Aboriginal - · PDF file• compare and contrast beliefs, practices, ... resenting...

1990: As the ManitobaLegislature moved to vote onthe issue of constitutionalreform, the honourablemember Elijah Harper satstoically holding an eaglefeather and steadfastlyrefused to give the ManitobaLegislature the vote it needed.

In March 1997, Melissa Labrador, a Mi’kmaq girl fromNova Scotia, was removed fromthe House of Commons becauseshe carried an eagle feather. Thesecurity guard who escorted herfrom the House thought thefeather might be a weapon.

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2AboriginalChapter Two

Examine the photos and captions on the opposite page and readthe introductory text below. Answer the following questions:

1. What evidence is there that the eagle feather is considered important by Aboriginal peoples?

2. Describe the symbolism of the eagle feather. Identify a symbol thatyou use in your life to represent connections to other things. Whydid you choose this symbol?

3. Write a headline that captures what happened to Melissa Labrador,the Mi’kmaq girl from Nova Scotia, when she visited the House ofCommons in Ottawa.

Introduction

The eagle feather, a symbol of strength, gives the holder the power to representothers. It is often presented as recognition to someone who defends, fights for, ornegotiates on behalf of Aboriginal peoples or people of native ancestry.

Some believe that because the eagle flies closest to the Creator, it can see overall the land. When the eagle is flying overhead, it means that Mother Earth will pros-per. Some Aboriginal peoples believe that the Creator loves the eagle the mostbecause it symbolizes the duality, or contradictions, of life—man and woman, lightand darkness, summer and winter. Even its feathers are divided in two parts—lightand dark—reminding humans of the duality of life. Some elders, or respectedmembers of the community, describe the eagle feather as a symbol of healthy rela-tionships. The spine of the feather holds relationships together. It is widest at thebottom symbolizing a relationship’s beginning, a time when learning is greatest.

Spirituality

27

Learning Goals

• Many Aboriginal peoples contendthat they have always inhabited NorthAmerica and offer a range of creationstories

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• understand the differing views on the origins of Aboriginal peoples• compare and contrast beliefs, practices, and rituals among Canada’s Aboriginal

cultural groups• identify influential figures in the development of Aboriginal spirituality and explain

their contributions• identify key passages from The Great Law and the Code of Handsome Lake, and explain

their meaning• understand the role and influence of Indigenous oral teachings on Aboriginal spirituality• identify and interpret important oral stories in Aboriginal spirituality• examine the role and significance of symbols in Aboriginal spirituality• understand and interpret the meaning of the supernatural in Aboriginal spirituality• identify the origin and importance of Aboriginal practices, rituals, and festivals• demonstrate an understanding of meditation, prayer, and fasting in Aboriginal spirituality• examine the impact of key events in the development of Aboriginal spirituality• interpret Aboriginal works of art• use primary documents effectively• communicate effectively through oral presentations

•1000 CE The firstrecorded meeting betweenEuropeans (Norse) and Aboriginal peoples inNewfoundland

•35 000–15 000 BCEScientists theorize thatpeople migrated fromAsia to North Americaover the Bering landbridge

•1784 CE Under theleadership of Joseph Brant,Mohawks settle on theGrand River after being dis-placed following theAmerican Revolution

•1800 CE The code ofHandsome Lake is developed

•1830s CE Creation of residential school system

•1815 CE Handsome Lake dies, Aug. 10

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•1884 CE Potlatchceremonies are banned bythe federal government

•1970 CE A residentialschool is turned into theWoodland Cultural Centre in Brantford, Ontario

•1876 CE Indian Actis passed

•1990 CE ElijahHarper stops Meech LakeAccord process

•1996 CE NationalAboriginal Day is institutedon June 21

•1990 CE The OkaCrisis explodes whenplans for a golf courseclash with Aboriginalsacred burial grounds

•1998 CECanadian governmentexpresses profound regretto Canada’s Aboriginal peoples for past mistreat-ment and issues Statementof Reconciliation

•1999 CE The new territory of Nunavut is created

Timeline

Woodland Cultural Centre

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30 EXPLORING WORLD RELIGIONS

ORIGINS

It is impossible to pinpoint an originor a founder of Aboriginal spirituality.Occasionally, a significant person risesto the forefront during a crisis andrenews the faith, but there is no singlefounder.

Aboriginal spirituality around theworld has a long history. SomeIndigenous peoples, or Aboriginalinhabitants of a region, believe thatthey “came out of this ground,” a the-ory that essentially means their ori-gins are ancient beyond record. Whilethere exists considerable disagree-ment on origin, some archaeologicalevidence supports a second theorythat Aboriginal peoples migrated fromAsia to North and South America bycrossing a land bridge over the BeringStrait (situated between Alaska and Russia) approximately 35 000years ago.

Regardless of theory, Aboriginalpeoples have clearly been in theAmericas longer than anyone else.Archaeologists, who study human his-tory, have found Aboriginal artifactsdating back beyond 10 000 years. Theyhave discovered wampum, or beadedbelts (Figure 2.1), animal paintings onrock outcrops (Figure 2.2), bones rep-resenting different burial rites, andwooden carvings all attesting toAboriginal spiritual practices andbeliefs from centuries ago. Aboriginaltraditional stories about genesis, ororigins, carry a great deal of spiritualpower. These creation stories areimportant vehicles for conveyingAboriginal beliefs.

Aboriginal Spirituality

Figure 2.1This wampum of parallel purple and white shells is made from Atlantic seashells. Used

by many different Aboriginal nations, it has been used to record history and sacredagreements dating back 400 years.

Figure 2.2Pictographs on rock outcrops depict Aboriginal beliefs and practices.

ABORIGINAL SPIRITUALITY 31

Although we will be focusing in thischapter on North America, specificallyCanada, it is important to note thatthere exists a huge diversity ofAboriginal spirituality throughout themodern world. Indigenous peoples livein virtually every area of the globe.Some are well known, such as theAboriginal groups of Australia, theMaori of New Zealand, or the Guaraniof Paraguay, who were featured in thefilm The Mission. Although somegroups are now extinct, such as theBeothuks of Atlantic Canada, or theCaribs of the Caribbean Islands, mil-lions in the world still claimIndigenous status, even though theydo not necessarily practise theirIndigenous religion. Today, 80 per centof the world’s approximately 300 mil-lion Aboriginal peoples live in Asia,while 13 per cent live in North andSouth America (Figure 2.3).

Anthropologists, who study societiesand customs, estimate that at the timeof Columbus about 100 millionIndigenous peoples inhabited theAmericas, which in 1500 CE wouldhave accounted for one-fifth of the human race. Some lived in hugecities (present-day Mexico City had 250000), and others were farmers, ornomadic hunters. To this day, twelvemillion still speak Quechua, the lan-guage of the Incas of South America. InCentral America, there are six millionwho speak the ancestral language ofthe Maya, comparable to the number ofFrench speakers in Canada. Currently,over 800 000 Aboriginal people live inCanada, some in every province.

Not all, but many Aboriginal peo-ples around the world still believe inand practise aspects of their tradition-al religions. Aboriginal people of theCanadian Arctic, who in their lan-guage call themselves Inuit, share acultural identity with two other largepopulations in Alaska and Greenland.Although most of the over 100 000Inuit in these three jurisdictions prac-tise Christianity, a growing numberare returning to their religious andcultural heritage. For example, thedrumming and chanting with ancientprayers that once accompanied officialoccasions experienced a comeback inthe recent celebrations surround-ing the proclamation of Nunavut,Canada’s new territory.

