Floodshttp://www.cdera.org/doccentre/fs_floods.php

WHAT IS A FLOOD?Abnormal progressive rise in the water level of streams or rivers which may result in overflowing.

CAUSES OF FLOODS  Heavy Rainfall  Dam or levee failures Torrential rains from cyclones Tsunamis Storm Surges

Burst water mainsTYPES OF FLOODS

Flash Floods River Floods Coastal Floods 

LEVELS OF FLOODING

Inundations due to flooding vary in cause and severity can be categorized as follows:

MINOR FLOODING Due to the accumulation of excessive

surface runoff. Flood waters consigned to the flood

plain immediately along a river/channel or in random low lying and topographically depressed areas.

Flooding is relatively shallow and there is no perceptive flow of water as when inundation is rapidly spreading to adjacent areas.

MAJOR FLOODING Due to overflowing of rivers and lakes,

unexpected and serious breaks in dikes, levees and other protective structures or uncontrolled releases of dam water .

Coverage of a wide continuous area and rapid spreading to adjacent areas of relatively lower elevation.

Flooding is relatively deep in most parts of the flood-stricken areas. Currents of flowing flood water will be swift as the flood spreads to other areas.

LIKELY IMPACT

Flood waters can destroy infrastructure, particularly those at ground level, Crops and livestock can also be destroyed and considerable water damage to critical assets will occur in the path of flood waters. Many persons may be killed especially when flash floods occur but the injuries are few.  Food supply may become an issue.

FLOOD WATCHDesignation of the period during which flood monitoring forecasting and flood warnings are carried out.

The principal activities are: Flood monitoring.  Data collection and processing. Assessment of probability of flooding. Dissemination of information to public.

EMERGENCY ACTION

Official announcements are issued before during and after the occurrence of floods.  These are intended to appraise the public in the affected area of the present and projected flood situation.

FLOOD ADVISORYContent of such bulletins include:

Present and expected situation of the meteorological cause of flooding. Present and forecasted hydrological situation. Areas likely to be affected. Time and severity of flooding Precautionary measures recommended. Routine announcement of next bulletin. Safety precautions to be taken before the flood, when Advisories are issued and during and after the flood.

Before the Flood Know the flood warning system in your community and ensure that your family knows the warnings. Learn all you can about the flooding Monitor weather conditions Keep on hand material like lumber, plywood, nails, roped, wires, plastic sheeting, sandbags, etc. Keep a portable transistor radio with spare batteries and emergency equipment. Store all chemicals away from flood waters. Store livestock feed and supplies above expected water levels.

During the Warning Listen for emergency instructions Watch for rapidly rising water  Store drinking water in sealed plastic containers as water service may be interrupted. Move household items to higher levels  Get livestock to higher ground Evacuate if necessary when it is safe to do so, don't move quickly. Turn off electricity at the main switch before evacuating

During the Flood Avoid areas subject to flash flooding Don't attempt to cross rivers or flowing streams where water us above the knees. Beware of water-covered roads and bridges

 After the Flood

Re-enter building with caution. Use flashlights, not lanterns or torches as flammables may be inside. Be alert for fire hazards such as broken electrical wires.

If the building has been under water, do not switch on the main, wait for professional assistance. Never touch electrical switches while wet or standing in water 

Don't use appliances or equipment until they have been cleaned, dried and thoroughly checked for damage. Report utility lines (electricity, water, gas and telephone) to the appropriate authorities. Boil all water and don't eat left-over food until it is checked for contamination Keep away from disaster areas as your presence may hamper rescue efforts

MITIGATION MEASURES

Flood Mitigation Measures may be divided into three (3) main areas: Control over the river Control over the land Other measures

Control Over The River

Reliance is mainly on the physical alteration to the channel, flood plain or watershed to control the river. Measures include: 

Dams and reservoirs built on mainstreams or tributaries that store excessive water and releases it gradually after the threat has passed.

Levees or floodwalls confine flood waters to a floodway, thereby reducing flood damage. Channel improvements which include:1. Straightening to remove undesirable bendways2. Deepening and widening to increase size of waterways 3. Clearing to remove brush, trees and other obstructions4. Lining with concrete to increase efficiency Watershed Treatment which renders the soil more absorbent of excessive rainfall until flood heights have

receded.Measures include:

1. Crop rotation.2. Construction of terrace.3. Contour strip cropping.4. Selective planting and reforestation.

Control over The Land

Measures are embodied in the following Land Use Policies: Designated floodways and encroachment lines are the lateral boundaries of the floodway where no

construction or land filling should be permitted. Zoning is a legal tool used by governments to control development. Subdivision Regulations specify the manner in which land may be divided. Typical provisions show the

extent of the flood plain on maps. Floodway limits or encroachment lines prohibit filing in channels and floodways that restrict flow and require that each lot contain a building site with an elevation above the flood level.

Building Codes are standards for construction of buildings and other structures and if enforced can reduce damages to buildings in flood-prone areas.

