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A Practical Guide To Managing Projects

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A Practical Guideto

Managing Projects


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Background

Project management has become increasingly important. The skills and basic methodology have been in use for

thousands of years. The Egyptians used these skills in building huge pyramids which are still in good shape after

over 2000 years!

Purpose of this Guide

This Practical Guide is based on the Managing Successful Projects with best practice guidance but has been

summarised in an easy to follow format. It should be used by practising Project Managers to help them

manage their project or anyone with an interest in project management.

The focus of the guide is to help Project Managers manage their projects. Being successful in project

management requires more than just knowledge of project management. Project Manager can develop other

necessary skills to complement.

By following this effective Practical Guide, you should be able to :

Distinguish between day to day work (i.e. business as usual) and projects

Define projects and project management

Understand some of the common jargon associated with project management

Apply relevant concepts, including dependencies in managing projects.

Manage risks in managing projects

Calculate resources you need in your projects and use them efficiently

Learn to manage a project team

Explore a few ideas in building a career in Project Management

Why Project Management?

Operations keep the lights on, strategy provides a light at the end of the tunnel, but project

management is the train engine that moves the organisation Joy Gumz

1. Performance in organisations can be measured more effectively by measuring the outputs and

outcomes of projects.

2.

Projects focus people in achieving results

3. Change in organisations can be initiated better by initially doing projects as pilots. The results are then

assessed to decide if the change, often involving more resources, is worthwhile starting and

implementing.

4. It is generally easier to get funding for projects which can deliver specific results, particularly for not-

for-profit organisations which rely on funding from the public sector oor funding organisations.

Why Projects Fail

Research indicates that over 50% of projects either fail or they do not meet the expectations of stakeholders.

We can probably all think of projects that have "failed"perhaps processes got worse rather than better,

maybe they were cancelled because of cost overruns, or perhaps systems were launched with fundamentalerrors.


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How do you know whenand whya project has failed? In many cases, the reason for failure is obvious.

However, the definition of failure isn't always clear: one project with a significant delay might be described as a

failure; yet another, with a similar delay, might be seen as a stunning success.

1.

What is project failure?

2. What factors cause some projects to fail?

Definition of Project Failure

A project is considered a failure when it has not delivered what was required, in line with expectations.

Therefore, in order to succeed, a project must deliver to cost, to quality, and on time; and it must deliver the

benefits presented in the business case.

The requirements for success are clear and absoluteright? Unfortunately, it's not that simple. Because the

second part of our definition of success is that the project must be delivered "in line with expectations."

If key stakeholders agreed that a project had to exceed its initial budget, the project may still be considered a

success. Likewise, if a project delivered everything that was in the detailed project designs, it may still be

considered a failure if it didn't include vital elements that the key stakeholders needed. This doesn't seem fair,but project success and failure isn't just about the facts, nor is it simply about what was delivered. It's also,

crucially, about how the project is perceived.

What factors cause some projects to fail? (Reasons for Project Failure)

Here are some of the main reasons why projects fail:

The wrong business requirements have been addressed

If your project is set up to deliver the "wrong thing," it may be considered a failure even if everything is

delivered on time, within budget, and to the required quality. This seems harsh. But if your project doesn't

deliver what the organization really needs, this will inevitably negatively affect how it's perceived. This is why

it's soimportant to conduct a thoroughbusiness requirements analysis.

It's not possible to deliver the business case

If your business case can't be delivered, then you have an impossible task. To make things worse, after the

business case is approved, delivery of other things then becomes dependent on your project. This makes

changing your project's deadlines, budgets and expectations more difficult.

For example, once you've promised to deliver a new airport baggage management system, airlines may

schedule additionalflights for shortly after the system's launch, so that they can take advantage of the new

capacity. If the baggage system doesn't work, or if it has major problems during testing, it may be hard to

convince senior managers to allow the project to be delayed, because they will have to give up promised

increased revenue.

When you write your business case, make sure you think through the project requirements in detail, and

identify what's needed to ensure that you can deliver those requirements. Don't just list assumptionsmake

sure you explore them thoroughly. Review other, similar projects, so that you don't forget any major items. If

you're delivering a new system, review your hardware and interface requirements. If you have major risks,

include sufficient contingency resources (people, budget, and time) to manage those risks appropriately.

