult

Lea

rnin

g13

9

Ch

ap

te

r

7

And

rago

gy i

n P

ract

ice

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.140

Ch

ap

te

r

8

Adu

lt L

earn

ing

wit

hin

Hum

an R

esou

rce

Dev

elop

men

t .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

165

Ch

ap

te

r

9

New

Per

spec

tive

s on

And

rago

gy .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

183

Ch

ap

te

r

10

Bey

ond

And

rago

gy .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

204

Ch

ap

te

r

11

The

Fut

ure

of A

ndra

gogy

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

231

Part

3: P

ract

ice

in A

dult

Lea

rnin

g23

9

Ch

ap

te

r

12

Who

le-P

art-

Who

le L

earn

ing

Mod

el .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

240

Ch

ap

te

r

13

From

Tea

cher

to

Faci

litat

or o

f L

earn

ing

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.25

1

Ch

ap

te

r

14

Mak

ing

Thi

ngs

Hap

pen

by R

elea

sing

the

E

nerg

y of

Oth

ers

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

255

Ch

ap

te

r

15

Som

e G

uide

lines

for

the

Use

of

Lea

rnin

g C

ontr

acts

. .

.26

5

Ch

ap

te

r

16

Cor

e C

ompe

tenc

y D

iagn

osti

c an

d P

lann

ing

Gui

de .

. .

.27

2

Ch

ap

te

r

17

Per

sona

l A

dult

Lea

rnin

g St

yle

Inve

ntor

y .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

282

Ch

ap

te

r

18

Tra

inin

g D

eliv

ery

Pro

blem

s an

d So

luti

ons

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

296

Ch

ap

te

r

19

A M

odel

for

Dev

elop

ing

Em

ploy

ee W

ork

Eff

ecti

vene

ss i

n N

ew R

oles

and

Env

iron

men

ts .

. .

. .

. .

308

Ref

eren

ces

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.32

1

Aut

hor

Inde

x .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

361

Subj

ect

Inde

x .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

366

Pre

face

Wel

com

e to

the

new

est

edit

ion

of T

he A

dult

Lea

rner

. It

is a

n ho

nor

for

us to

join

wit

h M

alco

lm K

now

les

in th

is u

pdat

ed a

nd r

evis

ed s

ixth

edit

ion.

The

Adu

lt L

earn

erha

s st

ood

as a

cor

e w

ork

on a

dult

lear

ning

for

over

thir

ty y

ears

. Our

goa

l has

bee

n fo

r it

to r

emai

n a

clas

sic

in th

efi

eld

of a

dult

lear

ning

and

hum

an r

esou

rce

deve

lopm

ent.

We

appr

oach

ed t

he t

ask

of c

onti

nuin

g to

upd

ate

this

cla

ssic

boo

kw

ith

care

and

tho

ught

fuln

ess.

In

shap

ing

this

rev

isio

n, w

e th

ink

it is

still

impo

rtan

t to

pre

serv

e M

alco

lm’s

wor

ks a

nd t

houg

hts

as c

lose

to

thei

r or

igin

al f

orm

as

poss

ible

. T

hus,

jus

t as

in

the

5th

edit

ion,

you

will

fin

d th

at P

art

1 of

thi

s ed

itio

n (C

hapt

ers

2-6)

, en

titl

ed “

The

Roo

ts o

f A

ndra

gogy

,” a

re n

earl

y id

enti

cal t

o C

hapt

ers

1-5

of t

he 4

th

edit

ion

of T

he A

dult

Lea

rner

. W

e ha

ve d

one

only

min

or c

opy

edit

-in

g an

d fo

rmat

ting

to

pres

erve

Mal

colm

’s o

rigi

nal t

hink

ing.

Cha

pter

1 an

d Pa

rt 2

(C

hapt

ers

7-11

), e

ntit

led

“Adv

ance

men

ts i

n A

dult

Lea

rnin

g,”

are

our

new

con

trib

utio

ns to

the

book

. In

addi

tion

, Par

t 3,

“Pra

ctic

e in

Adu

lt L

earn

ing”

has

bee

n up

date

d an

d ex

pand

ed.

Hig

hlig

hts

of t

he s

ixth

edi

tion

incl

ude

brin

ging

bac

k m

ater

ial

from

Kno

wle

s’ p

revi

ous

wor

k co

veri

ng h

is p

roce

ss m

odel

for

pro

gram

pla

n-ni

ng;

a co

mpl

etel

y ne

w c

hapt

er o

n th

e A

ndra

gogy

in

Prac

tice

mod

elfir

st i

ntro

duce

d in

the

5th

editi

on;

a ne

w c

hapt

er o

n th

e Fu

ture

of

And

rago

gy; t

he a

dditi

on o

f the

Per

sona

l Adu

lt L

earn

ing

Styl

e In

vent

ory

deve

lope

d by

Mal

colm

and

pre

viou

sly

sold

by

HR

D P

ress

; and

add

ing

refle

ctio

n qu

estio

ns t

o th

e en

d of

eac

h ch

apte

r. W

e ho

pe y

ou w

ill a

gree

that

we

have

onl

y im

prov

ed u

pon

the

very

suc

cess

ful 5

thed

ition

.

Eac

h of

the

thr

ee p

arts

of

The

Adu

lt L

earn

erha

ve t

heir

ow

nst

yle.

Whi

le t

he v

oice

s ar

e va

ried

, the

mes

sage

s ar

e ha

rmon

ious

. The

mes

sage

s of

lif

elon

g le

arni

ng,

fait

h in

the

hum

an s

piri

t, a

nd t

he r

ole

that

adu

lt l

earn

ing

prof

essi

onal

s pl

ay i

n th

e ad

ult

lear

ning

pro

cess

com

e th

roug

h ch

apte

r by

cha

pter

.

Our

hop

e is

tha

t th

is n

ew e

diti

on o

f T

he A

dult

Lea

rner

, an

d it

spo

tent

ial

to a

dvan

ce a

dult

lea

rnin

g w

here

ver

it i

s pr

acti

ced,

is

real

-iz

ed a

nd t

hat

Mal

colm

Kno

wle

s’ v

isio

n co

ntin

ues

to t

hriv

e in

thi

sne

w c

entu

ry.

We

wou

ld li

ke t

o th

ank

seve

ral c

olle

ague

s fo

r th

eir

help

at

vari

ous

poin

ts in

thi

s ef

fort

. Sha

ron

Naq

uin

prov

ided

man

y ho

urs

of c

aref

ulcr

itiq

ue a

nd r

esea

rch

that

wer

e in

valu

able

. W

e al

so a

ppre

ciat

e th

ead

vice

fro

m o

ur c

olle

ague

s R

eid

A.