Some requirements include:1. Establishment of basement elevations and first flood elevations consistent with potential flood levels.2. Structural strength to withstand water pressure or high velocity of flowing water3. Prohibition of equipment that might be hazardous to life when submerged.4. Prevention of flotation of buildings by requiring proper anchorage.

Other Measures

These include flood proofing , flood forecasting, warning and evacuation systems. Flood Proofing is a combination of structural changes and adjustment to properties which can be used in new

or existing construction. Action include. seepage control, protective coverings, elevation or raising anchorage and under pinning.

Flood Forecasting is reliable accurate and timely forecasting of floods coupled with timely evacuation to save lives and reduce property losses.

Temporary Evacuation removes persons and property from the path of flood waters. Permanent Evacuation removes an affected population from areas subject to inundation. This involves the

acquisition of lands and the removal of improvements. The acquired lands can be used for agriculture, parks or other purposes that would not interfere with flood flows or result in material damage.

Flood Insurance assists by compensating for flood damage but insurance rates should realistically reflect the flood risk in order to avoid encouragement of improper development of flood plains.

Most flooded sections in the reason are monitored at the natural level

http://www.cdera.org/doccentre/fs_landslides.php

Caribbean Countries Most Affected

Haiti, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent and the Grenadines, The British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Belize, Jamaica and St. Lucia

Specific Instances

Haiti – 2004 (2 weeks of rain); 2010 (2 rainstorms – 15 killed)

Dominican Republic – 2004 (2 weeks of rain - over 13,000 homeless, over 550 dead) Jamaica – tropical storm Nicole (2010)

April 26, 2012 – (heavy rainfall) Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic, St Maarten, Trinidad and Tobago

Case Studies – Flooding

Flooding, the silent killer for Caribbean countries

http://www.nationnews.com/articles/view/flooding-the-silent-killer-for-caribbean-countries/

BY FERNELLA WEDDERBURN | SAT, OCTOBER 09, 2010 - 7:00 PM

It’s called the silent killer. And for many Caribbean countries, flooding has emerged as the most common natural hazard affecting their socio-economic development.

Yet more than five years after the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) implemented the regional flood hazard management programme, not all regional states have fully embraced the initiative.

CDEMA executive director Jeremy Collymore said there can be no mistaking that floods pose the most frequent threat to the region, adding “we call it the silent killer”.

The regional flood hazard management programme has been drawn up with assistance from the Japanese government, the University of the West Indies (UWI) and the Caribbean Institute of Meteorology.

Collymore said that the project focuses on community level hazard management bringing together science and traditional knowledge for community safety. 

“We need to have more of those replicated. We do have the science and the local knowledge together and that now has to be disseminated broadly and we are certainly looking to address that in our future resource mobilization,” he added.

In recent weeks, several Caribbean countries have had to deal with floods occasioned by unsettled weather over the region, resulting in death and widespread destruction running into millions of dollars.

In Haiti, 15 were killed in two separate rain storms and hundreds more left to start all over again even as they continue to struggle for survival following the January 12 earthquake that killed more than 300,000 people and left more than a million others homeless.

Jamaica said it would need more than US$110 million to deal with infrastructural damage caused by Tropical Storm Nicole that also left 13 dead.

The St. Lucia government was forced to declare the eastern village of Dennery a disaster zone after nearly 100 houses were submerged in water caused by unprecedented floods.

Infrastructural damage in Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, the British Virgin Islands, Bermuda and Belize also tell a tale of the severe floods that have affected the region in recent weeks.

Collymore said that while the regional flood hazard management programme is in place, at the national level, most countries fall short. 

“I don’t think that many countries have really addressed a comprehensive national flood management programme. They may have drainage interventions. They may have river control but the concept of a national flood management programme, it still to be embraced. 

“We see this to be to the next frontier of intervention where national flood hazard management programme is part of a national resilience policy.

“If you are going to prepare for the irregularities that are associated with climate variability and change, these are the kind of things that will happen. 

“Lots of water in short time, so the absorptive capacity may be a challenge…but then we have to have the kind of resilient intervention …and this is what we are trying to do to upscale the nature in how we respond. Taking in consideration that the nature of the hazards is changing while the magnitudes are increasing,” Collymore said.

But the head of the Barbados-based regional disaster management agency believes that there are common lessons to be learnt from the recent floods, particularly the inadequacy of drainage systems to manage water flow. 

He said the destruction of natural drainage systems allowing for the water to find its place among populated areas and the need to revisit the whole question of the integrated approach to watershed management are other common factors observed as a result of the recent rains.

But he said CDEMA is on stand-by to assist member states cope with the situation.

“Jamaica and the British Virgin Islands say they will be looking for external assistance. In the case of the Virgin Islands, they will be looking for support in relation to an engineering assessment of the damage to the infrastructure, roads and bridges etcetera.”