Remember thatimplementing change is hard!

Be realistic, and be ready to have some difficult conversations. For instance, your CEO may be disappointed that

he can't have what he wants before the year end, or key users may say that they really need a fully featured

product at the end of phase one. However, it will be a lot harder to have these conversations at a future date,

when your project is in trouble!

In many cases, business case documentation is written before a project manager is assigned. If you're the

incoming project manager, make sure you don't simply accept these documents as they are!
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You're responsible for delivering the project, so be sure to review the business case. Validate assumptions, and

identify any gaps or areas that need more detail. If difficult conversations are needed, have them now. Once

deadlines, requirements, and budgets are set, expectations are much more difficult to change!

Governance is poor

Few projects ever start without asponsor.This is the person who has identified the need for change in an area

of the business, and who is committed to making that change happen. He or she plays a vital role in ensuringthe project's success. A good sponsor can make a mediocre project fantastic, and a poor sponsor can delay and

frustrate a fantastic project team.

The project sponsor is supported by the project'sgovernance bodies,usually in the form of a steering group.

These governance roles are essential: they provide direction, guidance, and critical review of the project and its

progress. As project manager, you're involved in the day-to-day running of the project, but governance groups

can take a step back and look at the project from a different perspective. They can ask difficult questions about

progress and performance. They may see things that you've overlooked. However, they can also support you by

providing contacts and insights that help you get things done, and by providing "political cover" when you need

it.

Project managers don't usually have any influence over who their project sponsor is. Sponsors either self-select,

or they're chosen because of their position in the organization. However, you often have more influence overwho is in your steering group. As such, if you know that your project sponsor lacks passion for the project, or if

the sponsor doesn't like to say no to people who keep trying to expand the project scope, then make sure you

balance this with tougher or more engaged steering group members.

Implementation is poor you deliver your project competently, you'll avoid poor implementationright? Unfortunately, it's not that

clear. Delivery can be complex. You need to manage risks, issues, and scope; manage your team; and

communicate with stakeholders.

Delivering change is hard, and not everything is in your control. Therefore, being competent isn't enough for

good implementation, but it's a good start!

People lose focus on the project's benefits

Projects are based on a list of benefits that must be delivered. For example, you may need a faster customerservice process, you may need to produce products more cheaply, or you may need to improve the quality of

your service. These benefit statements should be refined so that they're clear, concise, and quantified.

From these benefit statements, a set of "things to do" is generated. For example, you may need to consult

customers, redesign products, or implement a new system. The outcome of this is abusiness casedocument

that analyses the project in terms of costs, and of the benefits will be delivered.

The project team then focuses on detailed planning, and on delivering the line items in the project plan

building a new system, developing training packs, mapping out new processes, and so on. At this stage, the

team may forget about the benefit requirements.

This often results in a project deliverable that's well built, but doesn't provide the necessary benefits. For

example, if the project plan focuses on designing and building a system, you could get a fantastic system, but

one that's not being used by the business. To avoid this problem, adopt abenefits managementapproach throughout the life of the project, and

remember the need to deliver the required benefits when you're planning and delivering your project.

The environment changes This is probably the most tricky area. If the business's needs change, then your business case can become out-

dated before you've actually completed the project. You may have to review your original requirements and

goals partway through the project to decide how to proceed, and this may result in changing the scope of your

projector even cancelling the project altogether!

If you're working in an environment that's changing fast, you can help reduce the risks by doing the following:

Making timely decisions If the project is clearly not going to be able to deliver the revised requirements, don't ignore this. The sooner

you communicate this, and the sooner you make a decision about the project's future, the better.Considering smaller projects
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It's more difficult to change direction in a large cruise ship than in a tugboat. So, think about whether a

proposed project's scope and delivery timeline are appropriate within your business environment. Delivering

projects in smaller pieces is not always appropriate, but it's worth considering.

Managing expectations Just because you cancel a project does not automatically mean that the project is considered a failure. This

depends on many factors, including how you manage the involvement of key project stakeholders in the

decision-making process.