Bat

es,

Har

old

Stub

blef

ield

,R

icha

rd J

.To

rrac

o, a

nd A

lber

t K

. W

isw

ell

for

crit

iqui

ng t

he m

anu-

scri

pt.

Fina

lly,

than

ks t

o ou

r fa

mili

es w

ho c

onti

nue

to b

elie

ve t

hat

our

wor

k is

impo

rtan

t an

d w

orth

the

sac

rifi

ces. E

lwoo

d F.

Hol

ton

III

Lou

isia

na S

tate

Uni

vers

ity

Ric

hard

A.

Swan

son

Uni

vers

ity

of M

inne

sota

xii

CH

AP

TE

R

1

Intr

od

uct

ion

In t

he e

arly

197

0s w

hen

andr

agog

y an

d th

e co

ncep

t th

at a

dult

san

d ch

ildre

n le

arn

diff

eren

tly

was

fir

st i

ntro

duce

d in

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es

by

Mal

colm

K

now

les,

th

e id

ea

was

gr

ound

brea

king

an

dsp

arke

d m

uch

subs

eque

nt r

esea

rch

and

cont

rove

rsy.

Sin

ce t

he e

arli-

est

days

, ad

ult

educ

ator

s ha

ve d

ebat

ed w

hat

andr

agog

y re

ally

is.

Spur

red

in l

arge

par

t by

the

nee

d fo

r a

defi

ning

the

ory

wit

hin

the

fiel

d of

adu

lt e

duca

tion

, an

drag

ogy

has

been

ext

ensi

vely

ana

lyze

dan

d cr

itiq

ued.

It

has

been

alt

erna

tely

des

crib

ed a

s a

set

of g

uide

lines

(Mer

riam

, 19

93),

a p

hilo

soph

y (P

ratt

, 19

93),

a s

et o

f as

sum

ptio

ns(B

rook

fiel

d, 1

986)

, an

d a

theo

ry (

Kno

wle

s, 1

989)

. T

he d

ispa

rity

of

thes

e po

siti

ons

is i

ndic

ativ

e of

the

per

plex

ing

natu

re o

f th

e fi

eld

ofad

ult

lear

ning

; bu

t re

gard

less

of

wha

t it

is

calle

d, “

it i

s an

hon

est

atte

mpt

to fo

cus

on th

e le

arne

r. In

this

sen

se, i

t doe

s pr

ovid

e an

alt

er-

nati

ve to

the

met

hodo

logy

-cen

tere

d in

stru

ctio

nal d

esig

n pe

rspe

ctiv

e”(F

eur

and

Ger

ber,

1988

). M

erri

am, i

n ex

plai

ning

the

com

plex

ity

and

pres

ent

cond

itio

n of

adu

lt le

arni

ng t

heor

y, o

ffer

s th

e fo

llow

ing:

It i

s do

ubtf

ul t

hat

a ph

enom

enon

as

com

plex

as

adul

t le

arni

ngw

ill e

ver

be e

xpla

ined

by

a si

ngle

the

ory,

mod

el o

r se

t of

pri

nci-

ples

. In

stea

d, w

e ha

ve a

cas

e of

the

pro

verb

ial

elep

hant

bei

ngde

scri

bed

diff

eren

tly

depe

ndin

g on

who

is t

alki

ng a

nd o

n w

hich

part

of

the

anim

al i

s ex

amin

ed.

In t

he f

irst

hal

f of

thi

s ce

ntur

y,ps

ycho

logi

sts

took

the

lead

in e

xpla

inin

g le

arni

ng b

ehav

ior;

from

the

1960

s on

war

d, a

dult

edu

cato

rs b

egan

for

mul

atin

g th

eir

own

idea

s ab

out

adul

t le

arni

ng a

nd, i

n pa

rtic

ular

, abo

ut h

ow it

mig

htdi

ffer

fro

m l

earn

ing

in c

hild

hood

. B

oth

of t

hese

app

roac

hes

are

still

ope

rati

ve. W

here

we

are

head

ed, i

t se

ems,

is t

owar

d a

mul

ti-

face

ted

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

adu

lt l

earn

ing,

ref

lect

ing

the

inhe

rent

rich

ness

and

com

plex

ity

of t

he p

heno

men

on.

1

Des

pite

yea

rs o

f cri

tiqu

e, d

ebat

e, a

nd c

halle

nge,

the

core

pri

ncip

les

of a

dult

lea

rnin

g ad

vanc

ed b

y an

drag

ogy

have

end

ured

(D

aven

port

and

Dav

enpo

rt,

1985

; H

artr

ee,

1984

; Pr

att,

198

8),

and

few

adu

ltle

arni

ng s

chol

ars

wou

ld d

isag

ree

wit

h th

e ob

serv

atio

n th

at K

now

les’

idea

s sp

arke

d a

revo

luti

on in

adu

lt e

duca

tion

and

tra

inin

g (F

eur

and

Ger

ber,

1988

). B

rook

fiel

d (1

986)

, po

siti

ng a

sim

ilar

view

, as

sert

sth

at a

ndra

gogy

is t

he “

sing

le m

ost

popu

lar

idea

in t

he e

duca

tion

and

trai

ning

of

adul

ts.”

Adu

lt e

duca

tors

, pa

rtic

ular

ly b

egin

ning

one

s,fi

nd t

hese

cor

e pr

inci

ples

inv

alua

ble

in s

hapi

ng t

he l

earn

ing

proc

ess

to b

e m

ore

cond

uciv

e to

adu

lts.

It i

s be

yond

the

sco

pe o

f th

is i

ntro

duct

ory

book

to

addr

ess

the

man

y di

men

sion

s of

the

the

oret

ical

deb

ate

rais

ed in

aca

dem

ic c

ircl

es.

Our

pos

itio

n is

that

and

rago

gy p

rese

nts

core

pri

ncip

les

of a

dult

lear

n-in

g th

at in

tur

n en

able

tho

se d

esig

ning

and

con

duct

ing

adul

t le

arni

ngto

bui

ld m

ore

effe

ctiv

e le

arni

ng p

roce

sses

for

adu

lts.

It

is a

tra

nsac

-ti

onal

mod

el i

n th

at i

t sp

eaks

to

the

char

acte

rist

ics

of t

he l

earn

ing

tran

sact

ion,

not

to

the

goal

s an

d ai

ms

of t

hat

tran

sact

ion.

As

such

,it

is

appl

icab

le t

o an

y ad

ult

lear

ning

tra

nsac

tion

, fr

om c

omm

unit

yed

ucat

ion

to h

uman

res

ourc

e de

velo

pmen

t in

org

aniz

atio

ns.