Asia (80%)

South America (7%)

North America (6%)

Africa (4%)

Australia/Oceania (3%)

Europe (0.1%)

OXFORD

World Religions

pie graph

2f/2.6

pc

Figure 2.3World Distribution ofIndigenous Peoples. China,India, Mexico, Peru,Pakistan, and the Philippinesall have Indigenouspopulations over five million.

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Oxford

World Religions

Aboriginal Cultural Groups

2i NEW

ARCTIC

Cultural Areas

SUBARCTIC

NORTHWEST PACIFIC COAST

PLATEAU

GREAT PLAINS

NORTHEAST WOODLANDS

Whether Aboriginal peoplesmigrated from Asia to theAmericas and developed as FirstNations, or were here from theearliest of times, the fact remainsthat they developed into severallarge cultural groups in NorthAmerica. The geographical envi-ronment in which they liveddefined them. Canada has atleast six distinct cultural groups ofAboriginal peoples: • Northeast Woodlands• Great Plains• Northwest Pacific Coast • Plateau• Subarctic• ArcticEach culture has several nationsin it. As a group they have similaraspects of belief, although differ-ent practices of form representthose beliefs. For example, eachculture has familial clans repre-sented by animals who protectthem, such as the Raven or Wolf,but the animals vary and have dif-ferent regional significance.Furthermore, a cultural group mayshare common characteristicsthat identify it with a specific envi-ronment, but there is often greatdiversity among nations withinthat large cultural environment.The Northeast Woodlands, forexample, is divided into two lin-guistic groups, Algonquin andIroquois. The Algonquin andIroquois nations differ accordingto their religious beliefs and practices.

The PlateauThe Aboriginal peoples of thePlateau live in the foothills of theRocky Mountains, separate fromthe Plains and Pacific Coastnations. The Kootenay mountainchain takes its name from one ofthe many Plateau nations. ThePlateau were once nomadichunters of elk, bear, and caribou.

In 1995, at Gustafsen Lake inBritish Columbia, several campersused ranch land for a sun danceceremony. When the owner askedthe campers to leave, they refused,saying the land was unceded, notreaty had been signed, and it wasa sacred site. After a four-monthperiod, the standoff ended with anegotiated settlement led by anAlberta medicine man.

The SubarcticThe Subarctic region runs thebreadth of Canada and includesthe thick forests and mountains in the East, the Canadian Shield of rock and swamp, and the sparsely-wooded northernPrairies with their many lakes andrivers. The Innu, the Montaignais,the James Bay Cree, and the Dene

were nomadic hunters of deer andcaribou.

In the 1990s, Cree Grand ChiefMatthew Coon Come was instru-mental in persuading Quebec tocancel plans for James Bay Project2 after he witnessed the harmfulenvironmental effects of Quebec’sJames Bay Project 1. Coon Comeis currently the National Chief ofthe Assembly of First Nations.

Figure 2.4Aboriginal Cultural Groups in Canada

The Northwest Pacific CoastFor generations, Haida, Tlingit, and Salishnations depended on the sea and lived incedar plank houses on the beaches. Theyharpooned whale and trapped salmon. Theyused the cedar to make houses, baskets,and dugout canoes that could carry up toseventy people.

The Northwest Pacific Coast culturecarved several totems in one long pole,commonly known as a totem pole. A totemis a protective entity, often in the form of ananimal, that is associated with a culturalgroup or nation. Today, magnificent examplesof totem artwork can be seen in parks andmuseums throughout British Columbia.

In 1998, the Nisga’a, a First Nation livingin northwestern British Columbia, signed anhistoric agreement with the British Columbiaand federal governments. The Nisga’a Treatywas the first land claims treaty in BritishColumbia since 1871. It granted land, afinancial settlement, and a model for self-government to the Nisga’a nation.

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World Religions

Aboriginal Cultural Groups

2i NEW

ARCTIC

Cultural Areas

SUBARCTIC

NORTHWEST PACIFIC COAST

PLATEAU

GREAT PLAINS

NORTHEAST WOODLANDS

Northeast WoodlandsThe Iroquois live along the St.Lawrence River and the Great Lakes,and were once farmer-hunters. Theylived in longhouses in villages ofapproximately 1500 people andfarmed corn, squash, and beans,which they named “the ThreeSisters.” A typical Iroquois longhousewas cigar-shaped, about fifty metreslong and ten metres wide, and wouldhold several related families.

The Iroquois formed a confederacyof Six Nations, including the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga,Seneca, and Tuscarora nations.Displaced after the AmericanRevolution, the Six Nations, under the leadership of Joseph Brant, relocatedto a reserve southwest of Brantford,Ontario. Other well-known reservesare at Kanesatake, near Oka, north-west of Montreal, and Akwesasne,near Cornwall, Ontario.

Today, the Iroquois practise theLonghouse religion in a building thatreplicates a traditional longhouse.Faithkeepers are community mem-bers selected to maintain the spiritu-al traditions of the Iroquois.

The Algonquin of this region werenomadic hunters who depended onthe forests, rivers, and sea for theirlivelihood. The forests, in particular,played an important role in their sur-vival. They used the needles of thewhite pine to make a tea that prevent-ed scurvy and relieved colds. Theymade another tea from dandelionroots and leaves to treat heartburn.

Animals were an importantresource for the maintenance of phys-ical and spiritual needs. In many com-munities, clans (family groupings)were defined by the attributes of theirassociated animal.

The Algonquin nations include theBeothuk who are now extinct,Mi’kmaq, Ottawa, Cree, and Ojibwa.Collectively, there were no identifiablespiritual movements. Instead, somenations such as the Ojibwa were spiri-tually united with the Grand MedicineSociety (Midewinin). Spiritualismwithin Algonquin communities wasdeeply personal and was defined bythe individual community.

Today, the connection to their nat-ural environment continues to be asource of their spiritualism.

The Great PlainsThere are seven distinct languagesand over thirty nations of the GreatPlains including the Sioux, the Cree,and the Siksika, or Blackfoot. In thepast, these people generally depend-ed on the buffalo. In fact, when thebuffalo numbered in the millions, they

were used for almost everything. Thehide provided coverings for moccasinsoles, for shields, and for theirhomes, which were cone-shaped tentscalled tipis. The buffalo ribs becamesled runners. The skull was used forthe Sun Dance altar—a ceremony thatinvolves chants and purification,which is still practised today.

The ArcticThe Inuit, which means “the peo-ple,” live in a region above thetreeline that is snow covered foreight months of the year. For gen-erations, nations, including theMackenzie, Labrador, and Caribou,hunted and depended on the seal.Seal skin provided boots, bags,kayaks, igloo linings, and clothing.Seal oil was used for heating,cooking, and light.

Today, many people in thesegroups live in a modern world, con-nected globally through technologyand educated in schools. SomeInuit refer to their traditional waysusing the past tense.

Profile:The nations of each North American cultural grouphave their own interpretation of how to live theirlives. For some, the Creator gives directions for abetter way of life. The Iroquois of the NortheastWoodlands tell the story of the Peacemaker, a cen-tral figure to their culture and religion. Members ofthe Iroquois nation believe one should never saythe Peacemaker’s name, Dekanawida, until theend of the world when his name will be called.

The Peacemaker was born of a virgin Huron maiden.His grandmother was ashamed because thereappeared to be no father, so she ordered her daughterto drown the baby in icy water. The girl could not.When the grandmother herself tried to kill him withoutsuccess, she realized he was special and would growto be a great man. The Huron people abused theyoung boy. They beat him, kept him in isolation, andridiculed him. As foretold in a dream, he went to livewith another Iroquois nation, the Mohawk.