Key Points

For a project to be successful, it's not enough simply to manage your project competently, and deliver a good

quality product. To avoid failure, make sure you have identified the right business requirements, created an

achievable business case, put strong project governance into place, managed a high-quality implementation,

focused on benefits, and monitored your changing environment.

Above all, be sure to manage the expectations of your stakeholders, so that they stay supportive. After all,

these are the people who will declare your project to be successfulor otherwise.

The main reasons include:

They are not planned properly in relation to who will do what and by when They are not costed properly. Often projects run out of money and are having to be abandoned or

changed drastically.

Sufficient resources, including time, people and money are not allocated to projects

The project manager lacks skills in managing (including motivating) the project team.

They are not monitored properly. As a result, time slips, panic sets in and quality of project

outcomes suffer.

What is a successful Project?

To be successful, a project must deliver the deliverables/outputs required by the organisation, create and

implement according to the agreed requirements. Stay within set tolerances (scope, time, budget and risk),

involve and make the best of the right resources ; take into account changes of how the organisation operates,

manage risks that could jeopardise successful delivery and the needs of those it will impact (i.e. staff,

stakeholders, customers).


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What is a project and what is project management?

Characteristics of Projects

Projects ...

have start and finish points.

are based on specific aims/objectives.

achieve results.

have stakeholders whose expectations have to be met.

need to be monitored...to ensure that work gets done.

provide a learning experience.

are evaluated....at the end.

Is everything we do at our place of work a project?

In a word, no! All projects are work - all the ordinary work we do is not a project. The maindifferences between projects and ordinary work are ...

Starting and finishing points. You will see this in all projects whereas, when we work on

something which is perhaps on-going, thiswork is not a project!

Specific results which are predetermined and for which specific or special resources are

allocated. All projects will have this but not necessarily in on-going work in relation to, for

example, what we do for our organisation.

Examples of projects and work

Projects Ordinary workPlanning to have a holiday. Paying gas, electricity and water supply bills.Moving office. Ensuring that computers work effectively.Planning and delivery of specific training. Supporting staff when they need help with ITWriting a book and have it published Attending a conference.Decorating the office. Meeting a staff member to discuss issues.

Definition of a project

A project is a collection of linked activities with starting and finishing points, over a given period of time, todeliver specific results on time and on budget.

What is project management?

Project management is simply a process by which a project gets planned, started and completed so that the

desired results can be produced and delivered. Project management is a process; it is dynamic and it uses

appropriate resources of the organisation in a structured manner to achieve clearly defined aims and

objectives. The process has clearly defined constraints such as time, money and quality.

Project Management is the process by which projects are defined, monitored, controlled and delivered so that agreed benefits are

realised. APMBok 5th

edition.


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Project management process has a number of characteristics:

Controla project manager has to be in control to deliver results on time and on budget.

Objectivesto achieve clearly defined results.

Multi-disciplinedmany skills are needed within the process to achieve results.

Performancehigh standards are expected of the project team.

Changesto ensure that needs of the organisation of the clients are met.

Questioningto be able to throw away old methods and replace with new ones.

Project stages

Each stage has a distinct set of activities or steps ...

A. Definition:In this stage, project aims, objectives, scope, risks, budget and timescales are defined.B. Initiation:In this stage, a business case is examined, refined and

agreed. It also includes clarifying stakeholder expectations. If sufficient time is not spent on this stage, it

could lead to difficulties and even failure.

C. Planning:A detailed project plan is worked out in this stage. This is crucial before getting on with the

work.

D. Execution:All the work, to deliver the results is carried out in this stage.

E. Monitoring and control:In this stage, progress is checked on an on-going basis so that the project

manager is in control of the project.

F. Closure:This is when a project is signed off formally. This gives an opportunity to the project manager

and the project team to discuss and record the good and bad points about the project, so thatsuccesses can be repeated, and failures are avoided, in the future.

Summary

A project is a collection of linked activities to produce desired results

Project management is a processof planning, starting and completing

projects to deliver desired results.

Project characteristics include having starting and finishing points,

managing stakeholders, using appropriate resources and

learning from each experience.

All projects are work

all work is not a project.


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Programme or Project; - Whatis the difference between a programme and a project?