Car

e m

ust

be t

aken

to

avoi

d co

nfus

ing

core

pri

ncip

les

of t

he a

dult

lear

ning

tran

sact

ion

wit

h th

e go

als

and

purp

oses

for

whi

ch th

e le

arn-

ing

even

t is

bei

ng c

ondu

cted

. The

y ar

e co

ncep

tual

ly d

isti

nct,

tho

ugh

as a

pra

ctic

al m

atte

r m

ay o

verl

ap c

onsi

dera

bly.

Cri

tiqu

es o

f an

dra-

gogy

poi

nt to

mis

sing

ele

men

ts th

at k

eep

it fr

om b

eing

a d

efin

ing

the-

ory

of t

he d

isci

plin

e of

adu

lt e

duca

tion

(Dav

enpo

rt a

nd D

aven

port

,19

85; G

race

, 199

6; H

artr

ee, 1

984)

, not

of

adul

t le

arni

ng. G

race

, for

exam

ple,

cri

tici

zes

andr

agog

y fo

r fo

cusi

ng s

olel

y on

the

ind

ivid

ual

and

not

oper

atin

g fr

om a

cri

tica

l soc

ial a

gend

a or

deb

atin

g th

e re

la-

tion

ship

of a

dult

edu

cati

on to

soc

iety

. Thi

s cr

itic

ism

ref

lect

s th

e go

als

and

purp

oses

of

adul

t ed

ucat

ion.

Hum

an r

esou

rce

deve

lope

rs i

nor

gani

zati

ons

will

hav

e a

diff

eren

t se

t of

goa

ls a

nd p

urpo

ses,

whi

chan

drag

ogy

does

not

em

brac

e ei

ther

. C

omm

unit

y he

alth

edu

cato

rsm

ay

have

ye

t an

othe

r se

t of

go

als

and

purp

oses

th

at

are

not

embr

aced

.

The

rein

lie

s th

e st

reng

th o

f an

drag

ogy:

It

is a

set

of

core

adu

ltle

arni

ng p

rinc

iple

s th

at a

pply

to

all

adul

t le

arni

ng s

itua

tion

s. T

hego

als

and

purp

oses

for

whi

ch t

he l

earn

ing

is o

ffer

ed a

re a

sep

arat

eis

sue.

Adu

lt e

duca

tion

(A

E)

prof

essi

onal

s sh

ould

dev

elop

and

deb

ate

mod

els

of a

dult

lea

rnin

g se

para

tely

fro

m m

odel

s of

the

goa

ls a

nd

2IN

TR

OD

UC

TIO

N

purp

oses

of

thei

r re

spec

tive

fie

lds

that

use

adu

lt l

earn

ing.

Hum

anre

sour

ce d

evel

opm

ent

(HR

D),

for

exa

mpl

e, e

mbr

aces

org

aniz

atio

nal

perf

orm

ance

as

one

of i

ts c

ore

goal

s, w

here

as a

dult

edu

cati

on m

ayfo

cus

mor

e on

indi

vidu

al g

row

th.

Hav

ing

said

that

, the

se c

ore

prin

cipl

es a

re a

lso

inco

mpl

ete

in te

rms

of le

arni

ng d

ecis

ions

. Fig

ure

1-1

grap

hica

lly s

how

s th

at a

ndra

gogy

isa

core

set

of

adul

t le

arni

ng p

rinc

iple

s. T

he s

ix p

rinc

iple

s of

and

ra-

gogy

are

(1)

the

lea

rner

’s n

eed

to k

now

, (2

) se

lf-c

once

pt o

f th

ele

arne

r, (3

) pr

ior

expe

rien

ce o

f th

e le

arne

r, (4

) re

adin

ess

to le

arn,

(5)

orie

ntat

ion

to le

arni

ng, a

nd (

6) m

otiv

atio

n to

lear

n. T

hese

pri

ncip

les

are

liste

d in

the

cen

ter

of t

he m

odel

. As

you

shal

l see

in t

his

and

sub-

sequ

ent

chap

ters

, the

re a

re a

var

iety

of

othe

r fa

ctor

s th

at a

ffec

t ad

ult

lear

ning

in

any

part

icul

ar s

itua

tion

and

may

cau

se a

dult

s to

beh

ave

mor

e or

les

s cl

osel

y to

the

cor

e pr

inci

ples

. T

hese

inc

lude

ind

ivid

ual

lear

ner

and,

situ

atio

nal

diff

eren

ces,

an

d go

als

and

purp

oses

of

lear

ning

, sh

own

in t

he t

wo

oute

r ri

ngs

of t

he m

odel

. A

ndra

gogy

wor

ks b

est

in p

ract

ice

whe

n it

is a

dapt

ed t

o fi

t th

e un

ique

ness

of

the

lear

ners

and

the

lear

ning

sit

uati

on. W

e se

e th

is n

ot a

s a

wea

knes

s of

the

prin

cipl

es,

but

as a

str

engt

h. T

heir

str

engt

h is

tha

t th

ese

core

prin

cipl

es a

pply

to

all

adul

t le

arni

ng s

itua

tion

s, a

s lo

ng t

hey

are

cons

ider

ed i

n co

ncer

t w

ith

othe

r fa

ctor

s th

at a

re p

rese

nt i

n th

esi

tuat

ion.

Thi

s si

xth

edit

ion

of T

he A

dult

Lea

rner

prov

ides

a j

ourn

ey f

rom

theo

ry t

o pr

acti

ce i

n ad

ult

lear

ning

. Fi

gure

1-1

pro

vide

s a

snap

shot

sum

mar

y of

the

jou

rney

in

disp

layi

ng t

he s

ix c

ore

adul

t le

arni

ngpr

inci

ples

sur

roun

ded

by t

he c

onte

xt o

f in

divi

dual

and

sit

uati

onal

diff

eren

ces,

and

the

goa

ls a

nd p

urpo

ses

of l

earn

ing.

The

fol

low

ing

chap

ters

will

rev

eal

the

subs

tanc

e an

d su

btle

ties

of

this

hol

isti

cm

odel

of

andr

agog

y in

pra

ctic

e.