The Iroquois nations were constantly feuding, andthe evil wizard, Tadodaho, seemed to be the instigatorof the lawlessness. The Peacemaker chanted songs ofpeace before the lodge of the crooked, snake-hairedsorcerer. The moment the Peacemaker was able totouch Tadodaho, the wizard’s body became straightand his mind healthy. With evil overcome, thePeacemaker gathered the Five Nations and planted theTree of Peace in the Onondaga nation. He said itsroots would go north, south, east, and west. At the tophe placed an eagle that would see afar and warn the

nations of danger. He then delivered to them a mes-sage called “The Great Law of Peace,” and the warringnations were reconciled. The message included onehundred laws governing funerals, clans, adoption, andemigration, among other things. One law said that therites and festivals of each nation shall remain undis-turbed “...for they were given by the people of oldtimes as useful and necessary for the good of men.”

The Peacemaker’s message can be brokendown into three main parts. He said to the woman,Jigonsaseh, or New Face, who was the first toaccept what he proclaimed, “The message hasthree parts: Righteousness, Health, and Power.Righteousness means justice, Health meanssoundness of mind and body, and Power meansthe authority of law and custom, and religion, forjustice enforced is the will of the Holder of theHeavens.”

QUESTIONS1. What contributions did the Peacemaker make to

the Five Nations?

2. Describe how the message of “righteousness,health, and power” is a good rule by which tolive one’s life.

3. Is the story of the Peacemaker similar to otherstories you have been told? Explain.

The Peacemaker

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BELIEFS

Many adherents of Aboriginal spiritu-ality believe that everything in theworld is alive. All living things residein close connection and harmony with one another, and move in cycles(Figure 2.5). Even in afterlife, theirspirits return to the environment.Aboriginal peoples recognize the pow-ers around them: in the heavens, inhuman ghosts and spirits, in animalsand plants, and in the weather.

Aboriginal spirituality expresses abelief in animism, which holds that allthings, human and non-human, havespirits or souls, and that the person oranimal lives on after death throughthe presence of that spirit.

Some observers have claimed thatAboriginal spirituality is polytheistic,believing in many gods, rather thanmonotheistic, believing in one. MostAboriginal peoples believe in asupreme Creator. However, power inthe universe is also given to other per-

sonified spirits who are less powerfulthan the Creator, but also guidehuman activity. The Inuit call the sea“Sea Woman”; the Iroquois call thesky “Sky Woman”; and the Algonquincall the sky “Grandfather.”

Aboriginal spirituality turns tomany spirits because Aboriginal peo-ple believe they have more than onespecific need in nature or in life. Forexample, a fisher strives to be on goodterms with the spirit of the sea; afarmer wishes to please the spirit ofthe rain or the sun. A faith in super-natural and natural forces that con-nect human beings to all other livingthings permeates the life of almost allAboriginal societies.

Black Elk, born in 1863, was a Siouxholy man from the Great Plains(Figure 2.6). He said, “We know thatwe all are related and are one with allthings of the heavens and theearth…May we be continually awareof this relationship which existsbetween the four-leggeds, the two-leggeds, and the wingeds…”


1. Explain the disagreement concerningthe origins of Aboriginal peoples.

2. Describe the six cultural groups inCanada and their connection to their environment.

3. List three things you learned about thetraditional culture of Aboriginal peoples.Choose the one that impressed you themost and explain why.

Check Your Understanding

Creation stories, which were oftenoral, play an important role inAboriginal cultures by offering aresponse to questions of existence,such as where we come from, why cer-tain things in the environment are theway they are, and where we go whenwe die.

Each cultural group has their ownidentity and creation stories. Somebelieve that they were born from aclam and were helped by the Raven orsome other animal. Many recount alegend of a person falling from the sky(Figure 2.7).

One Aboriginal creation story is“Turtle Island” (Figure 2.8). The people of the Northeast Woodlandsbelieve that after a great flood, watercovered the Earth. Several water ani-mals and birds tried to bring somemud to the surface of the water.Eventually, a muskrat succeeded. SkyWoman then spread the mud on theback of a turtle and created NorthAmerica, or Turtle Island.

A renowned Haida artist, Bill Reid,depicted his culture’s creation story ofthe Raven coaxing the original peopleout of a clamshell onto the land(Figure 2.9). The famous carving is atthe Museum of Anthropology at theUniversity of British Columbia.


Figure 2.6Black Elk, spiritual elder of

the Sioux, 1863–1950

Figure 2.7Birth of the Earth by Arnold

Jacobs, an Onondaga artist.In this painting, a woman

falls from the sky andcreates the earth, with the

assistance of the animals. Itdepicts the Aboriginal belief

that humans and nature are connected.

Figure 2.5Thunder Bay Art Gallery

houses a collection ofAboriginal art as well as

creations like masks,baskets, and other natural

artifacts. Relationship toNature, this painting by

Ojibwa artist Roy Thomas,shows the interconnection ofhumans to the environment.Note that it overlays several

animals in an “x-ray” stylearound a human figure. Canyou identify the birds, fish,

bear, beaver, and tipis?Explain animism in the

painting.


Figure 2.10 Peace Doe-dem (totem) byBlake Debassige. TheAnishnawbek have differenttotems to which familiesbelong. One of these is theseagull, which is the symbolof peace.

A basic element of most religions is thebelief in the afterlife. Many Aboriginallegends recount stories of reincarna-tion, or rebirth. The Sioux of the GreatPlains believe that four souls departfrom a person at death. One of themjourneys along the “spirit path,” and itis judged by an old woman. She deter-mines whether the spirit should carryon to reconnect with its ancestors orreturn to Earth as a ghost. The othersouls enter fetuses and are reborn in-to new bodies. In the NortheastWoodlands, the Iroquois believe thatsouls or spirits can enter man-madeobjects like fishing nets or spears.Other groups believe the souls inhabitthe many stars of the Milky Way.

The Inuit pay homage to the souls ofkilled animals by facing the animal inthe direction from which it came sothat its soul can return. Upon killing aseal they give it a drink of water so thatits spirit can re-enter the sea. Duringan annual festival, the Inuit collect allthe seal bladders caught the previousyear and throw them back to the sea,so that the seals can reproduce.

Totems link Aboriginal peoples to theirmythical ancestors. Totems are protec-tive entities—plant, animal, or mytho-logical being—of a clan or individual.The Ojibwa identify each totem groupby the name of a bird, fish, animal, orreptile. Persons of the same totem areconsidered to be close relatives andmay not marry.

Figure 2.8Turtle Island by Stanley R.Hill, a Mohawk artist. Thiswooden sculpture depicts thecreation of the world andfeatures the sacred Tree ofPeace. Notice the eagle,representing strength andpower, is at the top of thetree.

Figure 2.9The Raven and the First Menby Bill Reid


PRACTICES, RITUALS,SYMBOLS, AND FESTIVALS

Today, Aboriginal peoples are keepingtheir spiritualism alive by participat-ing in traditional festivals and bydepicting their beliefs through theirart and symbols. The willingness torelearn the ancestral beliefs and prac-tices illustrates the strength and pride Aboriginal peoples gain from their cul-tural revival.

Some religious practices, althoughregional, over time have become com-mon to all Aboriginal peoples. Many ofthe rituals of the Great Plains peoplehave crossed cultural boundaries andbeen adopted into Aboriginal spiritu-ality. These practices provide a meansby which all cultural groups candemonstrate their connectedness inspiritual ways.

1. Explain animism in the following sentence: “Some believed they shouldwalk on soft shoes or no shoes at allduring the spring because Mother Earthis pregnant and they must not harm herbody.”

2. Recount one story about creation orthe afterlife that reflects the Aboriginalview of boundaries easily crossed

between the human and supernaturalworlds.