Programme: a number of projects which are grouped because they are all aimed at achieving a common strategic benefit or

outcome

Programme management is the practice of development and managing the implementation of a group of projects to

ensure that the programmes desired outcomes will be achieved.

The goal of a programme is to realise outcomes and benefits of strategic relevance. To achieve this, a

programme is designed as a temporary, flexible structure created within an organisation to co=ordinate, direct

and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and/or activities in order to deliver the desired

outcomes and linked to the strategic objectives.

Project

The goal of a project is to focus on the creation of a set of deliverables/outputs within an agreed cost, time, and

quality criteria and is a usually of a shorter duration and is often interdependent with a programme and other

projects within a programme, thus achieving the benefits after the project has closed.

Starting a Project

Before the Project Manager can plan the project he needs to understand what the project has to create. This

process enables the Project Manager to understand as clearly as possible the projects productand who will be

involved in the project management team.

The following are the main tasks and outputs suggested for the process ...

Project DefinitionDescribes what needs to be created together with important resources

and other constraints.

Project Product DescriptionUsed to define the final deliverable including what will make

it fit for purpose. Also used at the end of the project to get customer acceptance and for

product handover.

Outline Business CaseThere needs to be a good business justification for doing the project

and an early view of benefits that might be generated. It is too early to write a full business

case at this point.

Delivery StrategyIdentifies: The type of resource involved in product creation i.e.

internal/external or combination (helps with creation of project management team); How

the projects product is to be developed i.e. purchased and used as is or all component

elements purchased then manufactured/assembled/built, or combination.

Project Management TeamIdentify who should be in the team and appoint them where

appropriate.

The projects Logs are created at this point ...

LessonsAt this point to capture lessons from previous projects that will help this project

and then for lessons that this project has learnt.

DailyOr Project Managers note book to record useful information about the project.

The Project Manager meets with key stakeholders to obtain the information that enables these


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outputs to be created. The documents are collated into a Project Brief and presented to the Project

Board for agreement to proceed at their first official meeting.

Initiation Stage PlanIs developed to cover the creation of the Project Initiation

Documentation

Initiating a Project

This is the main part of what is primarily a planning stage during which the Project Initiation

Documentation (PID) is created. When created it becomes the contract between the Project

Manager and Project Board.

The following are the main tasks and outputs suggested for the process ...

Project Initiation Documentation

The Projects ManagementPoliciesDescribes how the project will be managed in respect

to: Quality, Documentation Control, Change, Risk, and Communication

Project PlanShows major products/activities of the project divided in to delivery stages

with required resources i.e. time, cost, people etc. Product Descriptions may be written at

this levelsee 2.5 for a suggested template

Business CaseShows how viable the project is

Project ControlsSummarises project level controls such as contingency, monitoring, and

reporting

Project Definition- originally part of the Project Brief (updated as necessary)

Delivery Strategy- originally part of the Project Brief (updated as necessary)

Project Management Team- originally part of the Project Brief (updated as necessary)

Registers

The Projects Registers are also created and populated as necessary ...

Test Records testing results throughout the project

RiskSummarises risks identified throughout the project, planned actions, and status

IssueSummarised issues identified throughout the project, planned actions, and status.

Benefits Management

Benefits Review PlanDescribes who is responsible for benefits capture, how the benefits

will be tracked and measured.

First Delivery Stage

The first Delivery Stage Planis also developed in parallel with the PID as part of the Managing a

Stage Boundary process.


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Business Case for a Project

A business case answers why a project should be initiated, implemented, and delivered. The following

questions will help to decide whether a project is worth starting and completing:

1. Does the project help, in any way, to achieve some of the organisational objectives?

2.

Are the outcomes of the project greater than the cost, in terms of money, equipment and the time of

managers and other personnel?

3. Are there any other options by which the same objectives can be achieved? Have these objectives been

clearly analysed and presented?

4. Will sufficient funding be made available?

5. Have the risks been explicitly been analysed, and has the contingency plan informed that the risks are

reasonably manageable?

Terms of Reference

Terms of reference, also known as a project brief or a project charter clarifies what the project is

about.

If you dont have terms of reference, dont start aproject. You will get into all kinds of trouble. For

example ...

You may lose focus on the project.

Misunderstanding may occur between you, the project manager, and other people

involved in the project.