PL

AN

FO

RT

HE

BO

OK

The

fi

rst

part

of

th

e bo

ok,

“The

R

oots

of

A

ndra

gogy

”(C

hapt

ers

2–6)

, pre

sent

s th

e co

re p

rinc

iple

s of

adu

lt le

arni

ng: a

ndra

-go

gy. I

t tr

aces

the

dev

elop

men

t of

the

the

ory

and

focu

ses

on t

he c

ore

uniq

ue c

hara

cter

isti

cs o

f ad

ults

as

lear

ners

.Pa

rt 2

, “A

dvan

ces

in A

dult

Lea

rnin

g,”

(Cha

pter

s 7–

11)

addr

esse

sth

e tw

o ou

ter

ring

s. C

hapt

er 7

dis

cuss

es i

n de

tail

the

And

rago

gy i

nPr

acti

ce m

odel

intr

oduc

ed in

this

cha

pter

and

dis

cuss

es h

ow to

app

ly

PL

AN

FO

RT

HE

BO

OK

3

it in

dif

fere

nt s

etti

ngs.

Cha

pter

8 d

iscu

sses

adu

lt le

arni

ng a

s pr

acti

ced

wit

hin

hum

an r

esou

rce

deve

lopm

ent.

Cha

pter

9 f

ocus

es o

n ne

wth

inki

ng a

bout

and

rago

gy a

nd e

labo

rate

s on

app

lyin

g th

e co

re p

rin-

cipl

es t

o di

ffer

ent

lear

ners

. C

hapt

er 1

0 di

scus

ses

new

adv

ance

men

tsin

the

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

adu

lt le

arni

ng th

at e

nabl

e fa

cilit

ator

s to

furt

her

4IN

TR

OD

UC

TIO

N

AN

DR

AG

OG

Y IN

PR

AC

TIC

E(K

now

les,

Hol

ton

& S

wan

son,

199

8)

Go

als

and

Pu

rpo

ses

for

Lea

rnin

g

Ind

ivid

ual

an

d S

itu

atio

nal

Dif

fere

nce

s

An

dra

go

gy:

Co

re A

du

lt L

earn

ing

Pri

nci

ple

s

1 Le

arne

r’s N

eed

to K

now

-why

-wha

t-h

ow

2 S

elf-

Con

cept

of t

he L

earn

er

-aut

onom

ous

-sel

f-di

rect

ing

3 P

rior

Exp

erie

nce

of th

e Le

arne

r-r

esou

rce

-men

tal m

odel

s

4 R

eadi

ness

to L

earn

- lif

e re

late

d-

deve

lopm

enta

l tas

k

5 O

rient

atio

n to

Lea

rnin

g-

prob

lem

cen

tere

d-

cont

extu

al

6 M

otiv

atio

n to

Lea

rn-

intr

insi

c va

lue

- pe

rson

al p

ayof

f

Indi

vidu

al L

earn

er D

iffer

ence

s

Indi

vidu

al G

row

th

Institutional Growth

Subject Matter Differences

Situational Differences

Societal Growth

Figu

re 1

-1.

And

rago

gy in

pra

ctic

e (K

now

les,

Hol

ton,

and

Sw

anso

n,19

98).

adap

t ap

plic

atio

n of

the

cor

e pr

inci

ples

. C

hapt

er 1

1 su

mm

ariz

esth

ese

two

sect

ions

by

look

ing

at t

he f

utur

e of

and

rago

gy in

the

are

asof

res

earc

h an

d pr

acti

ce.

Part

3,

“Pra

ctic

e in

Adu

lt L

earn

ing”

(C

hapt

ers

12-1

9),

pres

ents

sele

cted

rea

ding

s th

at e

labo

rate

on

spec

ific

asp

ects

of

andr

agog

y in

prac

tice

. The

se in

clud

e st

rate

gies

to im

plem

ent t

he c

ore

assu

mpt

ions

,to

tai

lor

lear

ning

to

indi

vidu

al d

iffe

renc

es,

and

to i

mpl

emen

t ad

ult

lear

ning

in o

rgan

izat

ions

. Of

spec

ial i

nter

est

are

two

self

-ass

essm

ent

inst

rum

ents

, th

e C

ore

Com

pete

ncy

Dia

gnos

tic

and

Plan

ning

Gui

de(C

hapt

er

16)

and

the

Pers

onal

A

dult

L

earn

ing

Styl

e In

vent

ory

(Cha

pter

17)

, tha

t ena

ble

the

read

er to

beg

in a

per

sona

l dev

elop

men

tjo

urne

y in

adu

lt le

arni

ng.

RE

FL

EC

TIO

NQ

UE

ST

ION

S

1.1

Wha

t ar

e yo

ur g

ener

al t

houg

hts

on h

ow h

uman

s le

arn?

1.2

Bas

ed o

n pe

rson

al e

xper

ienc

e, w

hat

key

fact

ors

are

rela

ted

toad

ult

lear

ning

?

1.3

If y

ou u

nder

stoo

d m

ore

abou

t ho

w a

dult

s le

arn,

how

wou

ldyo

u us

e th

is in

form

atio

n?

RE

FL

EC

TIO

NQ

UE

ST

ION

S5

PA

RT

1

Th

e R

oo

ts o

fA

nd

rag

og

yH

isto

ry a

nd

Pri

nci

ple

s o

f C

lass

icA

nd

rag

og

ica

l A

du

lt L

earn

ing

Th

eory

CH

AP

TE

R

2

Ex

plo

rin

g t

he

Wo

rld

of

Lea

rnin

g T

heo

ry

WH

YE

XP

LO

RE

LE

AR

NIN

GT

HE

OR

Y?

Thi

s is

a g

ood

ques

tion

. Pe

rhap

s yo

u sh

ould

n’t.

If

you

have

no

ques

tion

s ab

out

the

qual

ity

of l

earn

ing

in y

our

orga

niza

tion

, if

you

are

sure

it’s

the

bes

t it

can

be,

we

sugg

est

that

you

can

cel y

our

orde

rfo

r th

is b

ook

and

get

a re

fund

. H

owev

er,

if y

ou’r

e a

polic

y-le

vel

lead

er,

a ch

ange

age

nt,

a le

arni

ng s

peci

alis

t, o

r a

cons

ulta

nt,

you

shou

ld s

erio

usly

con

side

r ex

plor

ing

lear

ning

the

ory.

Doi

ng s

o w

illin

crea

se y

our

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

var

ious

theo

ries

and

you

r ch

ance

s fo

rac

hiev

ing

your

des

ired

res

ults

.