“We are certainly collaborating with the University of the West Indies in helping to respond to some of these technical requests. Additionally our team will be in Jamaica next week, now that they have had the damage assessment and impact information, to look at how our assistant technical support programmes can be rearticulated to address some of the capacity gaps of our short term lease,” he said. 

But Collymore stressed that governments must act on flood management and assess land usage to mitigate against widespread flooding. 

“You’ve seen the damage. There is wind damage and there is water damage and so we have to open our minds to the total potential impact. 

“The thing about water damage (is) that it touches everything, everything. Roads, homes, crops, water systems. Whereas the winds sometimes knocks out power but you can still move around free and so on.”

He said it is necessary therefore for the region to get accustomed to this new threat and deal with it as quickly as possible.

“I don’t think it will go away soon,” he said. (CMC)

Hundreds dead in Caribbean floodshttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3746619.stmMore than 550 people are known to have died and amid fears of disease, bodies are being buried in mass graves.

Some of the worst affected areas are on the border between the two countries; more than 13,000 people are homeless in the Dominican Republic alone.

US and Canadian troops in Haiti are helping the relief work.

The BBC's Jeremy Cooke reports from the Dominican town of Jimani, where two rivers overflowed, that a huge mudslide flattened everything in its wake, leaving what resembles a lunar landscape.

On the outskirts of town, the overwhelming force of floodwaters cut a massive scar through the landscape several kilometres long and several hundred metres wide, with nothing left in its wake.

Across the border in the Haitian town of Fonds Verettes, most of the houses were destroyed when rocks and water cascaded down the mountainside, UN officials say.

Many missing

The floods came after two weeks of persistent rain saturated the ground on the mountainous island of Hispaniola, which the two countries share.

Entire villages have been obliterated and dozens of bodies are piling up in makeshift morgues where grief-stricken relatives are trying to identify lost family members.

As rescue workers reach the more remote areas where the flooding was at its most severe, the number of corpses being pulled from beneath the mud and wreckage continues to rise.

There are simply too many for them to get a proper burial. The dead are being buried in mass graves or simply where they are found.

Cut off

The casualty figures keep rising but Dominican officials say more than 200 people are known to have died there.

Civil protection officials in Haiti say the floods have killed some 375 people and left 3,000 homeless.

 They found my daughter - now I have to see if I have any family left 

Flood victim

In pictures: Deadly floodsPress solidarity with victims

Air force and army teams have been searching for survivors.

Many roads remain impassable after weeks of rain.

Peacekeepers stationed in Haiti have been using helicopters to carry supplies to the worst-hit regions, a spokesman for the US-led 3,600-strong force said.

The Dominican government has sent emergency teams, including hundreds of extra troops, from the capital, Santo Domingo.

"We are co-ordinating urgent measures to rescue survivors and evacuate people who are in danger," said National Emergency Commission chief Radhames Lora Salcedo.

Damage to both countries' crops and infrastructure is being estimated at many millions of dollars.

The European Union is preparing to send an emergency package worth some two million euros ($2.43m).

WHAT IS A LANDSLIDE?

It is a down slope transport of soil and rock resulting from naturally occurring vibrations, changes in direct water content, removal of lateral support, loading with weight, and weathering or human manipulation of water course and slope composition.

CHARACTERISTICS

Landslides vary in types of movement (falls, slides, topples, lateral spread, flows) and may be secondary effects of heavy storms, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. Landslides are more widespread than any other geological event. 

LIKELY IMPACT

Physical Damage Anything on top of or in the path of a Landslide will suffer damage Rubble may block roads, lines of communication or waterways. Indirect effect may include loss of

productivity of agricultural or forest lands. Flooding . Reduced property values, destruction of buildings. Casualties- fatalities may occur due to slope failure.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VULNERABILITY Settlements built on steep slopes, softer soils and cliff tops  Settlements built at the base of steep slopes, on mouths of streams from mountain valleys. Roads, communication lines in mountain areas Buildings with weak foundations Buried Pipelines and brittle pipes.  Lack of understanding of landslide hazard

PREPAREDNESS MEASURES

Community Education after identification of areas most at risk from landslides. The basic information required: Knowledge of where past Landslides have occurred, derived from local records and knowledge of certain

types of rocks prone to landslides. Monitoring, warning and evacuation systems

MITIGATION MEASURES Capture and drainage of water before it reaches potential slope area Underground drainage by using sub-surface pipes Land Reform by terracing/re-shaping

Agronomic Reforestation, planting of deep rooting trees to prevent surface slips

Ground cover with grass or agricultural cropsEngineering 

Use of Gabion construction to protect water course valleys and control the flow of water down slopeTYPICAL POST-DISASTER NEEDS

Search and rescue (use of earth removal equipment) Medical assistance Emergency shelter for homeless.

Case Studies – Landslides

L a n d s l i d e s - D o m i n i c a

  http://dominicapsn.freeyellow.com/Stories/landslides.htmlThe Good Hope Landslide, Dominica, W.I.