Your team members may not be available when you need them because without knowing

their extent of involvement, they may not be able to plan and allocate time for the project.

Discrepancy in timescales, budget and areas of responsibility may lead to confusion

What to consider when writing Terms of Reference

In an organisation which is used to managing projects professionally, you will probably be given a

clearly defined Terms of Reference. In other organisations you may be given information or

instructions which may not be clear. In that case, it is suggested that you write a Terms of Reference

and get it agreed with your sponsor, usually a senior manager who has overall responsibility to

implement organisational strategy.

1. Authority and Project Sponsor: Ensure that you, as the project manager, have

authority to make decisions on a day to day basis. Also, it is important to ensure that

you have access to the sponsor when you need it. Sometimes, you may have a

sponsor who is outside your organisation. For example, in a voluntary organisation,

your sponsor may be an organisation who has given your organisation a grant to

start, implement and deliver a project. It could be the National Lottery or a grant

giving trust which gives grants for worthwhile causes.

2. Customers/Service users: It is important to give details on exactly who the customers


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or users of services are in relation to what you will deliver, in terms of the outcomes or

the end product(s) of the project.

3. Aims and Objectives: Decide the aims and objectives of your project clearly. An aim is

an all- embracing statement informing other people what overall results you are

aiming to achieve. Objectives are the parts

of the overall results. In other words, smaller but specific things you have to achieve

to achieve overall results.

Scope: In a project, this will highlight the range of the project. For example, who is

involved, who is going to be affected, etc.

Constraints:A project will have constraints or restrictions, for example, money, time,

number of people, etc. You, as the project manager, need to know these constraints so

that you take them into account and come up with a realistic plan for delivering the

project.

Costs/Budget/Cash Flows: A project plan without financial information will

not make much sense to whoever is looking at the plan. You need to cost every input

which goes into your project so that at the end of your plan, your sponsor knows exactly

how much it will cost. You also need to have a budget for your project. A budget is

a plan of planned income and expenditure. It is also important to know when you will

have money coming in and going out of your project. This is known as cash flow. You

need to plan this carefully so that you are able to ensure that the project does not

run out of money. This is particularly projects where you will be selling

products/services and money on various types of expenditure to be able to deliverproducts/services. Many of my projects are training delivery projects in which, for

example, inflow of cash will include money paid for training services. Outflow of cash

will include, fees of my training associates, stationery, administration costs, cost of

venue/lunch/ refreshments and advertising and promotion.

Resources: As the project manager, you will be responsible for identifying or

clarifying what resources are needed in the project. Resources will include money

which you will need to spend on various things, people, equipment, computers and

printers, etc. When you have identified the resources, you will be able to work out the

financials of the project.

Deliverables:These are all those things you will be expected to deliver throughout the

duration of the projects and at the end of the project. For example, if you are

responsible for a recruitment project, you will be expected to deliver job

descriptions, personal specifications, publicity material, number of people enquiring

about the post(s), number of people applying for the post(s) and those shortlisted,

number of people interviewed and selected for the post(s), etc. By planning the delivery

of the deliverables, you will be able to ensure that, at various stages of implementing

the project, you are able to promise when and what you will deliver. This also

minimises the chances of forgetting some of the deliverables.

9. Project phases and time scales:All projects have activities and tasks. Large projects will


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have phases as well. All these need to be identified and briefly explained in the Terms of

Reference.

10. Risks: The sponsor, or whoever is financing the project, will need to know what the

risks are. These will need to be identified and explained.

11. Roles and responsibilities: If you have a project team, it would be important toidentify, in the Terms of Reference, who the members of the team are and briefly

explain their roles and responsibilities.

Often, Terms of Reference will be given to a project manager. If this is the case, you, as the

project manager, will need to clarify and agree the Terms of Reference with your sponsor.

However, if terms of reference are not given to you, you will need to write or expand on

whatever is given to you. This could be notes on the intention of what your sponsor wants you to

deliver or simply verbal instructions or a request.

Exercise

1. Think of a project which you are likely to be undertaking.

2. Go through the points of terms of reference discussed above and identify the ones which

you think will be relevant.