Polic

y-le

vel

lead

er m

ay h

ave

such

que

stio

ns a

s: A

re o

ur H

RD

inte

rven

tion

s ba

sed

on a

ssum

ptio

ns a

bout

hum

an n

atur

e an

d or

gan-

izat

iona

l lif

e th

at a

re c

ongr

uent

wit

h th

e as

sum

ptio

ns o

n w

hich

our

man

agem

ent

polic

ies

are

base

d? I

s ou

r H

RD

pro

gram

con

trib

utin

gto

long

-run

gai

ns in

our

hum

an c

apit

al, o

r on

ly s

hort

-run

cos

t re

duc-

tion

? W

hy d

o ou

r H

RD

per

sonn

el m

ake

the

deci

sion

s th

ey d

o co

n-ce

rnin

g pr

iori

ties

, act

ivit

ies,

met

hods

and

tec

hniq

ues,

mat

eria

ls, a

ndth

e us

e of

out

side

res

ourc

es (

cons

ulta

nts,

pac

kage

pro

gram

s, h

ard-

war

e, s

oftw

are,

and

uni

vers

ity

cour

ses)

? A

re th

ese

the

best

dec

isio

ns?

How

can

I a

sses

s w

heth

er o

r no

t, o

r to

wha

t de

gree

, th

e pr

ogra

m i

spr

oduc

ing

the

resu

lts

I w

ant?

Man

ager

s m

ay h

ave

all

of t

hese

que

stio

ns p

lus

othe

rs,

such

as:

Whi

ch l

earn

ing

theo

ry i

s m

ost

appr

opri

ate

for

whi

ch k

ind

of l

earn

-in

g, o

r sh

ould

our

ent

ire

prog

ram

be

fait

hful

to

a si

ngle

lear

ning

the

-or

y? H

ow d

o I

find

out

wha

t le

arni

ng t

heor

ies

are

bein

g fo

llow

ed b

y

7

8E

XP

LO

RIN

GT

HE

WO

RL

DO

FL

EA

RN

ING

TH

EO

RY

the

vari

ous

cons

ulta

nts,

pa

ckag

e pr

ogra

ms,

an

d ot

her

outs

ide

reso

urce

s av

aila

ble

to u

s? W

hat

diff

eren

ce m

ight

the

ir t

heor

etic

alor

ient

atio

n m

ake

in o

ur p

rogr

am?

Wha

t ar

e th

e im

plic

atio

ns o

f th

eva

riou

s le

arni

ng t

heor

ies

for

our

prog

ram

dev

elop

men

t, s

elec

tion

and

trai

ning

of

inst

ruct

iona

l pe

rson

nel,

adm

inis

trat

ive

polic

ies

and

prac

tice

s, f

acili

ties

, and

pro

gram

eva

luat

ion?

Lea

rnin

g sp

ecia

lists

(in

stru

ctor

s, c

urri

culu

m b

uild

ers,

and

met

h-od

s, m

ater

ials

, and

med

ia d

evel

oper

s) m

ay h

ave

som

e of

tho

se q

ues-

tion

s in

add

itio

n to

the

follo

win

g: H

ow c

an I

incr

ease

my

effe

ctiv

enes

sas

a l

earn

ing

spec

ialis

t? W

hich

tec

hniq

ues

will

be

mos

t ef

fect

ive

for

part

icul

ar s

itua

tion

s? W

hich

lea

rnin

g th

eori

es a

re m

ost

cong

ruen

tw

ith

my

own

view

of

hum

an n

atur

e an

d th

e pu

rpos

e of

edu

cati

on?

Wha

t ar

e th

e im

plic

atio

ns o

f th

e va

riou

s le

arni

ng t

heor

ies

for

my

own

role

and

per

form

ance

?

Con

sult

ants

(ch

ange

age

nts,

exp

erts

, an

d ad

voca

tes)

may

hav

eso

me

of t

hese

que

stio

ns p

lus

othe

rs,

such

as:

Whi

ch l

earn

ing

theo

rysh

ould

I a

dvoc

ate

unde

r w

hat

circ

umst

ance

s? H

ow s

hall

I ex

plai

nth

e na

ture

and

con

sequ

ence

s of

the

var

ious

lea

rnin

g th

eori

es t

o m

ycl

ient

s? W

hat a

re th

e im

plic

atio

ns o

f the

var

ious

lear

ning

theo

ries

for

tota

l or

gani

zati

onal

dev

elop

men

t? W

hich

lea

rnin

g th

eory

is

mos

tco

nsis

tent

wit

h m

y co

ncep

tion

of

the

role

of

cons

ulta

nt?

A g

ood

theo

ry s

houl

d pr

ovid

e ex

plan

atio

ns o

f ph

enom

ena

as w

ell

as g

uide

lines

for

act

ion.

But

the

orie

s ab

out

hum

an b

ehav

ior

also

carr

y w

ith

them

ass

umpt

ions

abo

ut h

uman

nat

ure,

the

pur

pose

of

educ

atio

n, a

nd d

esir

able

val

ues.

Und

erst

anda

bly,

then

, a b

ette

r un

der-

stan

ding

of

the

vari

ous

lear

ning

the

orie

s w

ill r

esul

t in

bet

ter

deci

sion

sre

gard

ing

lear

ning

exp

erie

nces

and

mor

e de

sira

ble

outc

omes

.

WH

AT

ISA

TH

EO

RY?

It s

eem

s th

at m

ost

wri

ters

in

this

fie

ld d

on’t

expr

essl

y de

fine

the

term

theo

ry, b

ut e

xpec

t th

eir

read

ers

to d

eriv

e it

s m

eani

ng f

rom

the

irus

e of

the

ter

m.

Torr

aco

(199

7) i

nfor

ms

us t

hat

“a t

heor

y si

mpl

yex

plai

ns w

hat

a ph

enom

enon

is a

nd h

ow it

wor

ks”

(p. 1

15).

Web

ster

’s S

even

th N

ew I

nter

colle

giat

e D

icti

onar

ygi

ves

five

def

ini-

tion

s: (

1) t

he a

naly

sis

of a

set

of

fact

s in

the

ir r

elat

ion

to o

ne a

noth

er;

(2)

the

gene

ral

or a

bstr

act

prin

cipl

es o

f a

body

of

fact

, a

scie

nce,

or

an a

rt;

(3)

a pl

ausi

ble

or s

cien

tifi

cally

acc

epta

ble

gene

ral

prin

cipl

e

or b

ody

of p

rinc

iple

s of

fere

d to

exp

lain

phe

nom

ena;

(4)

a h

ypot

hesi

sas

sum

ed f

or t

he s

ake

of a

rgum

ent

or i

nves

tiga

tion

; (5

) ab

stra

ctth

ough

t. L

earn

ing

theo

rist

s us

e al

l fiv

e of

thes

e de

fini

tion

s in

one

way

or a

noth

er, b

ut w

ith

wid

e va

riat

ions

in t

heir

usa

ge:

Her

e, f

or e

xam

ple,

are

som

e de

fini

tion

s by

usa

ge in

con

text

.