3. Although there is tremendous varietyamong Aboriginal cultures, describethree common beliefs in their religions.

4. Explain the importance of totems inAboriginal spirituality.


Figure 2.11Powwows, Algonquin

for culturalgatherings, are

currently experiencinga revival. Attendees

eat food of Sioux,Iroquois, or Haida

origin. They witnesstraditional dancing,

drumming, andchanting, all integral

parts of manyAboriginal practices

and rituals.

Figure 2.12Aboriginal cultures

communicate and tell storiesthrough dance. Many dancesinterpret events or customs

from the past. Today,Aboriginal peoples use danceto rediscover their past, and

share with the world theirknowledge and their culture.

Every spring, the Ojibwa of southernOntario perform the Morning Dance,also known as the Wabeno. The dancepays homage to the “tree of the uni-verse.” All the participants fast andcleanse themselves beforehand, then amale elder plays a drum and leads thedance in a clearing around the select-ed tree. Children, adults, and the eld-erly dance from dawn to noon. As eachdancer passes the tree, the drummersignals the dancer to touch the trunkto give thanks. At midday, a huge feastof meat and fish is served.

The Great Plains nations hold animportant summer festival that takesplace over a period of eight to sixteendays and includes the Sun Dance(Figure 2.13). This festival of theGreat Plains is so powerful, and thedance so symbolic a ritual, that theCanadian government banned it inthe late 1880s.

The ceremony identifies the circleas an important symbol, and acknowl-edges and respects the sun as thegiver of life. Performed in early sum-mer, the participants dance for longperiods around a central cottonwoodpole, or “tree of the universe.” Theyface the sun and pay homage to thesun’s life-giving powers. During theceremony some of the dancers embedsharp wooden hooks deep into theirchest, then connect the skewers toleather thongs that trail from the topof the cottonwood pole. As they dance,they pull back on the thongs and teartheir flesh. The resulting scars bearwitness to their faith. The dancers

perform this ritual because theybelieve that the body is the only thingthey control and can offer as a sacri-fice to the Creator. They believe thatby enduring pain, others will not haveto suffer famine, war, or disease.During the Sun Dance, prayers aresaid for all peoples and vows are madeto the Great Spirit.

This celebration of renewal andreconnection with all creation, includ-ing the piercing dance, once again ispractised today.

The Northwest Pacific Coast nationspractise the Potlatch ceremony(Figure 2.14), which the Canadiangovernment made illegal in 1884.Government officials thought that thePotlatch contributed to idleness andseemed “backward” and wasteful. Thegovernment lifted the ban in 1951.

Feasting, distributing wealth, andsharing songs and dances are all partof a Potlatch. The host gives a feast tocelebrate an important event, such asa marriage, the naming of an heir, orto atone for a humiliation. The morewealth the host gives away, the morethat person gains in status and great-


Figure 2.13Sun Dance on the Reserveby Allen Sapp


ness. Thus, the hosting clan grows inprestige. Songs and dances are per-formed to honour the Great Spirit.

Many of the early Potlatch tradi-tions, including dancing and singing,continue today.

The sweat lodge ceremony, commonamong the Great Plains nationsrenews the soul and helps to regainfocus. The sweat lodge cleanses boththe physical and spiritual body. Underthe direction of a shaman, who is botha medicine man and spiritual leader,the participants make a sauna-likeconstruction, called a sweat lodge. Thesweat lodge is a dome made ofsaplings. A covering of animal skins,cedar, or a tarpaulin make it dark andairtight. Heated stones are placed inthe centre of the interior, and water is

sprinkled on the stones. The participants crouch and crowd aroundthe stones in the confined space. Theintense heat and steam cause them toperspire profusely, thus cleansing thebody both physically and spiritually.Usually prayers and a sacred pipe areshared. An elder or a shaman assistsby coordinating the ceremony.

The shaking tent a ritual used byAboriginal groups fron the subarcticto the Great Lakes region, representsthe beliefs and values of someAboriginal people about the supernat-ural world and its close relationship tothe living. Through the shaking tent,one can communicate with the spirits.It is constructed using four to eightpoles, which are placed deep in the soilto form a circle about a meter in diam-eter. A wooden hoop encircles thepoles at the top and sometimes at thebottom. The cylindrical shape, leftopen to the sky to allow the spirits toenter, is wrapped in birch bark orhide. The individuals who haverequested the ceremony make a tradewith the shaman. He enters the tentand intercedes with the spirits. Heasks the spirits to solve problems suchas finding a lost object, communicat-ing with an ancestor, locating a miss-ing person, or predicting the outcomeof an event. The ceremony alwaystakes place at night.

Figure 2.14The potlatch ceremony, animportant spiritual practiceamong Aboriginal peoples,was banned in 1884. The

Canadian government liftedthe ban in 1951.

A central symbol for some Aboriginal religions is the tree, connecting Earth to Heaven. It is inte-gral to some practices like the Sun Dance. The dance centres around a cottonwood pole to whichthe dancers attach themselves with leather thongs.

The white pine is a key symbol for the Iroquois. The hero, Peacemaker, said that whenever theIroquois gathered by the Great Tree, they “...shall offer thanks to the earth...to the streams ofwaters...to the maize and the fruits, to the medicinal herbs and trees, to the animals that serveas food and give their pelts for clothing...to the messengers of the Creator who reveal his wishesand to the Great Creator...ruler of health and life.”

For West Coast groups, the cedar tree is an important carrier of symbols since it is used inthe creation of totem poles.

The Tree of PeaceSymbols and Icons

Figure 2.15

QUESTIONS1. The tree is a common global symbol. Academics call this the axis mundi, or core

of the world. Describe the attributes of the tree that make it an appropriate glob-al symbol.

2. How does the tree reflect the central beliefs of some Aboriginal peoples?

3. Describe the role of the tree in any other religions of which you are aware.

Figure 2.16The Northeast WoodlandsIroquois have a series of Ceremonies connected to theagricultural cycle: The Mid-winter Ceremony held inJanuary; The Maple Syrup andSeed Planting Rituals held inApril; The Strawberry, Bean,and Green Corn Celebrationsheld in summer; and TheThanksgiving or HarvestFestival held one day inNovember.

Pictured here are flint cornand squash, foods associatedwith The Thanksgiving Festival.Iroquois regard the harvestand food as gifts from theCreator.

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“The Creator is watching and listening and the people are looking to you for help andguidance.”

Profile:Faithkeepers

Figure 2.17Dorothy Green

Traditionally, the Iroquois women have had greatpower in society. They lived in a matrilineal societywhere the mother had control. The matriarch’sextended family lived in the longhouse, and shenominated sachems, or clan chiefs. Other clanmothers, or mothers of the same family group,would confirm the sachem’s appointment.

Today the Longhouse clan mothers still appointfaithkeepers—three men and three women—toassist with their ceremonies. The faithkeeper pre-serves and passes on the spiritual belief system byconducting the ritual ceremonies. Usually one manand one woman are chosen for their leadership andtheir public-speaking ability. A chosen faithkeeperof a Longhouse must accept the appointment.

Dorothy Green is the oldest member of theOnondaga Longhouse and served as a Cayuga faith-keeper for many years. She is also a member of theTurtle clan. As a faithkeeper, she attended all theceremonies, singing the songs and dancing thedances, until arthritis stopped her. She keeps busytoday making moccasins, jackets, and leggings. Sheis called Kiduwitu, which means “Walking inGardens.”

QUESTION1. Describe three ways in which Dorothy Green helpsto keep her religion meaningful for the people.

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MILESTONES

The rite of passage to adulthood, oftenritualized in a coming-of-age ceremo-ny, includes the vision quest, ordream. The vision quest is a ceremonycommon to most Aboriginal religions.