3. Write your terms of reference, comparing to the relevant points identified in 2 above.


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Terms of reference template

You can adapt this template to write Terms of Reference for your projects.

There are many ways of writing terms of reference for a project. Good terms of reference will have

sufficient information which will enable the project sponsor and other key stakeholders to

understand what the project is about and what it will achieve. The following headings may help you

to write terms of reference for your project. Some suggested headings are as follows:

Heading Content

Purpose of the project This section provides an overall picture. What is project is about and

who will benefit and how. In some ways, it will prepare a case for the

project.

Background information Brief background to the project - where the idea for the project came

from and how it got developed into a proposed project. In broad terms

it will explain the context within which the aims and objectives will be

achieved and what the project will deliver.

Aims and Objectives This section provides specific bulleted objectives based on clearly

defined aims.

Scope of the project This section explains briefly the aspects of the project from start to

finish including the main stages, who is involved in the project and

their areas of responsibility. If relevant, it includes what hardware andsoftware will be used

Constraints This section will detail the constraints within the project including

time, budget, people, equipment, hardware, software and tools.

Roles and responsibilities This section includes names of all team members and key

stakeholders and their roles and responsibilities in some detail. It

may also include the structure which the project manager will have

to manage the team members to ensure that the work gets done on

time and budget.

Reporting systems This section will provide details on how the progress of the project

will be reported and to whom on a daily, weekly and monthly basis.

This will allow the project manager to take corrective actions, if

required.

Deliverables This section will explain when and how the key deliverables will be delivered,

including feasibility, plans, documents, budget reports and other outputs

Success criteriaThis section will explain the criteria by which the success of theproject is to be measured by, for example, increase in sales by X%,


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increase in the type and number of people visiting the website by X,

etc.

Dependencies This section will detail all dependencies, internal and external, in

relation to all the activities around which the project is planned.

Key milestones In this section, major milestones are listed including feasibility study

(if appropriate) and work associated with project activities.

Key costs

This section will list key costs of resources including for software,

hardware, subcontractors, staff/team members time/salary, etc

Summary

Do not start a project without a clearly defined Terms of Reference which has been

agreed with your sponsor.

A Terms of Reference helps you to focus on what is expected of you in terms of

delivering various deliverables.

Often Terms of Reference is given to you. You will then have to clarify and agree it with

your sponsor.

If the Terms of Reference is in the form of brief notes or a request to deliver certain results, you, as the

project manager, will have to write itand get it agreed with your sponsor

.


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Definitions and Concepts

Some useful definitions

Task:a piece of work which is carried out by one person

Activity:a package of work comprising several tasks, carried out by one or more people in

relation to a project. For example, in a recruitment project, activities may include: updating

job descriptions and person specifications, publicity, short listing, interviewing and

selection, induction, etc.

Phase or Key Stage:a special activity that is often a group of activities. In a large project,

there will be phases or key stages. For example, in a residential building project, phases will

include: work on foundation, building work, installation of kitchen, bathroom and utilities

(gas, electricity and water), marketing and sales and, residents moving in, etc.

Dependency/Critical Paths:this is the logical link between activitiesthere are certainactivities which have to be done before other activities; for a particular activity, its

dependency will be a preceding activity. For example, if you are painting a room (walls and

ceilings), for obvious reasons, you will paint the ceiling before you paint the wall. The

dependency for painting walls will be painting the ceiling.

Work Breakdown Structure:a graphic display of all the work of the project, showing the

activities for each phase or tasks for each activity, for a small project without phases.

Sponsor: this is an individual to whom a project manager reports to, usually a senior

manager who is accountable for the projects success.

Stakeholder:any individual or an organisation who has a vested interest in the project and

its results - the customer/client, other managers, finance manager, contractors, suppliers,

banks or funders, etc.

Deliverables:the tangible and measurable results which a project is required to deliver at

interim or completion point. For example, in a recruitment project, the project manager will

be expected to deliver reviewed and updated job descriptions and person specifications,

responses from potential applicants, completed application forms, shortlisted candidates,

number of applicants selected and the same number of applicants inducted.

Benefits:the benefits to the client or the organisation, usually measured. For example, in

the recruitment project discussed earlier, the benefits to the organisation would be the

number of applicants employed. One can

take this further and identify further benefits in terms of the effect of the work of the new

employees. If they are sales people, then specific increase in sales directly achieved by them

can be identified.