The

res

earc

h w

orke

r ne

eds

a se

t of a

ssum

ptio

ns a

s a

star

ting

poin

tto

gui

de w

hat

he/s

he d

oes,

to

be t

este

d by

exp

erim

ent,

or t

o se

rve

as a

che

ck o

n ob

serv

atio

ns a

nd i

nsig

hts.

With

out

any

theo

ry,

rese

arch

er a

ctiv

ities

may

be

as a

imle

ss a

nd a

s w

aste

ful a

s th

e ea

rly

wan

deri

ngs

of t

he e

xplo

rers

in N

orth

Am

eric

a . .

. kn

owle

dge

ofth

eory

alw

ays

aids

pra

ctic

e. (

Kid

d, 1

959,

pp.

134–

135)

A s

cien

tist

, w

ith

the

desi

re t

o sa

tisf

y hi

s/he

r cu

rios

ity

abou

t th

efa

cts

of n

atur

e, h

as a

pre

dile

ctio

n fo

r or

deri

ng h

is/h

er f

acts

int

osy

stem

s of

law

s an

d th

eori

es. H

e/sh

e is

inte

rest

ed n

ot o

nly

in v

er-

ifie

d fa

cts

and

rela

tion

ship

s, b

ut in

nea

t an

d pa

rsim

onio

us w

ays

of s

umm

ariz

ing

thes

e fa

cts.

(H

ilgar

d an

d B

ower

, 196

6, p

p.1–

2)

Eve

ry m

anag

eria

l ac

t re

sts

on a

ssum

ptio

ns,

gene

raliz

atio

ns,

and

hypo

thes

es—

that

is t

o sa

y, o

n th

eory

. (M

cGre

gor,

1960

, p.6

)

Few

peo

ple,

oth

er t

han

theo

rist

s, e

ver

get

exci

ted

abou

t th

eori

es.

The

orie

s, l

ike

vege

tabl

es a

nd t

elev

ised

gol

f to

urna

men

ts,

don’

ttr

igge

r pr

ovoc

ativ

e re

acti

ons

from

peo

ple.

Mos

t th

eori

es, e

xcep

tth

ose

that

are

tru

ly r

evol

utio

nary

, su

ch a

s th

e co

ntri

butio

ns o

fN

ewto

n, E

inst

ein,

and

Dar

win

, ju

st d

o th

eir

jobs

qui

etly

beh

ind

the

scen

es. T

hey

may

incr

ease

our

und

erst

andi

ng o

f a

real

-wor

ldev

ent

or b

ehav

ior

or t

hey

may

hel

p us

pre

dict

wha

t w

ill h

appe

nin

a g

iven

situ

atio

n. B

ut t

hey

do s

o w

ithou

t a

lot

of f

anfa

re.

(Tor

raco

, 199

7, p

.114

)

From

the

se e

xcer

pts

and

pers

pect

ives

we

can

see

that

a t

heor

y ca

nbe

a g

uidi

ng s

et o

f as

sum

ptio

ns (

Kid

d),

an o

rder

ing

syst

em t

hat

neat

ly s

umm

ariz

es t

he f

acts

(H

ilgar

d an

d B

ower

), a

nd/o

r as

sum

p-ti

ons,

gen

eral

izat

ions

, an

d hy

poth

eses

(M

cGre

gor)

. A

nd,

as T

orra

copo

ints

out

, th

eori

es c

an b

e ta

cit.

Yet

, w

e m

ust

exam

ine

anot

her

impo

rtan

t pe

rspe

ctiv

e: t

he f

act

that

the

re a

re s

ome

psyc

holo

gist

sw

ho d

on’t

belie

ve i

n th

eori

es a

t al

l. Fo

r ex

ampl

e, S

kinn

er o

bjec

ts t

oth

eori

es o

n th

e sc

ore

that

the

hyp

othe

sis-

form

ulat

ion-

and-

test

ing

WH

AT

ISA

TH

EO

RY?

9

proc

edur

es t

hey

gene

rate

are

was

tefu

l and

mis

lead

ing.

“T

hey

usua

llyse

nd t

he i

nves

tiga

tor

dow

n th

e w

rong

pat

hs,

and

even

if

the

scie

n-ti

fic

logi

c m

akes

the

m s

elf-

corr

ecti

ng, t

he p

aths

bac

k ar

e st

rew

n w

ith

disc

arde

d th

eori

es”

(Hilg

ard

and

Bow

er,

1966

, p.

143)

. Sk

inne

rbe

lieve

s th

at t

he e

nd r

esul

t of

sci

enti

fic

inve

stig

atio

n is

a “

desc

ribe

dfu

ncti

onal

rel

atio

nshi

p de

mon

stra

ted

in t

he d

ata.

” A

fter

rev

iew

ing

the

clas

sica

l the

orie

s, h

e co

mes

to

the

conc

lusi

on t

hat

“suc

h th

eori

esar

e no

w o

f hi

stor

ical

int

eres

t on

ly,

and

unfo

rtun

atel

y, m

uch

of t

hew

ork

whi

ch w

as d

one

to s

uppo

rt t

hem

is a

lso

of li

ttle

cur

rent

val

ue.

We

may

tur

n in

stea

d to

a m

ore

adeq

uate

ana

lysi

s of

the

cha

nges

whi

ch t

ake

plac

e as

a s

tude

nt le

arns

” (S

kinn

er, 1

968,

p.8

).

Sim

ilarl

y, G

agne

(19

65)

wri

tes,

“I

do n

ot t

hink

lea

rnin

g is

a p

he-

nom

enon

whi

ch c

an b

e ex

plai

ned

by s

impl

e th

eori

es,

desp

ite

the

adm

itte

d in

telle

ctua

l app

eal t

hat

such

the

orie

s ha

ve”

(p. v

). H

e go

eson

to

expl

ain,

how

ever

, th

at a

num

ber

of u

sefu

l ge

nera

lizat

ions

can

be m

ade

abou

t cl

asse

s of

per

form

ance

cha

nge,

whi

ch h

e de

scri

bes

asco

ndit

ions

of

lear

ning

.

Whe

re d

oes

all

this

lea

ve u

s in

ans

wer

ing

the

ques

tion

, W

hat

is a

theo

ry?

Perh

aps

the

only

rea

listi

c an

swer

is

that

a t

heor

y is

wha

t a

give

n au

thor

say

s it

is. I

f yo

u w

ant

to u

nder

stan

d hi

s or

her

thi

nkin

gyo

u ha

ve t

o go

alo

ng w

ith

his

or h

er d

efin

itio

ns. S

o he

re is

our

def

i-ni

tion

:A t

heor

y is

a c

ompr

ehen

sive

, coh

eren

t, a

nd in

tern

ally

con

sis-

tent

sys

tem

of

idea

s ab

out

a se

t of

phe

nom

ena.