The seeker of the vision quest isfirst purified, which involves a confes-sion, or at least a desire to atone. Thisusually occurs at a sweat lodge(Figure 2.18). The medicine man then

instructs the youth to go to a place farfrom the camp. The youth prays, fastsfrom food and water, and endures theelements for several days while await-ing a “vision.” At the end of a period offasting and prayer, the seeker of thevision hopes to receive a message froma guardian spirit, who may appear inan animal, object, or other naturalform. However, the person might notsee the vision, and would have to tryagain. Often the shaman helps tointerpret the vision and its message.

1. Explain the procedure and the sig-nificance of the Sun Dance and theMorning Dance.

2. What are some “cyclical” festiv-als that you share with the Iroquois?Compare and contrast one festival.


Figure 2.18An Aboriginal youthparticipates in a sweatlodge ceremony.


John Fire Lame Deer (1903–1976), aSioux holy man, described the visionquest he had as a young man. Thedream solidified the beliefs and valuesof his religion, as well as confirmed forhim the balance and harmonybetween Heaven and Earth.

The old man left me on the top of thehill. He had been with me in thesweat lodge and prayed, “Oh holyrocks, we receive your white breath,the steam. It is the breath of life. Letthis young boy inhale it. Make himstrong.” I was still lightheaded fromthe purifying sweat bath and myskin tingled. It seemed to make myhead empty but maybe that wasgood...plenty of room for the vision.Sounds came through the night butsuddenly I became aware of a hugebird flying around me. I could hearits cries and feel its feathers. All atonce I was up in the sky with thebird. I heard a voice say, “We are thefowl people, the winged ones, theeagles and the owls. You shall be ourbrother. You are going to under-stand us whenever you come to thishill to seek a vision. You will learnabout herbs and roots and heal peo-ple. A man’s life is short. Makeyours a worthy one.”I felt that the voices were good and

I was no longer afraid. I lost allsense of time. Then I saw a personcoming out of the darkness andswirling fog. It was my great-grand-father who had been shot by a white

soldier. I saw the blood drippingfrom his chest. Then I understoodthat he wanted me to take his name,Lame Deer, and it made meextremely happy. I felt my soulwithin me, and a power surgethrough me like a flood. I knew thenthat I would become a medicineman and I wept with happiness. Finally the old man was gently

shaking me. He said I had been onthe hill for four days and nights. Hegave me water and food and I toldhim what I heard and saw. He toldme I was no longer a boy but that Ihad become a man. Now I was LameDeer.

1. What is the role of purificationin preparing for a vision quest?

2. Why is it important to have anelder or shaman involved in avision quest?

3. Who would you select toaccompany you if you participat-ed in a vision quest?



SACRED WRITINGS

In Aboriginal cultures, prayers arepassed to new generations by thetelling and retelling of events.Members, such as elders or shamans,memorize the stories and become thekeepers who pass on the words. Theycommunicate their stories and lessonsby speaking fluently, listening, andunderstanding, an ability known asoracy. Sometimes the speaker uses anaid, like a necklace of beads orwampum, or even a totem pole, tohelp retell the event.

An effort was made in the earlypart of the twentieth century torecord the Aboriginal oral stories.Handsome Lake, an Iroquois prophet,told six members of his nation abouthis “Good Message,” or Gaiwiio. Thesix holders memorized what Hand-some Lake had taught them and twicea year would recite the message totheir people. It took three days torecite all of the Gaiwiio. In 1912, A.C.Parker, an archaeologist, listened to aholder and transmitted the words totext.

The life of an Iroquois holy man of theSeneca nation, Handsome Lake, coin-cided with the decline of Iroquoianpower after the American Revolution.He had been a warrior in the Turtleclan but, after losing his homeland inNew York in 1783, he suffered fromseveral debilitating illnesses andbecame an alcoholic. In 1799, he sworeoff alcohol and returned to his sickbed. In June of that year, a remorsefulHandsome Lake experienced deathand was revived. Upon recovery, heexplained that he had seen visions andhad received a Good Message, calledthe Gaiwiio. It resulted in a reformingmovement, with a renewed moral codedesigned to reverse the social declineof the remaining Iroquois, who haddwindled to approximately 4000.

Handsome Lake reported seeingfour heavenly messengers from theCreator who said: “...four words tell agreat story of wrong, and the Creatoris sad because of the trouble theybring, so go and tell your people.” Thefour words were alcohol, witchcraft,black magic, and abortion. Other evilshe attacked were adultery, child andwife abuse, and desertion.

Sacred TextThe Code of Handsome LakeHandsome Lake’s teachings were recorded forty years after his death by his brotherCornplanter, who in 1905 told them to a nephew, A.C. Parker.

The Good Message has two main themes. The first part contains a prophecy ofimpending disaster if people do not mend their ways. The second part states that onlythose who do not repent and change will suffer and perish and go to the House of thePunisher, who is the brother of the Creator. There are over 130 “messages.”

The first word is one’ga (whiskey). It seems that you never have known that this wordstands for a great and monstrous evil and has reared a high mound of bones. Alasmany are too fond of it. So now all must now say, “I will use it never-more. I now stop.”So must all say when they hear the message.

Section 1, The Code of Handsome Lake

The Creator has ordered that man and wife should rear their children well, love themand keep them in health. This is the Creator’s rule.


Now another message to tell your people. The married often live well together for awhile. Then a man becomes ugly in temper and abuses his wife. It seems to affordhim pleasure. Now because of such things the Creator is very sad. So he bids us totell you that such evils must stop. Neither man nor woman must strike each other.


QUESTIONS1. What message could you follow according to the Code of Handsome Lake, and where

would you find difficulty? Explain your answer to a peer.

2. Do you think a code of ethics is good for all time or should it be revised to changewith the times?

3. If you had to select four words that would be basic to your personal code of ethics,what would they be?

46

Holy PlacesSour Springs, situated on the Six Nations Reserve, near Brantford, Ontario, receivedits name because of the sulphurous taste in the water. The old squared-log construc-tion has been a ceremonial centre since 1855. The followers practise the teachings ofHandsome Lake, and their ceremonies are conducted according to his influence.

The concept of “duality” guides the strict organization of the Longhouse and rep-resents a symbolic view of the universe. There are two main clan groupings: the Turtleand the Wolf. Those within a clan are brothers and sisters, and those of the other clanare called cousins. When entering the longhouse, the members of the Wolf clan go inthrough the west door, and the members of the Turtle clan enter by the east. Seatingchanges according to the ceremony and depending on the longhouse. In one setting,the women sit on one side opposite their clan men. Each side, or clan, then partici-pates in the longhouse ceremony. For instance, a speaker of one clan may open theproceedings and a speaker of the other clan may close, thus both contribute to thecommunity of the longhouse.

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the meaning of dual-ity in the universe. Howdoes the longhouse repre-sent the concept of duality?

2. Describe how the cere-monies of Sour SpringsLonghouse reflect the con-cept of community.

Sour Springs Longhouse

Figure 2.19

47

Figure 2.20Today in Aboriginal

communities, elders arehelping young people

connect with their heritage.


GROUPS ANDINSTITUTIONS

“Knowledge was inherent in allthings. The world was a library andits books were the stones, leaves,grass, brooks…”

Luther Standing Bear

An elder is a man or woman who isrecognized by his or her community tobe a wise person, full of knowledgeand experience (Figure 2.20). Elderspass on practical, daily knowledge,and are also the keepers of tradition.They tell the stories of their religion,and act as spiritual guides. For exam-ple, an elder might teach animism bytelling a young child not to kick ananimal, even if it is dead, because it isfood and must be given respect. Theymight instruct young people aboutnatural herbs and medicines. Eldersare important touchstones to the past.They impart knowledge and skills forthe present and future, and are highlyvalued in their communities.