Useful concepts

Dependencies


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In project management, doing things in a sequence is important so that activities can be linked in a

systematic way. Without linking activities, we cannot manage a project effectively. In a building

project, can you imagine what would happen if we do not do various activities in a sequence or in an

orderly manner? For example, if we were to start building before doing a proper foundation, the

building will collapse!

Note the following ...

A dependency is a process by which we identify the order in which things/activities have

to be done.

The important question, before doing each activity is, What must be done before I can

begin this activity? The answer will help to identify the relevant dependency. For

example, when decorating a room, and painting the walls, we would recognise that the

painting the ceiling has to be done before painting the walls. In other words, painting

the walls has a dependency - painting the ceiling.

We have to establish a preceding activity for each activity before we arrive at the

beginning, simply by asking questions as to what the dependency should be.

Some of the activities may have multiple or half-done preceding activities. Multiple half-

done preceding activities refer to when there is more than one activity which has to be

done, in parallel to each other, preceding to a given activity. For example, you are going

abroad on a holiday and you need to get a visa (i.e. apply for visa and wait for it, say for

5 days) and get necessary inoculations. You decide you need the visa and the

inoculations before you buy necessary clothes for the holiday. Buying clothesnow has

multiple dependencies, that of getting visa and getting necessary inoculations. The

activities may look like ...

Research holidays. Then, Decide a budget. Then Get visa.; then Get necessary inoculations. Then Buy necessary

clothes; then Buy the currency (of the country). Then Pack; then Book taxi to get to the airport; then

Check in, at the airport; then Fly/reach destination; then Enjoy holiday; then Return home, recharged

and refreshed.

The first activity (starting point) does not have a dependency. In the above example, according to

the logic of the person who has planned this project, there is nothing to be done before researchingthe holiday. It is the starting point and it will not have a dependency.


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Managing Stakeholders

Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world. Indeed, it

is the only thing that ever has.Margaret Mead

All projects have stakeholders. You cannot plan, start, and deliver projects in a vacuum!

A stakeholder is any person or an organisation who has a vested interested in the project, either

now or in the future. Stakeholders can be either within the organisation (internal stakeholders) or

outside the organisation (external stakeholders). In most projects, you will have both internal and

external stakeholders.

In projects the expectations of stakeholders have to be met. You, as a project manager, will be

responsible for meeting their expectations, as much as you can, to the best of your ability. A project

is likely to fail if expectations of important stakeholders are not met. For example, imagine that

you, as the project manager, are asked to design, deliver and evaluate a training programme. If theobjectives of the training programmes are not met, your manager will be very unhappy. His/her

expectations will not have been met. On the other hand, a small group of committed stakeholders

(as implied in the quotation, above) can make a big difference in helping to achieve the success of a

project.

Who are the stakeholders in my project? What are their expectations?

These two questions are crucial. The answers will help you achieve success. For example, in the

project, Sea Side Move, see in the table below, examples of stakeholders and their expectations ...

Potential Stakeholder Suggested Activities

Estate agent To be kept informed by the buyer, seller and both the

solicitors.

Letting agent To be updated, by the buyer, the seller and their solicitors.

Tenants To get two months notice.

Kitchen fitter Kitchen to be cleared of electrical appliances and other items.

To be left alone so that work can be done, unhindered. To

have a good supply of quality tea, coffee and biscuits

Bathroom Fitter Same as the kitchen fitter.

Electrician To have the appropriate area(s) cleared.

Removal company To have all the items packed. A good supply of coffee, tea and

biscuits.

Neighbours To avoid working outside of office hours so that they do not
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get disturbed.

Freehold company/Landlord To be supplied with relevant information so that they can do

the paperwork and facilitate the sale and purchase of the

apartment.

Utility companies, e.g. water,

electricity and gas supply

companies.

To receive date of move and accurate meter readings

Local council To receive accurate date of the move.

Strategies for managing stakeholders

Listing project stakeholders is very important. However a project manager will need to think of a

strategy for managing each stakeholder so that not only their expectations are met but also all

stakeholders, or as many stakeholders as possible, can be taken toward the completion of the

project.

