A Soil Bioengineering Guide - Chapter2 - The Riparian Ecosystem
Transcript of A Soil Bioengineering Guide - Chapter2 - The Riparian Ecosystem
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CHAPTER 2Th e Ripa ria n Ecos y s t em
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This cha pter d i scusses the v a lue o f the r ipar i an
ecosys tem. It o f fe r s a d i f fe rent a pproach fo r us ing th e
r ip a r ia n e c os y s t e m a s a n i n d ic a t o r o f w h a t h a s g o n e
w r on g o r w h a t i s f un c t io n i n g w e ll , a s w e ll a s w h a t i s
impor t ant to pro tec t . I t a l so d i scusses the s t ruc tura l and
func t iona l charac ter i s t ic s o f the r ipar ian ecosys tem a nd
how these cha rac ter is t i cs are the key l inks to m aint a in ing
ecological integrity.
An y t h i n g a n d e v e ry t h i n g t h a t h a s a n i n fl u e n c e o n t h e
structu re and /or funct ion of the r ipar ian ecosy stem
af fec t s i t s in tegri t y. Ripar ian ecosys tems a re the m ost
sought-a f te r fo res ted areas by both hum an s and o th er
a n i m a l s. An y p l a n t c o m m u n i t ie s a s s o c ia t e d w it h w a t e r,
w h e t h e r t h ey a r e in d e s e r t s , f o ot h i ll s, o r m o u n t a i n s , a r e
considered r ipar i an . They o f fe r ma jor c rea ture com for t s
s u c h a s f o o d , w a t e r, a n d s h e lt e r. Ye t t h e y a r e t h e m o s t
m i s u s e d , m i s u n d e r s to o d , a n d a b u s e d p o rt io n s o f o u r
l andscape .
Ripar ian ecosys tems a re the cana r ies in the coa l mine .
They give wa rnings o f erosion an d pol lut ion problems
t h a t t h r ea t e n f o r es t s t r ea m s , r iv e rs , l a ke s , a n d o c ea n -
f ront s ac ross the Nat ion .They fur ther w arn tha t wh en
w ater qua l it y is impa c ted , the funda men ta l eco logy is
deeply disturbed.
Al l ac ross th e count ry , th i s Nat ion s r ipar ian areas fl our i sh
w i th bount i fu l popula t i ons o f w i ld l ife an d d iv erse p lan t
comm uni t i es . They serv e as a c lassroom fo r complex
eco logy and sh ow h ow in ter re la ted a nd in terdependent
ecosys tems a re . Ev en the m ost innocent o r inv is ible ac t s
im p a c t t h e r ip a r ia n e c os y s t e m a n d , u l ti m a t e ly , t h e w a t e r
w e dr ink . Ex am ples o f th ese d i srupt iv e ac t s inc lude
fer t il iz ing f arm l and s ; mow ing bes ide lakes , r iv ers , an d
s t ream s; remov ing shrubs a nd t rees ; cons t ruc t ing a ccess
roads an d t r a i ls fo r recrea t ion , logg ing , an d mining ;
fis hing f rom s t ream ban ks ; cam ping a t the w ater s edge ;
an d o th er recrea t ion a c t iv it i es .
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At the sam e t im e , w e t ru ly v a lue ripar ian ecosys tem s
m ore tha n a ny o ther t ype o f fores ted env ironmen t . They
o f fe r recrea t ion oppor tuni t ies th a t a re pa ra l le l t o n one .
They are impor t an t fo r fl ood m i t iga t i on ; wa ter qua l it y
cont ro l; an d regul a t ing the mov em ent o f wa t er, sed iment ,
m inera l s , an d woody debr is be tween te r res t r ia l and
aq uat i c ecosys tems. They o f fe r cr it i ca l ha b i t a t an d food
sources to a d iv erse popula t i on o f w i ld l ife , inc lud ing fi sh ,
f o w l , a n d p l a n t s p e ci es , a s w e ll a s t o h u m a n s .