In Aboriginal communities, the role ofthe elder is experiencing a culturalrebirth. To meet the challenge of thefuture, many Aboriginal people arelooking back to their past and to theleadership, wisdom, and knowledge ofelders. The following demonstratesthe heightened interest in elders: • Traditional Knowledge, the knowl-

edge of the elders, is now taught atmany Aboriginal schools and con-

1. What are the four words fromthe messengers? Select one andexplain how Handsome Lakeaddresses it in his Code.

2. Describe the development of theCode of Handsome Lake.

3. Explain the term “oracy.”

4. How can a wampum or totempole aid a speaker in retelling anevent?


sulted by governments in Nunavutand the Northwest Territories whenpoliticians make important decisions;

• In many communities, elders act as counsellors and teachers toAboriginal youths coping with thechallenges of contemporary society. InToronto, councils of elders serve ascourts for small-time offenders.These councils are concerned withhealing, not just punishment;

• The Assembly of First Nations, apowerful political organization ofAboriginal peoples in Canada, isadvised and guided by a council of elders;

• Many Canadians, both Aboriginaland non-Aboriginal, engage in the preservation of teachings ofAboriginal elders. They are busilytaping, filming and recording elders’stories and advice.

The False Face Society is a respectedIroquois group whose members areknowledgeable in the natural powersof herbs, and who perform ritualprayers. They are named “FalseFaces” because the members wear

quizzical and grimacing masks thathave been carved from living trees.The masks represent powerful beingsthat live in the forest. Many of themasks have bent noses, which reflecta legend in which the Creator causesthe Great False Face to break his noseafter a contest.

The man-like being, Hadui, chal-lenged the Creator to see who couldmove a mountain. Hadui did moveit a little. Then it was the Creator’sturn. Hadui heard rumbling behindhim and when he turned, he hit hisface into the mountain, thus break-ing his nose. The Creator had morepower and moved the mountain thatfast and far. “I am beaten...but I stillhave great power. I do not want to bebanished from this earth. If you letme stay, I promise to help the peoplewho are still to come. Your peoplewill carve masks in my likeness toremind them of this occasion and ofmy promise to cure the sick anddrive out evil spirits.”


fWebQuestIf you are interestedin reading moreteachings of the eld-ers, the Internet is amodern vehicle toaccess the teachingsof the past. VisitVirtual Circle athttp//:www.vcircle.com/eldersand click on “CurrentElders Teachings.”Consider how rele-vant these teachingsare for your lifetoday.

The Woodland Cultural Centre inBrantford, Ontario displays Aboriginal artby well-known artists, such as Tom Hilland Norval Morriseau. When one looks atthe logo of the Centre with the two eaglesreaching for the star (see page 29), it isevident that animism and spiritualism arestill strongly present in Aboriginal values.

The Woodland Cultural Centre, locatedon reserve land, was once a residentialschool. Since 1972, it has followed itsmandate to preserve and promote the cul-tural heritage of both the Algonquian andIroquoian nations. Visitors learn about thehistory and heritage of the First Nations,contemporary lifestyles, and social andcultural issues of local and national FirstNations. The museum displays include anIroquoian village, a mystical evening forestshowing the typical environment of theNortheast Woodlands, and the interior ofa nineteenth century longhouse. Theresearch library currently maintains over 6000 volumes.

Today, elders and speakers of the lan-guage work diligently on projects that

reflect the renaissance of the NortheastWoodlands cultures. Indeed, “...the Centreis the bridge from the past to today andposes questions for the directions of thefuture which will provide for the ‘SeventhGeneration,’ or those who will follow ourgeneration’s generation; in other words, thefuture for our children… The Centre vali-dates the past, celebrates the present, andseeks answers for the future from Eldersand our children.”

QUESTIONS1. Explain what the Woodland Cultural

Centre’s logo means for spiritualismand animism.

2. Describe three ways the WoodlandCultural Centre is maintaining Aboriginalheritage and religion.

3. The “Seventh Generation” refers tothose generations that follow us. “Whatwe do in our lives should reflect ourresponsibility to future generations.”Do you agree with this? What are youdoing to practise this belief?

Community StudyThe Woodland Cultural Centre

Figure 2.21A wall mural created by

Six Nations artist, BillPowless, for the

Woodland CulturalCentre. This scene

depicts an elder (right)leading Aboriginal

peoples who have fallenaway from their

traditions into a neverending circle where all

are equal.

50

y Living My ReligionChris Warner and Courtney Thomas

L.E. Raths, an Americaneducator who studiedvalues and beliefs, saidthere are four steps orphases in the process ofbelieving. In the firststage, we are “aware,”and we know our beliefs;in the second stage we“prize” our beliefs; in thethird stage, we “choose”them from among sever-al others; and in thefourth stage we “act” onthem consistently andwith integration.

Two Aboriginal students at Pauline JohnsonCollegiate and Vocational School in Brantford,Ontario, clearly have moved through Raths’ fourstages. Courtney Thomas (19) and Chris Warner (20)attend Longhouse ceremonies regularly on the SixNations Reserve. They go to school in the city, buttry to maintain their religion, language, and cultureon and off the reserve. Courtney belongs to theTurtle clan, and Chris to the Wolf. They both say thatmembers of the clans are their teachers and protec-tors.

Members of the same clan do not intermarry. Theybelieve that three or four guardian spirits, usuallyancestors, watch over them. Keeping clan connec-

tions is very important. Strict traditions rule theLonghouse religion, like which door to enter, andwhere to sit.

The beliefs and values spoken at the longhouseare the ones of the Peacekeeper and HandsomeLake. But the longhouse is also the place for com-munity socials such as weddings, funerals, raisingmoney for a special event, or sending someone offon a dance or drum competition. The Longhouseoffers support during rites of passage. Humour, aswell as a sense of community, provide guidance. Atpuberty, the community might warn the boy not toswim or whistle, or his voice will never change. Whena girl first menstruates, there are those to help withthe “healing time.” One custom requires the girl towash her hands in ashes to connect with the fire-place so she can still cook. Chris is learning his lan-guage—Cayuga—so he can pray and chant properlywhen, and if, he burns tobacco. Courtney haslearned that food must be covered to protect it andkeep its nourishment. Their sense of spiritualismand animism is strong.

When asked what they get from their Aboriginalreligion, both say they get strength and energy. Whenthey go to the longhouse, they must think goodthoughts, which purifies them. They certainly feelthat it is easier to communicate with fellow adher-ents, and that there is a bonding. If they didn’t havethe religion and community of the Longhouse, theyboth feel their traditions would be lost, their lan-guage would suffer, and their identity would disap-

QUESTIONS1. Identify three ways Courtney and Chris have integrated traditional beliefs and values

into their daily lives.

2. Explain which of Raths’ four stages Courtney and Chris would be in with regard to theirbeliefs.

3. Describe a spiritual belief you have, and explain how Raths’ stages apply to you andyour belief.

Figure 2.22

51


1. Are museums and galleries impor-tant factors in keeping Aboriginal spiri-tuality alive? Explain.

2. Describe the importance of eldersand shamans in Aboriginal spirituality.

3. How important are elders in yoursocial group?


CULTURAL IMPACT

There can be no question that theEuropeans and the Aboriginal peopleshad both positive and negativeimpacts on each other. The Aboriginalpeoples exposed the early explorers tonew agricultural techniques and newways of coping with the challenges ofsurvival, while the Europeans provid-ed tools that fostered the developmentof Aboriginal culture.

In 1755, the British created thefirst Indian Department of Canada.Its purpose was to maintain good rela-tions with the Aboriginal peoples andto secure their support of Britain.Their allegiance was crucial duringthe years when Britain was fightingagainst the French, or the Americans.By 1900, however, Indigenous cultureshad suffered near extinction becauseof the many years of warfare and dis-ease. Often smallpox, measles, andtuberculosis carried away the old andthe young—the past and the future.