WH

AT

ISL

EA

RN

IN

G?

Any

dis

cuss

ion

of a

def

init

ion

of l

earn

ing

mus

t be

pre

face

d w

ith

an i

mpo

rtan

t an

d fr

eque

ntly

mad

e di

stin

ctio

n—th

e on

e be

twee

ned

ucat

ion

and

lear

ning

.

Edu

cati

onis

an

acti

vity

und

erta

ken

or i

niti

ated

by

one

or m

ore

agen

ts t

hat

is d

esig

ned

to e

ffec

t ch

ange

s in

the

kno

wle

dge,

ski

ll,

and

atti

tude

s of

ind

ivid

uals

, gr

oups

, or

com

mun

itie

s. T

he t

erm

emph

asiz

es t

he e

duca

tor,

the

age

nt o

f ch

ange

who

pre

sent

s st

im-

uli

and

rein

forc

emen

t fo

r le

arni

ng a

nd d

esig

ns a

ctiv

itie

s to

ind

uce

chan

ge.

The

ter

m l

earn

ing,

by

cont

rast

, em

phas

izes

the

per

son

in w

hom

the

chan

ge o

ccur

s or

is

expe

cted

to

occu

r. L

earn

ing

is t

he a

ct o

rpr

oces

s by

whi

ch b

ehav

iora

l cha

nge,

kno

wle

dge,

ski

lls, a

nd a

ttit

udes

are

acqu

ired

(B

oyd,

App

s, e

tal

., pp

.100

–101

).

10E

XP

LO

RIN

GT

HE

WO

RL

DO

FL

EA

RN

ING

TH

EO

RY

Hav

ing

mad

e th

is d

isti

ncti

on, w

e ca

n pr

ocee

d w

ith

our

defi

niti

on o

fle

arni

ng.

How

ever

, de

fini

ng l

earn

ing,

lik

e de

fini

ng t

heor

y, c

an p

rove

com

plic

ated

. So

me

lear

ning

the

oris

ts a

sser

t th

at d

efin

ing

lear

ning

is

diff

icul

t, w

hile

sti

ll ot

hers

mai

ntai

n th

at th

ere

is n

o ba

sic

disa

gree

men

tab

out

the

defi

niti

on o

f le

arni

ng b

etw

een

the

theo

ries

. Sm

ith

(198

2)su

mm

ariz

es t

he d

iffi

cult

y of

def

inin

g le

arni

ng in

the

se w

ords

:

It h

as b

een

sugg

este

d th

at t

he t

erm

lear

ning

def

ies

prec

ise

defi

ni-

tion

bec

ause

it is

put

to m

ulti

ple

uses

. Lea

rnin

g is

use

d to

ref

er to

(1)

the

acqu

isit

ion

and

mas

tery

of

wha

t is

alr

eady

kno

wn

abou

tso

met

hing

, (2)

the

exte

nsio

n an

d cl

arif

icat

ion

of m

eani

ng o

f one

’sex

peri

ence

, or

(3)

an

orga

nize

d, i

nten

tion

al p

roce

ss o

f te

stin

gid

eas

rele

vant

to

prob

lem

s. I

n ot

her

wor

ds, i

t is

use

d to

des

crib

ea

prod

uct,

a p

roce

ss, o

r a

func

tion

. (p.

34)

In c

ontr

ast,

Ern

est

Hilg

ard,

one

of

our

mos

t di

stin

guis

hed

con-

tem

pora

ry i

nter

pret

ers

of l

earn

ing

theo

ry,

conc

lude

s th

at t

he d

ebat

ece

nter

s on

inte

rpre

tati

on a

nd n

ot d

efin

itio

n.

Whi

le i

t is

ext

rem

ely

diff

icul

t to

for

mul

ate

a sa

tisf

acto

ry d

efin

i-ti

on o

f le

arni

ng s

o as

to

incl

ude

all

the

acti

viti

es a

nd p

roce

sses

whi

ch w

e w

ish

to in

clud

e an

d el

imin

ate

all t

hose

whi

ch w

e w

ish

to e

xclu

de,

the

diff

icul

ty d

oes

not

prov

e to

be

emba

rras

sing

beca

use

it is

not

a s

ourc

e of

con

trov

ersy

as

betw

een

theo

ries

. The

cont

rove

rsy

is o

ver

fact

and

int

erpr

etat

ion,

not

ove

r de

fini

tion

.(H

ilgar

d an

d B

ower

, 196

6, p

.6)

Thi

s ge

nera

lizat

ion

appe

ars

to h

old

wit

h re

gard

to

thos

e le

arni

ngth

eori

sts

who

dom

inat

ed t

he f

ield

unt

il re

cent

ly,

alth

ough

the

re a

rest

riki

ng v

aria

tion

s in

the

deg

ree

of p

reci

sion

am

ong

them

. Let

’s s

tart

wit

h th

ree

defi

niti

ons

by d

iffe

rent

aut

hors

as

pres

ente

d in

Rea

ding

sin

Hum

an L

earn

ing.

Lea

rnin

g in

volv

es c

hang

e. It

is c

once

rned

wit

h th

e ac

quis

itio

n of

habi

ts,

know

ledg

e, a

nd a

ttit

udes

. It

ena

bles

the

ind

ivid

ual

tom

ake

both

per

sona

l and

soc

ial a

djus

tmen

ts. S

ince

the

conc

ept o

fch

ange

is

inhe

rent

in

the

conc

ept

of l

earn

ing,

any

cha

nge

inbe

havi

or im

plie

s th

at le

arni

ng is

tak

ing

plac

e or

has

tak

en p

lace

.L

earn

ing

that

oc

curs

du

ring

th

e pr

oces

s of

ch

ange

ca

n be

refe

rred

to

as t

he le

arni

ng p

roce

ss. (

Cro

w a

nd C

row

, 196

3, p

.1)

WH

AT

ISL

EA

RN

ING

?11

Lea

rnin

g is

a c

hang

e in

the

ind

ivid

ual,

due

to t

he i

nter

acti

on o

fth

at i

ndiv

idua

l, an

d hi

s en

viro

nmen

t, w

hich

fill

s a

need

and

mak

es h

im m

ore

capa

ble

of d

ealin

g ad

equa

tely

wit

h hi

s en

viro

n-m

ent.