The small community of Good Hope, on the east coast of Dominica, West Indies, nestles along a narrow valley bottom by Grand Marigot Bay. By nightfall of November 11, 1986, the community and surrounding area had experienced several days of heavy rainfall. Earlier that day, a small landslide developed in the cutslope of the Castle Bruce-Petit Soufriere road where it crosses the steep hillslope above the town. Except for this landslide, the rains had produced no other unusual events. 

Shortly after 3:00 AM on November 12, 1986, nearly 17,000 cubic meters of soil and weathered rock slid from the hillslope above the Castle Bruce-Petit Soufriere road. Bananas, coconut, and bay trees growing on the hillslope were swept away. The rapidly moving slide mass destroyed citrus trees and vegetable crops growing below the road. The slide engulfed the health clinic near the base of the slope, seriously injuring the nurse and killing her ten-year-old daughter in their sleeping quarters. Several meters farther downslope, the impact of the slide shoved the primary school partly off its foundation, collapsed the back wall, and buried the upslope side to the roof line. As the debris came to rest, the toe of the slide deposited material 1 to 4 meters deep along a 15-meter length of the principal street through Good Hope. On the slope above, a 90-meter section of the Castle Bruce-Petit Soufriere road lay blocked by the upper slide mass (Fig. 1). Taken from: DeGraff, J.V., Bryce, R., Jibson, R.W., Mora, S., and Rogers, C.T. 1989. Landslides: Their extent and significance in the Caribbean. In E.E. Brabb and B.L. Harrod (eds), Landslides: Extent and Economic Significance. p. 51-80. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.

LANDSLIDE DAMS IN DOMINICA

The island nation of Dominica in the Windward Islands is known to tourists as the "Nature Isle". This term normally refers to the extensive remaining rainforest, beautiful waterfalls, and steep volcanic terrain which attracts visitors interested in eco-tourism. In November, the country experienced a different side of nature as two landslide dams formed and failed in the Layou river valley. The Layou river is the longest river on this 290 square mile island in the eastern Caribbean. About five miles from its mouth on the Caribbean Sea, the Layou river is joined by one of its tributaries, the Matthieu river. At their junction, the rivers flow through a gorge with 300-foot high cliffs carved in welded tuff. This was

the site of the landslide dams.

An area subject to periodic landslide activity is present within the Matthieu river valley just upstream from its junction with the Layou river. Small landslides occurred at this location as far back as 1988. Several large landslides were triggered in this area by storms during 1995.

On November 18, 1997, a large debris flow from the unstable valley wall within the Matthieu river passed down the gorge and into the Layou river channel to form a landslide dam. The landslide dam was about 50 feet high at its highest point and formed a solid plug in the river for about 200 feet upstream and 300 feet downstream from the Matthieu river junction. Water rose quickly to form a lake behind the dam. By early morning on Friday, November 21, the dam was breached and sent an estimated 300 million gallons of water down the valley.

The following week on November 25, another landslide took place at the same general location in the Matthieu river valley. A debris flow again passed through the gorge and deposited on the remnants of the earlier landslide dam. The Layou river was again dammed. Additionally, most of the landslide came to rest as a solid mass wedged between the cliffs forming the gorge and blocked the Matthieu river. The landslide dam on the Layou river was estimated to be 60 feet high at its highest point. The Matthieu landslide dam is about 200 feet high as measured on its downstream face.

By Friday, November 28, the water impounded by the second landslide dam on the Layou river overtopped the dam at about 2:00 p.m. An estimated 350 million gallons of water flooded the Layou river valley. Both flooding events required evacuation of several hundred residents of the community of Layou at the river's mouth. While few structures were damaged by flood waters, significant crop loss, road damage, and deposition of sediments occurred along the river.

The landslide dam on the Matthieu river continues to fill. The smaller drainage area upstream means several weeks to months will pass before it is filled to capacity. If it completely fills before breaching, it is estimated that the water impounded behind this dam will be 2 to 5 times greater in volume than the water impounded by either of the landslide dams on the Layou river.

The steep terrain and rivers make taking action to prevent complete filling of the valley behind the Matthieu landslide dam virtually impossible. There is too little time and too few funds to accomplish an engineering control or stabilization of the landslide dam. Efforts are being focused on monitoring to ensure safety of inhabitants down stream and permanent relocation of people from the path of the future floods. The river channel has lost much of its water carrying capacity from sediment deposited from earlier landslides and the material carried downstream from the two failed landslide dams. From: International Landslide Research Group (ILRG) Newsletter Vol. 12, No. 1, 1998

Rains pound Grenada, causing landslides, floods

APWednesday, April 13, 2011

ST GEORGE'S, Grenada (AP) — Heavy rains have caused landslides on the Caribbean island of Grenada where officials yesterday relocated families away from swollen rivers that flooded homes and destroyed small fishing boats.

"We should be in the dry season, but we are experiencing so much rain," Grenada Prime Minister Tillman Thomas said while he toured the island's northwest region.