Riparian Integrit yThe s t ruc tura l a nd func t iona l cha rac ter is t i cs o f the
r ipar i an ecosys tem are the key links to maint a in ing
ecological integri ty. Qui te o f ten r ipar ian forests a re
descr ibed as lan d and v ege ta ted areas a ssoc ia ted w i th
l a ke s , s t re a m s , r iv e rs , a n d w e t la n d s t h a t h a v e co m p l ex
ecosys tems a nd prov ide food , lodg ing , an d t r av e l co r ridors
fo r bo th a qua t i c and te r res t r ia l spec ies . The r ipar i an
concept sugges ted here i s b roadened to inc ludesurrounding infl uences .
The infl uences on th e r ipar i an ecosys tem should be
v iew ed topograph ica l l y f rom upst ream to dow nst ream ,
f rom upslope to downslope , f rom subsur face through the
v egeta ted canopy , an d ov er t ime . This i s be t te r ex pressed
a s lo n g it u d in a l , la t e r a l, v e rt ic a l , a n d t e m p o ra l i n fl u e n c e s.
The long i tud ina l infl uence ex tends th e l eng th o f the
s t r e a m .
The l a te ra l infl uence beg ins in the w ater body an d
ex tends through the r ipar i an v ege ta t i on , through the
t r ans i t i ona l eco tones , in to the uplan d fo res t or d ry lan d
v ege ta t i on , to the po in t w here ov er lan d fl ow (runo f f ) i s
ini t iated.
The v er t ica l infl u ence ex tends be low the dry-season
w a t e r t a b le a n d u p t h r o u gh t h e c a n o p y o f m a t u r e
v eg e t a t io n . In c e rt a i n e c o s y st e m s , g ra s s m a y b e t h e
na tura l ly ma ture vege ta t i on ; in o thers , i t may be cac t i
or scrubby trees.
Tempora l infl uences a re chan ges to th e ecology over t im e.
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Ripar ian areas a re no t t ied to a s e t num ber o f m eters (m )
from the s t ream but r a ther to changes in v ege ta t i on
types , so i l mo i s ture , an d o th er eco log ica l charac ter i s t ic s .
I f the s t ruc ture o r func t ion i s com promised , the conse-
q u e n c e s m a y b e c o m e a p p a r e n t i n h a b i t a t d e g ra d a t io n .
A Diff erent Planning ApproachA di f ferent p lan ning approach m an dates a c l ear
de l inea t ion o f r ipar i an charac ter i s t ic s through ac tua l
fi e ld assessm ents . In the ear ly s t ages o f pro jec t p lan ning ,
a fi e ld assessm ent conduc ted by a t eam o f speci a l is t s
can l ead to a c l ear i dent ifi ca t i on o f the r ipar i an ecosys tem
an d the out s ide infl uences tha t cont r ibute to it s hea l th
or infi rmi ty .The fi e ld as sessmen t c lear l y defines w hich
eco log ica l func t ions an d processes must rem ain
undi s turbed dur ing and a f t e r const ruc t ion pro jec t s , o r
during o th er groun d disturbing act iv it ies in th e forest ,
such as l ogg ing , graz ing , o r recrea t ing .
Po tent ia l im pac t s (l ong itud ina l , l a te ra l , v ert i ca l, an d
tempora l ) to w atershed a nd r ipar ian func t ions are
d i scov ered in t he ea r ly p l an ning ph ase . Al terna t i ves
to protect ecological funct ions ca n th en be developed.
Assessmen t a nd pro tect ion o f r ipar ian charac ter i s t ic s
autom at i ca l ly become a par t o f the p lan ning and d es ign
processes.
Structure and FunctionRipar ian ecosys tems a re the most im por t ant l ink betw een
t h e u p la n d f o re s t a n d t h e a q u a t ic h a b i t a t w i t h a u n i q u e
ar ray o f func t ions in the na tura l env ironmen t . Thest ruc ture and s era l ages o f the r ipar ian fo res t a re
complex an d d iverse.