Before the Europeans’ arrival inNorth America, the Aboriginal peo-

ples were self-governed. Over the cen-turies, their government has beenweakened through policies of controland assimilation. The Indian Acts inboth 1876 and 1895 encouragedAboriginal peoples to give up their cul-ture and adopt “white ways.” Policiesthat established reservations orencouraged assimilation have hadmixed results.

By the mid 1800s, the Canadian gov-ernment was funding a residentialschool system for the Aboriginal peo-ples. Children were removed fromtheir reserves and were placed, oftenfar away from their communities, inboarding schools run mainly byCatholic, United, and Anglican reli-gious orders. From the turn of thecentury to the 1960s, Aboriginal chil-dren in Canada were often taught thatit was wrong to practise their culturalways. Sometimes the punishments fortrying to maintain traditional wayswere severe, such as having a needlestuck in the tongue for speaking theirAboriginal language, or making a boywear a dress if he tried to contact a

fWebQuestIf you are interestedin reading moreabout the WoodlandCultural Centre visitwww.woodland-centre.on.caClick on “What’sCool” to find outabout upcomingevents.

female relative. The residentialschools broke the connection betweenchildren, parents, and their culture.Many children, isolated for years andinstructed to forget their traditionalways, often rejected their past.

The Assembly of First Nationsreport, Breaking the Silence, claimedthere were seventy-seven residentialschools in 1909, and that sixty werestill open in the 1960s. The MohawkInstitute, which is now the WoodlandCultural Centre, closed its doors in1970. In 1996, the Report of the RoyalCommission on Aboriginal Peoplespointed to residential schools as themajor factor in the high rates of sub-stance abuse and suicide. At that time,however, many students had alreadybegun the healing process by rediscov-ering their Aboriginal culture and tra-ditional spirituality.

Throughout the 1990s, manyimportant changes occurred forAboriginal peoples in Canada. Thedecade began with a lands claimstandoff and ended with the birth ofthe new Inuit territory and homeland,Nunavut.

Sometimes, the cultural impact ofmainstream society on Aboriginal lifeerupts into violence. Where theOttawa River joins the Lake of TwoMountains and the St. Lawrence,there is a Mohawk reserve calledKanehsatake, which borders theresort town of Oka. At the edge oftown, in the woods called the Pines,some Oka businessmen acquired titleto the land and in 1959 built a nine-hole golf course. In 1989, they wantedto expand the golf course to eighteen

holes. The land they wanted was theancestral burial grounds, consideredsacred by the Mohawks. The courts,however, had rejected the Mohawks’claim. The Mohawks decided not tostand by and let the land be taken.They erected a barricade across theroad, and the eleven-week armedstandoff began. During the standoff,the Mohawks drummed and sangaround a sacred fire in order to gainstrength from the ritual power ofFalse Faces. One of the Mohawk pro-testers showed how Aboriginal spiri-tuality was involved: “...We had medi-cine pouches that we wore around ournecks: the ashes from the sacred fire.The guns were nothing. We didn’thave enough ammunition to stand offthe army for ten minutes. It was allsymbolic.”

Indigenous cultural revival is grow-ing, and the surviving elements ofAboriginal religions play an importantrole. In 1996, Canada declared June21 to be National Aboriginal Day.Each year, Aboriginal people celebratetheir past and future together in pan-Aboriginal activities.


Figure 2.23Oka, 1990: a Mohawk and a Canadian soldier standface-to-face during a tensestand-off.


In 1998, the Canadian governmentacknowledged its role in the culturaland spiritual impact on Aboriginal cul-tures. It issued the “Statement ofReconciliation,” in which it formallyexpressed its profound regret for pastactions. It also included an action planto help with healing for residentialschool students, to improve health con-ditions, and to speed up land claims. Inrecent years, Christian Churches havealso accepted some of the guilt andhave made attempts to reconcile withAboriginal communities.

For some Aboriginal groups, one wayto protect their heritage and religiousvalues is through self-government.With control over their own lands andlaws, Aboriginal societies might havea better hope of protecting and pre-serving traditional values. On April 1,1999, Canada established its most

recent territorial government in theeastern half of the region formerlypart of the Northwest Territories(Figure 2.24). Nunavut is home to apopulation of over 27 000 which is 80to 85 per cent Inuit. It spreads overalmost two million square kilometresof Arctic wilderness, passes throughthree time zones, and is larger thanany other territory or province inCanada. In Inuktitut, the Inuit lan-guage, “Nunavut” means “Our Land.”The residents of Nunavut hope thatby controlling their own affairs theycan modernize their society while atthe same time maintaining the essen-tial values of their Aboriginal culture.The government pledged to respectand apply IQ (Inuit Qaujim-ajatuqan-git), or traditional Inuit knowledge—the knowledge of the elders. In fact, inthe legislature, unelected elders haveseats right behind the elected leadersof the government.

Figure 2.24Performers and Inuit JuniorRangers carry the flags of

Canada’s ten provinces andthree territories at the

inaugural celebration in Iqaluit,Nunavut on April 1, 1999.

Figure 2.25 A Métis woman conducts a smudging ceremony.

Purification of the mind and spirit plays an impor-tant role in Aboriginal spirituality. Burning sweetgrass and tobacco in a smudge pot and drawing thesmoke ritually over one’s face, head, arms, andtorso, and inhaling the smoke, is all part of a smudg-ing ceremony of cleansing. Tobacco is considered asacred plant and the smoke is a spiritual way toclear one’s thoughts, to wash away impurities, tohelp focus on the task with freshness and withrenewed zeal, and to bond with co-smudgers.Although the sweet grass ceremony and smudgingis a Great Plains cultural and religious act connect-ed to the vision quest, many Aboriginal peopleshave adopted the practice.

Every institution has rules of health and safety.Schools are no different. There are anti-smoking

A teacher who had invited two guest speakers to hisAboriginal Studies class worried when the guests tookout some sweet grass and a smudge pot, and invitedthe class to participate in a smudging ceremony.There were explicit rules about no smoking on schoolproperty and yet this was a cultural ceremony of purifi-cation and symbol of unity. (At a university in 1999,five students were banned* when it was discoveredthat they gathered weekly to purify themselves in thesmoke of sage and sweet grass. School officialsthought they were using marijuana or causing a firehazard, and therefore banned it.) Clearly the teacher

was allowing a law to be broken in favour of allowinga ritual practice to occur.

The two guests put some tobacco and sweet grassinto a small bowl, lit the contents, blew gently on ituntil fragrant smoke began wafting in the room. Theyexplained that this was a religious belief and practicethat they wanted to conduct before they began tellingtheir stories. They invited Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal students to “smudge” by taking the bowland with one hand, drawing the smoke over theirfaces and bodies, and inhaling the smoke. There wassome nervousness about breaking the rules, but stu-dents said afterwards that they felt peaceful, moreempathetic to the speakers, and more unified withtheir classmates than ever before. * The students at the university fought their suspension, used

the hearing to educate the officials about the beliefs and sym-

bolism behind smudging, and got their ban overturned.

AT ISSUE: Should a “smudging ceremony,” whichis an Aboriginal purification ritual, be bannedfrom schools?

Exploring Issues: Smudging Ceremony

QUESTIONSWhich statement would you support? Explain.1. In a multicultural setting, Aboriginal practices

are valid and allowable.2. Students should be suspended for participating

in a smudging ceremony and the ritual should be banned.

bylaws that state there can be no smoking on schoolproperty. Also, smoking poses a problem of addic-tion and health that educators and governments aretrying to address. Students can be suspended forsmoking on school property and certainly for start-ing fires, especially in classrooms. It is both a healthissue and a fire hazard. School administrators andteachers are liable by law if they allow smoking orfires of any kind in schools.