Flooding turned the small coastal town of Gouyave into a jumble of mud, trees, sand and stones. More than 20 families were left without shelter.

Deputy Disaster Co-ordinator Terrence Walters said no one died or had been reported missing, but residents in the western parishes of St Mark and St John lost their belongings. Some 15 fishing boats also were wrecked, he said.

Up to six inches of rain fell during the 24 hours through yesterday morning and more rain was expected, said John Peters at the state meteorological office.

Read more: http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/Rains-pound-Grenada--causing-landslides--floods_8663601#ixzz2AYQJXqTE

Hurricane Triggers Deadly Landslides on St. Lucia

http://gocaribbean.about.com/b/2010/11/02/hurricane-triggers-deadly-landslides-on-st-lucia.htm

The BBC is reporting at least 14 deaths in St. Lucia after rain from the Category 1 Hurricane Tomas caused a series of landslides on the mountainous island. The town of Soufriere on the island's southern end was especially hard-hit, according to local sources.

CNN is reporting the one landslide crushed the Livity Art Studio, a popular St. Lucia tourist attraction, killing several people.

The storm also wiped out some bridges on the island, hampering rescue efforts, and a state of emergency has been declared.

Tomas also hit St. Vincent and, although weakened to a tropical storm, is following a path towards already battered Haiti. The storm is expected to bring heavy rains to Curacao, Aruba and Bonaire, islands typically considered outside of the hurricane zone.

Droughts – The Creeping Hazard

NDMC,2006http://www.drought.unl.edu/whatis/concept.htm

Types of DroughtsWhile droughts can be defined in many ways, three main drought types are commonly discussed. Also available is a chart of the types of droughts.

1. Hydrological Drought

Many watersheds experience depleted amounts of available water. Lack of water in river systems and reservoirs can impact hydroelectric power companies, farmers, wildlife, and communities.

2. Meteorological Drought

A lack of precipitation is the most common definition of drought and is usually the type of drought referred to in news reports and the media. Most locations around the world have their own meteorological definition of drought based on the climate normals in the area. A normally rainy area that gets less rain than usual can be considered in a drought.

3. Agricultural Drought

When soil moisture becomes a problem, the agricultural industry is in trouble with drought. Shortages in precipitation, changes in evapo-transpiration, and reduced ground water levels can create stress and problems for crops.

Effects Impact of drought is mediated by factors such as

- Cause - Duration - Level of rainfall reduction - Sources of water (groundwater versus surface water sources)- Demand for water - Social and cultural setting

The Impacts of DroughtWhile droughts do not often cause deaths in the United States, the Dust Bowl in the US Midwest is one example of the devastation that can occur. This site has a great list of other famous droughts.

1. There are three main ways droughts impact lives and communities. First, the economic impacts of drought include losses in the timber, agricultural, and fisheries communities. Many of these losses are then passed on to consumers in the form of higher commodity pricing.

2. Next social impacts include increased chance of conflict over commodities, fertile land, and water resources. Other social impacts include abandonment of cultural traditions, loss of homelands, changes in lifestyle, and increased chance of health risks due to poverty and hygiene issues.

3. Finally, the environmental impacts of drought include loss in species biodiversity, migration changes, reduced air quality, and increased soil erosion.

Other parts of the world experience long periods without rains as well. Even during monsoon season, areas that depend on the seasonal rains will often experience drought if the monsoon rains fail. Once crops fail, famine can become a major problem. In some African countries, rain rituals are often used to try and thwart the dry seasons and bring on the rain. While it is no cure, modern technology has developed ways to help see potential famine situations as satellites see famine conditions from space.

Preventing, Predicting, and Preparing for DroughtsSeveral resources are available to help scientists and forecasters to predict droughts. Mitigation

- Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH), CEHI, Global Water Partnership-Caribbean (GWP-C)

- Caribbean Drought and Precipitation Monitoring Network (CDPMN)

- Education and awareness - Water users’ inventories – allows for

prioritization of users - Monitoring rainfall - Water rationing

- Desalination - Trucking water - Water shed management - Coastal areas management - Water conservation

o Damso PVC tanks, tanks

- Cloud seeding

Sources:NDMC The flow chart and details on the types of droughts are derived from detailed data available from the NDMC.

http://weather.about.com/od/drought/f/droughts.htm

Droughts – Case Studies

Caribbean countries struggle to combat drought - Caribbean

http://www.bnamericas.com/news/waterandwaste/Caribbean_countries_struggle_to_combat_droughtThe Caribbean institute for meteorology and hydrology (CIMH) believes the drought affecting Caribbean countries will continue until March and maybe even longer, the head of CIMH's applied meteorology and climatology department, Adrian Trotman, told BNamericas.

"Since October the amount of rainfall has been very low. It is possible the drought will continue until March and possibly beyond then. In March we will have another rainfall forecast to determine the situation from that time until May," Trotman said.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, Barbados and Saint Lucia have been the most affected by the drought and their situation is considered to be severe, according to Trotman.