Canopies o f l a rge t rees mesh to c rea te a m icroc limate
tha t func t ions to coo l the r ipar i an ecosys tem, ma int a in
t h e w a t e r t e m p e ra t u r e , a n d s h e l t er w e t a r e a s . In t h e
absence o f t rees , l ow -grow ing p lan t s an d grasses prov ide
sha de as do undercut banks . Canopies o f r ipar i an fo res t s
produce part iculate m at ter , pr ima ri ly leaf li t ter .This is an
impor t ant energy base fo r a qua t i c food w ebs . Pa l ik (1998)
found th a t one-th i rd o f lea f l i t t er in s t reams comes f rom
m o r e t h a n 3 0 m a w a y .
Li t t e r an d s t a nd ing b ioma ss a re a l so necessary fo r so il
regenerat ion. Without th e cycle o f li t ter an d biodegrad ing,
fl o o d i n g , a n d p l a n t g ro w t h , t h e s o il w o u ld n o t b e
replenished . Wi thout so il , p l ant s can no t g row ; w i thoutp l ant s , the so i l i s wa shed aw ay .When so i l i s impai red o r
the topso i l i s threa tened , p l ant s a re less p lent i fu l, hav e
s m a ll er b a s a l a r ea s , a n d h a v e m o r e s p a c e be t w e e n t h e m .
Such poor vegeta t ion cover leaves th e soi l even m ore
ex posed to shee t run o f f an d eros ion . As l it t l e o r no
mois ture is he ld in the ground , the w ater t ab le becomes
low er, w ater qua l it y su f fe rs , an d few er p l ant s surv iv e .
S t re a m s u r fa c e fl o w m a y c e a s e.
The p l ant s t ruc ture (s t an d ing and dow n), l ea f li t t e r, an d
unev en ground ca pture sed imen t an d s low runo f f by
add ing f r ic t ion to deenerg ize ov erl and fl ow s . For ex am ple,p l ant s w i th fl ex ib le s tems an d rh i zomatous roo t sys tems
li e fl a t a g a i n s t t h e g r ou n d a s fl o o d w a t e rs w a s h o ve r t h e m ,
shie ld ing the bank f rom eros ion . Such p lan t s an d upr ight
shrubs t r ap sed im ent . Tree spec ies s low w ater fl ow, an d
the i r roo t s ho ld the so i l t oge ther. Roo t sys tem s c rea te an
in terwov en s t ruc ture tha t h o lds so i ls toge ther , s t ab i l iz ing
s t re a m b a n k s . Th e y c a t c h a n d h o l d p o llu t a n t s , u s e
phospha tes adh er ing to the so i l and sed im ent pa r t ic les
deposited by runo f f o r fl oodw ater , an d ho ld harmful o r
tox ic subs t an ces in p l ace by m inim iz ing so i l mov ement .
(Natu ral Cha nn el System s 1994)
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THE RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM
Large w oody d ebris (LWD) af fect s th e confi gurat ion of a
s t ream by d iv er t ing w ater fl ow an d fo rming poo ls . The
debr is he lp regula te s to rage o f sed im ent , par t i cu la te , an d
organic m at te r , an d prov ide aq uat i c hab i t a t . (Murphy
1995) LWD also af fect s la keshores by providing a q ua t ic
ha b i t a t and by fo rming na tura l rev etm ents tha t she l ter
the shore , caus ing beaches to fo rm.
LWD is genera ted from several sources. Genera l ly , the
m ain source is f rom l arge t rees f a l ling in to a s t ream w hen
so i l ha s been eroded aw ay f rom th e roo t s by s t ream fl ow.
Murphy a nd Koski (1989) suggest tha t a s m uch a s 50
percent o f LWD orig ina tes f rom w i th in 1 m o f t he s t ream .
Ano ther source ind i ca tes tha t a 30-m uncut buf fe r zone
is needed to m aint ain long-term LWD inpu t . (Murphy
1995) In m at ure an d old-grow th forests in Oregon a nd
Wash ing ton , fo r exam ple, LWD is genera ted f rom w i th in
20 m of the strea m . (Dol lo ff 1994) In ar id c l im at es, w oody
debr is i s genera ted by shrubs ca t ching on a nd p i ling upaga ins t a rock or outc ropping a nd f rom sporad i c s t ands
o f t rees such as co t tonw ood o r green ash .