55

The ability to make effective oral presentationsis an important skill, particularly in today’sworkplace, where many jobs involve publicspeaking and presentations.

Making an effective oral presentationrequires planning, organization, knowledge ofthe subject, and practice. The more presenta-tions you do, the easier this skill will become.If you are prepared and enthusiastic, your audi-ence will show interest and involvement.

The following are some helpful hints to getyou started:

Step 1: Plan your Presentation

• Choose a topic and subtopics. Conductresearch to identify issues related to yourmain topic.

• Create a written plan of the presentation.Start by identifying the main theme. Developa powerful opening to catch the attention ofyour audience. Consider using a quotation, avisual, an interesting statistic, or a movingpersonal experience. Develop each subtopicindividually. Your audience will be more inter-ested in your presentation if you provideexamples and visuals. Create a summarythat reinforces your message. You might usea quote, a question, or an interesting anec-dote.

• Consider your audience. Who are they andhow many will be in attendance?

Step 2: Rehearse

• Rehearse your presentation in front of a mir-ror. Use gestures that come naturally.

• Time your presentation. Leave time for ques-tions or discussion.

• Listen to professional speakers, such as TVannouncers, and note their pace and tone ofvoice. Listen to yourself on tape.

• Use visuals strategically. They can help tocontrol and vary your pace.

• Create cue cards that you can refer to duringyour presentation.

Step 3: Deliver the Presentation

Do ✔ Arrive early to organize your pres-

entation and to ensure equipmentis available and in good workingorder.

✔ Ensure you have enough hand-outs for all members of the audience.

✔ Be well-rested so you can think onyour feet.

✔ Have cue cards that you can referto occasionally.

✔ Stand to make your presentationso you can be both seen andheard.

✔ Speak clearly and loudly.✔ Establish eye contact with mem-

bers of the audience so thateveryone feels included.

✔ Use carefully prepared visuals(graphs, charts, pictures, etc.) toenhance your presentation.

✔ Make use of memorization strate-gies to help you avoid simplyreading from your cue cards.

✔ Smile and be animated.

Skill PathOral Presentations

Tips to help youremember• Mnemonics is the

skill of improvingmemory by using aformula, code, orassociative artifact.One such way is todevelop an acronym,where a word orphrase is formedfrom the first lettersof what is to beremembered. Forexample, in a presen-tation about theAboriginal culturalgroups in Canada,you might develop anacronym (THEN) tohelp you rememberthe order of yoursubtopics (today, his-tory, environment,nations).

56

Skill Path Oral Presentations

Don’t ✔ Arrive late and ask for additional time.✔ Just read your presentation. Look away from

your cue cards as much as possible. ✔ Look at the teacher throughout. The stu-

dents are your audience. ✔ Speak in a monotonous tone of voice.✔ Display poor posture.✔ Chew gum or eat candies. ✔ Simply talk, with no visual references.

Practise It!

Do some research, and prepare an oral pres-entation on one of the following:

• one of the six Aboriginal cultural groups inNorth America

• an Aboriginal creation story, its meaning andsignificance

• an Aboriginal cultural centre• The Peacemaker• Handsome Lake• developments in Nunavut since its creation• the Oka Crisis• the Statement of Reconciliation

1. Describe one example of cul-tural conflict related toAboriginal spirituality.

2. How can Aboriginal religiousvalues play a positive role in the

future development of Canada’sAboriginal peoples?

3. Which elements of Aboriginalspirituality might benefit allCanadians? Explain.


57


1. Select five terms from the Glossary onpage 59 and explain the meaning andimportance to Aboriginal spirituality foreach.

2. Describe how each of the following con-tributed to Aboriginal spirituality: HandsomeLake, elders, Elijah Harper, shaman, LameDeer, The Peacemaker, animism, MelissaLabrador.

3. What were the challenges to Aboriginalspirituality for each of the following:Smudging, Potlatch, Sun Dance?

4. Describe what the following pairs have incommon:• Handsome Lake–The Peacemaker• Sun Dance–Morning Dance

Think and Communicate

5. Briefly describe one Aboriginal belief orpractice that you feel might be essential toa balanced life in today’s society.

6. Describe an appropriate way to commem-orate June 21, National Aboriginal Day. Giveat least three reasons for your decision.

7. Interview or conduct research on one ofthe following to identify and analyze his orher spiritual beliefs and practices: an elder,someone who attended a residentialschool, a faithkeeper, Matthew Coon Come.Present your findings to a peer for editingand appraisal.

8. Develop a collage or poster that wouldrepresent where and how Aboriginal spiritu-ality fits in today’s world.

9. Prepare an announcement or advertise-ment that promotes the protection of anAboriginal sacred place, such as a burialground or disputed land or that recognizes asacred event, such as the death ofHandsome Lake.

10. Explain the challenges for someonepractising an Aboriginal religion today.

11. Do some research on the medicinewheel and the dream catcher to identifytheir significance as symbols in Aboriginalspirituality. Present your findings to theclass in an oral presentation.

12. Conduct research on other Aboriginalgroups, such as the Midewiwin Society,which is an Ojibwa spirituality group.

Apply Your Learning

13. Adopt an environmental issue, e.g., theprotection of an endangered species, thepreservation of green space, disposing toxicwaste, logging, etc. Research the evidencesurrounding the issue. Explain to an environ-mental group, city council, or Member ofParliament, what action should be takenusing at least three Aboriginal spiritual references.

14. Explain how one world problem might besolved by applying an Aboriginal spiritualviewpoint.

15. If you or a friend were feeling “lost” or“depressed,” what Aboriginal beliefs, prac-tices, or values might help you deal withyour problems?

58

Activities


GlossaryAboriginal. Of Native ancestry, inhabitingor existing in a land from the earliest timesand before colonists.

animism [ANNA mism]. The attribution ofa living soul to plants, animals, inanimateobjects, and natural phenomena.

elder. A person (male or female) veneratedfor age and wisdom.

faithkeeper. Member of a nation selectedto maintain the traditional ceremonies andrituals.

First Nations. An Aboriginal band, or acommunity functioning as a band, but nothaving band status. The term First Nationsdoes not include the Inuit or Métis.

genesis [GENNA sis]. The origin, thebeginnings, the formation of something.

indigenous [in DIDGE a nus]. Originatingnaturally in a region, belonging naturally toan environment (of people) born in a region.

longhouse. Iroquois home, cigar-shaped,about fifty metres long and ten metreswide, a dwelling shared by several nuclearfamilies.

Longhouse. Religion of the Iroquois.

monotheism [monna THEE ism]. Thebelief in one God.

oracy. The ability to express oneself fluent-ly in speech and to understand a spokenlanguage.

polytheism [polly THEE ism]. The beliefin or worship of more than one god.

powwow. A gathering of Aboriginal peoplewith ritual dances, drumming and chanting.

reincarnation [re in car NAY sh’n]. Thebelief in the rebirth of a soul in a new bodyor form.

sachems [SAY chum]. The supreme chiefof a clan.

shaman [SHAY min]. Medicine man orspiritual leader.

smudging ceremony. A purification ritualthat includes the burning of sweet grassand drawing smoke ritually over body.

tipi. Cone-shaped tent and dwelling foundin the nations of the Great Plains.

totem. A protective entity in the form of an animal, natural object, or plant.

totem pole. A long pole in which several totems are carved, used to recounthistory.

vision quest. The process of purifying andfasting in order to be sensitive to a visionor voices that might guide a person; asacred ceremony.

wampum [WOM pum]. A belt of colouredbeads used to confirm a treaty, or to helpwith the skill of oracy.

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