In Trinidad & Tobago and certain parts of Guyana the drought is serious but not critical, while Dominica has not yet been too badly affected.

In Guyana, the lack of water for irrigation is significantly threatening certain areas, paper Trinidad Express reported. The ministry of agriculture is exploring alternatives to ensure farming communities have access to water.

Meanwhile, in capital Georgetown, the surface water that usually provides as much as 50% of potable water is equally threatened.

Authorities are closely monitoring the situation but water use will have to be voluntarily and involuntarily reduced in some areas, the report said.

CIMH constantly monitors precipitation to detect periods of high and low rainfall. The institution then gives recommendations to relevant players.

"Every country has its own response to the drought. We monitor rainfall and make the necessary recommendations to different agencies. However, each government is responsible for carrying out its own initiatives to combat the drought," Trotman said.

Countries in the region have been implementing various measures to control water use in an effort to combat the effects of the drought. These measures include forbidding people to water lawns or wash vehicles.

Antigua is the latest country to announce water rationing. Clients of the country's public utilities authority (APUA) will receive water supply at scheduled times throughout the day until there is a significant increase in rainfall.

The Potworks dam, which is APUA's largest reservoir, is estimated to have enough water to take the country to the end of February. The Dunning's dam has similar levels, an APUA release said.

The unusually dry weather in the region has been influenced by the climate phenomenon El Niño.

“Region in drought: the thirsty Caribbean”

By Antillean, News DeskTags: 2010: Caribbean in Drought, CARICOM Affairs, Climate change, Environmenthttp://www.antillean.org/2010/03/06/region-in-drought-the-thirsty-caribbean/

The countries of the Caribbean from Jamaica in the North to Trinidad in the South are facing the worst drought in decades. Throughout March, the Antillean will cover the water crisis in the region, causes, complications and the regional response.

Caribbean countries are considering options like desalination plants and cloud seeding to confront a drought that threatens the regional economy and which  experts warned about years ago.

In St. Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago, they are warning of prosecution, including jail time,

if consumers violate measures introduced to curb the use of water other than for drinking, cooking and bathing.

In a paper presented in a 2007 conference in Barbados, entitled “Coping with Drought in the Caribbean,” expert Bano Mehdi, cited scientific warnings about this drought, noting that “more intense and longer droughts have been observed over wide areas since the 1970s.”

From Trinidad and Tobago in the south, to Jamaica in the north, governments are implementing water rationing to deal with a drastic decline in capacity in the reservoirs. Some, like Guyana, are pumping a significant amount of money to help farmers overcome the problem.

“So far we have close to 10,000 acres of rice under stress; we have cattle, too, going through some very difficult conditions,” as well as crops under pressure in the interior of the country, said Guyana’s Agriculture Minister Robert Persaud.

“This time last year we were dealing with rainfall levels higher than the 2005 floods. The effects of climate change are hitting home very often,” Persaud added.When the 2010 national budget was presented in mid-February, the Guyana government said it was allocating 29.4 million dollars to improve agricultural irrigation systems.

A few days later, President Bharrat Jagdeo said an additional 1.2 million dollars would be spent on efforts to confront the effects of El Niño/Southern Oscillation, the cyclical phenomenon in which warm surface waters of the equatorial Pacific flow eastward, altering weather patterns across the Americas.

“The entire apparatus of the government is focused on bringing as much relief as is humanly possible to our people across Guyana,” Jagdeo told farmers, noting that some communities are having difficulties obtaining even drinking water.

Trinidad and Tobago’s Prime Minister Patrick Manning is convinced that this drought is due the effects of climate change. His administration is looking to add to the single desalination plant to move the country away from “too-heavy reliance on surface water sources.”

“We believe it is El Niño, but it does not in any way negate our conclusion that as a result of climate change, among other things, we can experience droughts in Trinidad and Tobago,” Manning said.

According to Public Utilities Minister Mustapha Abdul-Hamid, the water levels in the reservoirs “are well below their long-term averages for this time of year.” The Water and Sewerage Authority (WASA) has placed a ban on citizens using water to wash vehicles or water plants and lawns.So stringent has been the measure that Manning dismissed a contractor working at his official residence after pictures were published in the newspapers showing sprinklers being used to water the lawns.

WASA regional manager Collin Nym said the outlook was bleak for 2010 because lower rainfall had exacerbated production constraints at one of the main water treatment plants and the desalination plant.

“We have a large reservoir and we did not capture as much rainfall as we anticipated. Between January and June 2009, we faced a lot of problems,” he said. “The Meteorological Office predicted that we would

have 80 to 90 millimeters of rainfall for January, and we only saw five.”The Jamaican government has hinted at the possibility of cloud seeding, which involves the use of chemicals to influence rainfall in areas where the drought is more severe.

Water Minister Horace Chang met recently with a group of experts from the University of the West Indies (UWI) to discuss the possibility of cloud seeding, but it is a very expensive option.