Ripar ian ecosys tems regula te n o t only the m ov ement
o f wa ter be tween te r res t ri a l an d aq uat i c ecosys tem s,
b u t a l s o t h e m o v e m e n t o f n u t rie n t s , s e d im e n t s , a n d
par t i cu la te o rgan ic ma t te r. Floodpl a ins , an o ther
impor t ant pa r t o f the r ipar i an fo res t , t r ap sed im ent an d
par t i cu la te o rganic ma t te r out s ide the a c t iv e chann e l
dur ing ov erbank fl ows . Wi thout th i s access r ipar ian
func t ion dec lines , as does s t ream ban k s t ab i li t y. (Swa nson
et a l . 1982; Harm on e t a l . 1986) Non-fl oodpla in fo res t st r ap sed iment in over lan d fl ow s , be fo re they enter the
aq uat i c sys tem . Tree bo les , coarse w oody debr is ,
herbaceous v ege ta t i on , an d l it t e r a l l t r ap sed iment in
overlan d fl ow. (Pal ik et a l . 1998)
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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
The riparian ecosystem is the most important link between the upland ecosystem and the aquatichabitat. The structures of the riparian ecosystem are complex and diverse and, as such, providean array of functions that are typical only of that ecosystem.
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Canopies of large trees mesh to create a microclimate that cools theriparian forest beneath. Canopies provide cover.
Root systems create an interwoven structure that holds soils together,stabilizing streambanks.
LWD affects the configuration of a stream by diverting flow and formingpools. It helps regulate storage of sediment and particulate and organicmatter and provides aquatic habitat. (Murphy 1995) It also promotes theprotection of lakeshores and the formation of beaches.
Leaf litter and standing biomass are necessary for soil regeneration.Without the cycle of litter and biodegrading, flooding, and plant growth, thesoil would not be replenished.
Riparian vegetation is an important food source for both animals andbenthic macroinvertebrates, and is used as travel corridors for certainspecies. (Forman 1995)
Floodplains trap sediments and particulate organic matter outside theactive channel during over bank flows. (Swanson et al. 1982; Harmon et al.1986)
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Roots Capture overland flow and nutrients .
Interwoven infrastructure
Remove nitrogen from soil.
Stabilize banks by holding the soil together.
Trap and retain pollutant s.
Use phosphates adhering to soil and
sediments.
Soil Holds moisture.
Offers a grow ing medium for plants.
Promotes good w ater quality by acting asa filter.
Canopy Provides food.
Trees, shrubs, grasses
Creates microclimates
Shade
provides cool forest.
provides cool w ater. shelters wet areas.
Creates migration corridors.
Provides shelter and protection.
Floodplain Traps sediment and part iculate matter
during floods.
Slows velocity of flood waters.
Holds nutrients and sediments deposited
during floods to enrich soil.
STRUCTURALCOM PONENTS FUNCTION EXAM PLES
Structure and Function Chart
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St anding and dow ned A ids w at er infi lt rat ion by slow ing flow .
vegetation, foliage,
branches, leaf litter,
uneven ground, and Prov ides bank prot ec tion plant s lay againststream substrate banks during high flow s.
Provides habitat.
Reduces near bank velocity and redirects
flow.
Traps sediment by slow ing down and
stopping runoff and floodwaters
(the sediment drops out).
La rge Woody Debr is (LWD) A ids i n floodp la in deve lopment .
large trees, tree branches,
s hr ub s cau gh t in s tr ea ms , an d A ff ec t s:
log jams formation of pools and riffles
formation of beaches and
seedbeds on lakes.
Provides habitat.
Provides resting and hiding cover for fish.
Stores sediment and organic matter.
Lit ter Provides food and habitat :
l eav es , tw i gs , n eed les , B en th ic an d m ac ro in ver teb rates f eed o n li tt er.
blossoms, seeds, snags,
rotting logs, and tree cavities
Provides food for fish and other aquatic
species.