(B

urto

n, 1

963,

p.7

)

The

re is

a r

emar

kabl

e ag

reem

ent

upon

the

def

init

ion

of le

arni

ngas

bei

ng r

efle

cted

in a

cha

nge

in b

ehav

ior

as t

he r

esul

t of

exp

eri-

ence

. (H

agga

rd, 1

963,

p.2

0)

The

last

not

ion

impl

ies

that

we

don’

t di

rect

ly k

now

wha

t le

arni

ngis

, but

can

onl

y in

fer

wha

t it

is. T

his

idea

is s

uppo

rted

by

Cro

nbac

h(1

963)

, w

ho s

tate

d, “

Lea

rnin

g is

sho

wn

by a

cha

nge

in b

ehav

ior

asa

resu

lt o

f ex

peri

ence

” (p

. 71

). H

arri

s an

d Sc

hwah

n (1

961)

go

back

to,

“Lea

rnin

g is

ess

enti

ally

cha

nge

due

to e

xper

ienc

e,”

but

then

go

on t

o di

stin

guis

h am

ong

lear

ning

as

prod

uct,

whi

ch e

mph

asiz

es t

heen

d re

sult

or

outc

ome

of th

e le

arni

ng e

xper

ienc

e, le

arni

ng a

s pr

oces

s,w

hich

em

phas

izes

wha

t ha

ppen

s du

ring

the

cou

rse

of a

lea

rnin

gex

peri

ence

in

atta

inin

g a

give

n le

arni

ng p

rodu

ct o

r ou

tcom

e, a

ndle

arni

ng a

s fu

ncti

on,

whi

ch e

mph

asiz

es c

erta

in c

riti

cal

aspe

cts

ofle

arni

ng, s

uch

as m

otiv

atio

n, r

eten

tion

, and

tra

nsfe

r, w

hich

pre

sum

-ab

ly m

ake

beha

vior

al c

hang

es in

hum

an le

arni

ng p

ossi

ble

(pp.

1–2

).

Oth

ers

take

car

e to

dis

ting

uish

bet

wee

n pl

anne

d le

arni

ng a

nd n

at-

ural

gro

wth

.

Lea

rnin

g is

a c

hang

e in

hum

an d

ispo

siti

on o

r ca

pabi

lity,

whi

chca

n be

ret

aine

d, a

nd w

hich

is n

ot s

impl

y as

crib

able

to th

e pr

oces

sof

gro

wth

. (G

agne

, 196

5, p

.5)

Lea

rnin

g is

the

pro

cess

by

whi

ch a

n ac

tivi

ty o

rigi

nate

s or

is

chan

ged

thro

ugh

reac

ting

to

an e

ncou

nter

ed s

itua

tion

, pr

ovid

edth

at

the

char

acte

rist

ics

of

the

chan

ge

in

acti

vity

ca

nnot

be

expl

aine

d on

the

basi

s of

nat

ive

resp

onse

tend

enci

es, m

atur

atio

n,or

tem

pora

ry s

tate

s of

the

org

anis

m (

e.g.

, fa

tigu

e, d

rugs

, et

c.).

(Hilg

ard

and

Bow

er, 1

966,

p.2

)

The

con

cept

s of

con

trol

and

sha

ping

lie

at

the

hear

t of

Ski

nner

’s(1

968)

tr

eatm

ent

of

lear

ning

: (1

) “R

ecen

t im

prov

emen

ts

in

the

cond

itio

ns w

hich

con

trol

beh

avio

r in

the

fie

ld o

f le

arni

ng a

re o

f tw

opr

inci

pal s

orts

. The

Law

of

Eff

ect

has

been

tak

en s

erio

usly

; we

have

mad

e su

re t

hat

effe

cts

do o

ccur

und

er c

ondi

tion

s w

hich

are

opt

imal

12E

XP

LO

RIN

GT

HE

WO

RL

DO

FL

EA

RN

ING

TH

EO

RY

for

prod

ucin

g ch

ange

s ca

lled

lear

ning

” [c

ontr

ol]

and

(2)

Onc

e w

eha

ve a

rran

ged

the

part

icul

ar t

ype

of c

onse

quen

ce c

alle

d a

rein

forc

e-m

ent,

our

tec

hniq

ues

perm

it u

s to

sha

pe t

he b

ehav

ior

of a

n or

gani

smal

mos

t at

will

(p.

10).

Cle

arly

, the

se le

arni

ng t

heor

ists

(an

d m

ost

of t

heir

pre

curs

ors

and

man

y of

the

ir c

onte

mpo

rari

es)

see

lear

ning

as

a pr

oces

s by

whi

chbe

havi

or is

cha

nged

, sha

ped,

or

cont

rolle

d. O

ther

the

oris

ts p

refe

r to

defi

ne l

earn

ing

in t

erm

s of

gro

wth

, de

velo

pmen

t of

com

pete

ncie

s,an

d fu

lfill

men

t of

pot

enti

al.

Jero

me

Bru

ner

(196

6),

for

exam

ple,

obse

rves

, “I

t is

eas

y en

ough

to

use

one’

s ch

osen

the

ory

for

expl

ain-

ing

mod

ific

atio

ns

in

beha

vior

as

an

in

stru

men

t fo

r de

scri

bing

grow

th; t

here

are

so

man

y as

pect

s of

gro

wth

that

any

theo

ry c

an fi

ndso

met

hing

tha

t it

can

exp

lain

wel

l.” H

e th

en l

ists

the

fol

low

ing

“ben

chm

arks

abo

ut t

he n

atur

e of

int

elle

ctua

l gr

owth

aga

inst

whi

chto

mea

sure

one

’s e

ffor

ts a

t ex

plan

atio

n”:

1.G

row

th

is

char

acte

rize

d by

in

crea

sing

in

depe

nden

ce

ofre

spon

se f

rom

the

imm

edia

te n

atur

e of

the

sti

mul

us.

2.G

row

th d

epen

ds u

pon

inte

rnal

izin

g ev

ents

into

a “

stor

age

sys-

tem

” th

at c

orre

spon

ds t

o th

e en

viro

nmen

t.

3.In

telle

ctua

l gr

owth

inv

olve

s an

inc

reas

ing

capa

city

to

say

toon

esel

f an

d ot

hers

, by

mea

ns o

f w

ords

or

sym

bols

, w

hat

one

has

done

or

wha

t on

e w

ill d

o.

4.In

telle

ctua

l de

velo

pmen

t de

pend

s up

on a

sys

tem

atic

and

con

-ti

ngen

t in

tera

ctio

n be

twee

n a

tuto

r an

d a

lear

ner.

5.Te

achi

ng is