Authorities already had to cut a drought mitigation program due to the austerity measures required by a recently signed, multi- billion-dollar Standby Agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF).

The scheme was expected to include the reactivation of several abandoned supply wells in Jamaica. According to Chang, the National Water Commission is losing an estimated 2.2 million dollars in revenues per month as a result of the country’s worst drought in decades.

“We have been spending more money and we have lost significant revenue… People can’t pay if they don’t get water, so we have to spend more money in terms of operational costs,” Chang said.

Corporations are also complaining.

“If the drought continues, we will definitely look to start trucking water to the different factories, but there is a cost involved in doing that,” said Omar Azan, president of the Jamaica Manufacturers Association.

In St. Lucia, the authorities issued a “Declaration of Water Related Emergency” on Feb. 24, and have warned that persons contravening the new measures could face both a fine of not less than 1,110 dollars and imprisonment of not less than six months.

Among the measures contained in the declaration is a ban on the use of water for watering of gardens, lawns, grounds and farms as well as for supplying ponds, swimming pools, “or for use other than normal domestic services such as drinking, cooking, washing, bathing and sanitation.”

Dominica, which boasts 365 rivers, has warned consumers that the drought could get worse.

Based on information from the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology, in Barbados, “we will experience severe dryness for some time to come. If it does continue… it means the water level will definitely get lower and there will not be sufficient pressure to provide water to many communities,” said Gwennie Dickson, spokesperson for Dominica’s Water and Sewerage Company.

The Antigua and Barbuda public utilities authority said that at the normal rate of consumption, the Potworks Dam wouldn’t have enough water to take the country to the end of March.

Adrian Trotman, acting chief of applied meteorology and climatology at the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology, warned that countries like Barbados could experience drought conditions for a long period.

“This is the view of scientists of the Caribbean Drought and Precipitation Monitoring Network (CDPMN), who have been analyzing rainfall trends in the Caribbean since January 2009,” Trotman said in a statement.

“Water resources managers across the region are urged to implement the necessary measures to conserve water, as the drought conditions are expected to persist over the next three months,” he added.

The CDPMN, which was launched in January 2009 under the six- year Caribbean Water Initiative project, has warned that unless the precipitation situation is closely monitored, “one often does not realize that drought is upon you or is approaching – until the effects are already felt.”

This story was originally published by Latin American newspapers that are part of the Tierramerica network. Tierramerica is a specialised news service produced by IPS with the backing of the United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank. (c) NoticiasFinancieras – Inter Press Services – All rights reserved. Copyright (c) 2010 IPS.

Related articles:

Caribbean battles droughthttp://www.bbc.co.uk/caribbean/news/story/2010/02/100218_drought.shtml

Several Caribbean nations are battling prolonged low rainfall that is hurting residents and economic sectors.

And the pattern could continue for some weeks yet, according to forecasters.

The drought has been affecting countries from Jamaica to Guyana, as consumers and farmers battle a shortage of water.

St Lucia, the latest to report a crisis, is said to be ready to declare "a water-related emergency".

Drought-like conditions are not uncommon at this time of year in the Eastern Caribbean in particular.

But the situation has been exacerbated by the fact that the low rainfall began in October, the wettest month in the sub-region.

"To have a significant depletion of rainfall in October would have an impact," said Adrian Trotman of the Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology(CMIH).

Dam levels drop

The institute constantly monitors precipitation to detect periods of high and low rainfall and advises

Some countries have been rationing water to households

governments and sectors accordingly.

"We are anticipating that this spell should go all the way down to March and possibly beyond," he told BBC Caribbean.

In St Lucia, the John Compton Dam which supplies the north of the island, has seen it levels drop by a foot per day, according to officials.

The managing director of the state-owned Water and Sewerage Company, John Joseph, described the situation as critical.

The company was already rationing supplies and are considering importing water.

Farmers in Guyana are crying out as well. The important rice industry is forecasting that production will be down by 6% because there is insufficent water for irrigation of fields.

Flammable

Officials in Georgetown say their dry spell has been influenced by the climate phenomenon El Niño.

Other countries experiencing drought to varying degrees include Barbados, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, Jamaica and Grenada.

In Barbados, bush fires, triggered by flammable dry conditions and aided by high wind speeds, have soared,

The online newspaper, Barbados Today, quoted the local Fire Service as saying they had responded to 587 grass fires, up from 35 last year.

This has meant the unhelpful diversion of water from domestic sources to fight fires.

Jamaica's Water Minister, Horace Chang, said the National Water Commission was losing an estimated J$200 million (US$2.2 million) per month in revenue as a result of the drought.

Preparation

Countries have been implementing various measures to control water use, including forbidding people to water lawns or wash vehicles.

In Trinidad, a contractor was fired after he watered the lawn at the Prime Minister's residence.

A riot at a prison in Kingston, Jamaica this month was said to have been caused partly by anger over a water shortage at the facility.