Insects incubate on plants, then drop into
w ater as food.
Biodegrades into new topsoil.
St re am , ri ve r, lak e b as in , Car ri es aw a y or im po un ds ex ces s w a ter.
w etland, vernal pool, and
ground w ater level Provides food and w ater for anim als.
Water percolates into streams during low
flow periods.
Affects the microclimate.
STRUCTURALCOM PONENTS FUNCTION EXAM PLES
Structure and Function Chart
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Nonfunct ioning Riparian EcosystemsFai l ing r ipar ian ecosys tems ca nn o t buf fe r s t ream s aga ins t
mu d an d po llu t ant s f rom runo f f an d fl oods . These f a i led
areas d o no t h av e the res i li ency o f hea l thy p l ant s to ho ld
so i ls in p lace , enab l ing s t ream ban ks and l akeshores to
rebound a f t e r a fl ood .
Chan ges in th e na tura l d ischarge r a te o f lakes , r iv ers ,
an d s t ream s can cause th e wa ter t ab le to d rop . Li t t le o r
no fl ood ing is de t r imenta l t o ripar ian v egeta t i on . As the
w ater t ab le drops , r ipar i an p l ant spec ies d ie, a l l ow ing
upland p l an t spec ies to m ov e in . These upl and spec ies do
no t fi l t e r out tox ins o r absorb wat er as w e ll as the r ipar ian
pl ant spec ies do . The upl and p l ant s a re no t equipped w i th
t h e t e n a c i o us r o o t s y s t em s t h a t h o l d t h e s t r ea m b a n k s
toge ther and w i ths t an d the im pac t s o f fl ood ing .They do
no t h av e the h ab i t a t v a lue for w i ld l ife o r aq ua t i c l ife
found in hea l thy r ipar i an ecosys tem s. When the r ipar i an
s t ruc ture is comprom ised , the ba nks w i ll beg in to f a i l .
A m inima l ly func t ioning r ipar i an ecosys tem can no t do
i t s job o f ca t ching sed iment be fo re i t en ters a s t ream . I t
i s o f the u tmost im por t ance to ho ld so i l i n p lace , to t r ap
sed iment be fo re i t reaches the s t ream , an d to ho ld fl ood-
w aters on a fl oodpla in to a l l ow the sed iments to se t t l e out
be fo re the nut r i ent s an d po l lu t an t s they car ry enter the
s t r e a m .
These tw o photographs show upstream and dow nstream damage caused
w hen a road installation interrupted flow.
Upstream
Downstream
The fo llow ing pho tographs dem onst ra te w ha t can ha ppen
w hen t he in tegr it y o f r ipar i an ecosys tem s i s compromised .
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The area surrounding the
Oconee River, in Georgia, w as
cleared and planted in cotton up
to the edge of the river. A
succession of floods ended
agriculture and drove the
farmers out. In the 1930s, the
native hardw oods and riparian
plant species began to grow
again, and fish began to
repopulate the riv er. The banks
carry the scars of flooding.
The South Fork of the Flambeau
River was altered by logging
and log drives during the 19th
century. Just upstream from this
site w as a dam built specifically
to hold w ater and logs; a
sufficient burst of water was
necessary to transport massiveamounts of w ater and logs
dow nstream. (The rivers
gradient is 0.057 percent.) This
tore up the riverbanks.
Shorelines have been reforested
w ith nonnative pine plantations
that lack riparian root
characteristics.
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These three photographs show trail damage leading to and alongside the Situk River, AK. The area is a temperate rain forest .
Although soil on this trail is a sandy loam and gravel composition, it is so
compacted that w ater will not percolate.
Anglers have trampled and loosened the ground, exposing the roots of
riparian plants and causing soil to erode into the river.
Eventually, trees topple over into the river, releasing more soil and leaving a hole in the bank.
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Explori ng Riparian At tributesAl though r ipar i an fo res t s can be found in a lmost a ny
l andsca pe , a l l hav e the fo l lowing a t t r ibutes :
Water a bov e and be low th e ground sur face .