The CIMH's Adrian Trotman said some Caribbean nations need to practice more long-term preparation

The El Niño ocean warming phenomenon is known to influence the world's weather

for drought, particularly in the harvesting of water.

"(For example) how do we take the abundance of wet season rainfall and store that for drier times, how much do we need for farming?"

Flooding Types Flash floods –

- heavy rainfall, cloud bursts over a small drainage area - Most likely in mountainous areas, steep areas with streams flowing through narrow area

Riverine - Likely with heavy rainfall where rivers have many contributing rivers

Tidal flood - Where water bodies dump water on surrounded land area - Caused by high tides, heavy rains from hurricanes and similar systems, and waves produced by

oceanic earthquakes Ponding

- Where water builds up in an area usually with a sink or depression or a slow percolation rate.

General causes Heavy rainfallDeforestation Improper agricultural practices Inadequate design and/or maintenance drainage facilities Construction of settlements on flood plains

Poor garbage disposal Sand mining

Caribbean Countries Most Affected

Haiti, Dominican Republic, Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent and the Grenadines, The British Virgin Islands, Bermuda, Belize, Jamaica and St. Lucia

Specific Instances

Haiti – 2004 (2 weeks of rain); 2010 (2 rainstorms – 15 killed)

Dominican Republic – 2004 (2 weeks of rain - over 13,000 homeless, over 550 dead) Jamaica – tropical storm Nicole (2010)

April 26, 2012 – (heavy rainfall) Jamaica, Haiti, Dominican Republic, St Maarten, Trinidad and Tobago

Effects Can lead to famine Death by drowning Disrupt economic and social activities Landscape scaring Mudslides – flattens infrastructure in its path

Mitigation Caribbean Disaster Emergency management Agency (CDEMA) – regional flood hazard management programme along with UWI and the Caribbean Institute of Meteorology

Drainage intervention

Watershed management

Droughts in the Caribbean

NDMC,2006http://www.drought.unl.edu/whatis/concept.htm

Affected countries 2009 to 2010

- October to March and beyond- Most Caribbean countries affected - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, Barbados, Saint Lucia, (T&T, parts of Guyana to a

lesser extent).

Causes ESNO events, El Nino

Effects Impact of drought is mediated by factors such as

- Cause - Duration - Level of rainfall reduction - Sources of water (groundwater versus surface water sources)- Demand for water - Social and cultural setting

Inadequate irrigation – agriculture Food supply Cost of agricultural produce Bush fires which can lead to landslides and flooding, land degradation and loss of soil fertility

Mitigation Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH), CEHI, Global Water Partnership-Caribbean (GWP-C)Caribbean Drought and Precipitation Monitoring Network (CDPMN)Education and awareness Water users’ inventories – allows for prioritization of users Monitoring rainfall Water rationing Desalination Trucking water Water shed management Coastal areas management Water conservation

- Dams- PVC tanks, tanks -

Cloud seeding

Watershed – area of land that drains rainwater into a single water body whether by allowing to the water

to run underground through the soil or above its surface.

Importance – NEPAClean water, trees and open space contribute to quality of life Flood protection – soaking up and directing water to water bodies

Ground and surface water Groundwater – found in cracks/spaces in soils, rocks or sand underground. It moves through layers of rocks, sand and soil called aquifers which typically consist of gravel, sand or fractured rock like limestone.

Surface water is water found in rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, wetlands or oceans.

ENSO – el nino southern oscillation - Occurs approximately every five years - Warming of the eastern pacific ocean’s surface – el Niño - Cooling of the eastern pacific ocean’s surface – la Niña- Southern Oscillation – variations in cooling and warming of the surface of the tropical eastern

pacific ocean. - The extremes of the above are associated with both flooding and droughts - The effects of el Niño can last from 9 months to two years. - Associated with prolonged periods of drought in the Caribbean

Landslides Do not occur in areas of low relief and limestone bedrock examples, the Cayman Islands and the Bahamas.

Types Debris flows Earthflows Rockslides Rockfalls Slumps

Steep slopes caused by tectonic or volcanic forces Stream erosion Weathering of bedrock

1938 St. Lucia (Ravines Poisson and Ecrivisse) 6 died 32 injured 250 missing

Puerto Rico (Mameyes District)- 129 killed

1925 – 1986 Dominica 25 dead, five events

Jamaica 17 homes lost – St. Mary

St Vincent 1981 – Left 40 percent of population without water supply 1986 - Damaged pipelines to hydroelectric generating plants

Good Hope Landslide in Dominica

Scotland district – Barbados

BVI – St. Thomas – earthflows, debris slides and individual boulders 1983 – extensive flooding lead to slides in Dorothea Bay

Jamaica Kingston St Thomas – judgement cliff landslide – 1962, related to earthquake Mitigation Mona GeoInformatics Institute, Unit for Disaster Studies

Activity Use the information above to inform your writing of the following essay:

Examine the ways in which either landslides OR droughts influence Caribbean culture and society.