Water-dependent p l ant s , ev en i f they a ppear to be a l iv e
only par t o f the yea r.
Abili ty to support a grea ter biodiversi ty o f plan ts a nd
s t ruc tura l complex it y as com pared to ad jacent a reas .
This is a second growt h
hardwood forest; riparian
understory is hobblebush,
striped maple, mountain wood
sorrel, painted and red trillium,
ferns, and currant. A spruce/fir
forest is visible in the upland.
Zealand River, W hite M ountain
NF.
M ixed conifer, hardwood forest
on the t idal Neuse River.
Croatan NF.
Avai lable food sources.
Periodic flood ing.
The fo l lowing ph o tograph s f rom v ar ious wa tersheds
across the count ry i llus t ra te cha rac ter is t i c s comm on to
r ipar i an ecosys tem s.
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Pipestem is the small tree in the
left foreground. Background
trees include hophornbeam, red
maple, sw eetbay, redbay, red
mulberry, sw amp laurel oak, and
w ater oak. Leaning across the
creek is a cabbage palm (future
w oody debris). Stream at
Juniper Springs , Florida. Ocala
NF.
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Choctafaula Creek drainage
supports remnants of the
swamp chestnut oak
cherrybark oak ecosystem
w hose plants include w ater oak,
w illow oak, sugarberry,
American elm, river birch,
sycamore, red maple, yellow
poplar, green ash, swit ch cane,
needle palm (endangered
species) bluestem (spp
andropogon), dwarf palmetto
grasses, high bush and low
bush varieties of blueberry, wax
myrtle, dogw ood, blackberry,
and muscadine. Tuskegee NF.
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The upland to the right is mixed
deciduous/coniferous forest,
w ith w illow s near the w ater. On
the left is lowland mixed
hardwood and shrub. At w aters
edge is primarily reed canary
grass. South Fork of the
Flambeau River, Chequamegon
NF.
Aspen and alder can be seen on
the left and jack pine and alder
on the right of this shallow lake.
Sedges rim t he w ater and
yellow w ater lilies grow in it.
Dead flooded timber, aspen, and
red pine can be seen in the
background. Chippewa N F.
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Woody draw in grassland.
Typical t rees are green ash and
American elm with an
understory of western
snowberry, W oods rose, spiny
currant, Saskatoon serviceberry,
silver buffaloberry, common
chokecherry, Am erican plum,
haw thorn, and raspberry.
Badland s N P.
Sheep Creek runs through this
wet meadow ecosystem. The
meadow grasses are sedges
and reeds. Lodgepole pines are
in the foreground of this m ixed
conifer watershed. Wallowa-
W hitman NF.
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Grasses and sycamore
streamside at M adera Canyon
Recreation Area, Coronado NF.
This riparian community is
termed Interior and California
Riparian Deciduous Forests and
Woodlands. The deciduous tree
species are sycamore, ash,
cott onw ood, Arizona alder,
Arizona w alnut, and w illow. The
upland communities are Great
Basin Conifer Woodland,
jun ipe r-pi nyon; Relic t Conif er
Forest and Woodlands, Arizona
cypress; and Interior Chaparral,
shrub live oak, desert
ceanothus, and manzanita.
Sedona Creek, Coconino NF.
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The tops of sycam ore and
cottonw ood trees are visible in
this photograph. They grow
alongside the stream and up its
incised banks. Madera Canyon
Recreation Area, Coronado NF.
The east-facing slope to the left
is inland sage scrub and
chamise; the w est-facing slope,
to the right above the creek, is
scrub oak chaparral. Arroyo
willow scrub grows along the
creek. Pine Creek, Cleveland NF.
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M endenhall Glacier is in the
background and is reflected in
this post-glacial successional
bog. Plants are w illow, alder,
spruce, and sedges. Tongass-
Chatham A rea, Juneau N F.
Temperate rain forest. Hemlock,
Sitka spruce, and alder line this
creek. Devils club (the large leaf
on the left near the w ater) and
berries are visible in the
understory. Tongass-Sitkine
Area, Tongass NF.
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