Consider the following strategies5, taking into account power and interest of stakeholders ...

1. High power, high interested people:these are the people you must fully engage and make

the greatest efforts to satisfy.

2. High power, less interested people: put enough work in with these people to keep them

satisfied, but not so much that they become bored with your message.

3.

Low power, interested people:keep these people adequately informed, and talk to them to

ensure that no major issues are arising. These people can often be very helpful with the detail

of your project.

4.

Low power, less interested people:again, monitor these people, but do not bore them with excessive


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communication. Strategies for managing stakeholders included ...

Communicating with all stakeholders appropriately, using the language they can

understand. For example, communicating with our solicitor was different from

communication with the electrician and the kitchen fitter.

Providing information promptly, when requested by various stakeholders. For example,

when additional information was needed by the mortgage company we provided it within

24 hours, through our mortgage broker. We had our mortgage offer within three weeks.

This gave the confidence to the estate agent, the solicitor of the buyer and the seller of the

property that we were serious about buying the property and the transaction was

progressing well towards completion.

Keeping all stakeholders informed. This was particularly important when some of the dates

were going to change. For example, the electricians work wasdelayed for nearly a week.

This, in turn, delayed the work of the kitchen fitter and the bathroom fitter. They had to be

informed as soon as possible so that they were not going to lose out (with another, perhaps

smaller job).

Generally, in most projects, the following strategies are useful ...

a. Effective communicationincluding use of appropriate language (avoid jargon,

as much as you can), actively listening with interest.

b. Updatesthrough regular e-mails, meetings and telephone calls.

c. Informing about changesas quickly as possible.

d. Solving problemsquickly so that work does not get delayed (or delays are

minimised). This also gives confidence to the stakeholders that their interests

are maintained and that you, as the project manager, will do your best to help

them to realise their expectations.

Negative stakeholders

Unfortunately not all stakeholders are positive and helpful. Sometimes you may come across negative

stakeholders. They may be awkward staff members, members of the general public or someone who does

not like you or has misunderstood the purpose and benefits of your project. You have to do your best to get

them on your side so that you can minimise the negative effect on your project. The following general

strategies may help ...

Invite them to help you- make them feel important! Invite them to a planning meeting, if

this is relevant.

Explain the purpose and benefits of the project(s)to them and win them over on your side.

Keep them informed.

Have a quiet word with someone they knowwho can influence them.

The worst you can do is to ignore them. This can be fatal - they may take revenge! Often, difficult

people are looking for attention. Wise project managers are also (lay) psychologists. They can read

between the lines and take necessary actions to get the work done.


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Exercise

1. Think of a project.

2. Identify stakeholders, both internal and external.

3. Write down expectations of each stakeholder.

4. Write down your strategies for dealing with stakeholders.

5. Are there any negative stakeholders?

6. How would you deal with negative stakeholders?

Summary

Each project will have stakeholders those who have a vested interest in the

project.

Project managers have to manage and meet expectations of stakeholders, based on

clearly defined strategies. Some projects may have negative stakeholders. Get them on your side.

A project managers ability in dealing with peoplewill determine positive outcomes

in projects.


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Managing Risks in Projects

Often the difference between a successful person and a failure is not one has better abilities or

ideas, but has the courage that one has to bet on ones ideas, to take a calculated risk and to act.Andre Malraux

Definition: A risk is an uncertain event that if it were to occur would have an effect on the projects

objectives. It can be an opportunity or a threat.

The Projects approachto risk should mirror that of the organisation (e.g. Is it risk averse?)

At one level, everything we do in life is a risk. Most of the time, we are able to deal with the risk,

usually in an informal way. For example, when I go on holiday I usually make sure that I dont take

the last flight back to the UK, in case that last flight is cancelled. If I m delivering training or working

with a client, I usually make sure that I return from my holiday at least two days before my training

day or a consultancy session.

Within the context of Project Management, anything that prevents the project from meeting the

expectation of the stakeholders can be regarded as a risk. For example, if you are responsible for

managing a training programme for your staff or managers, some of the risks might be ...

The trainer not turning up, due to illness.

The training room, at the training venue, is double booked by mistake.

Data projector, for PowerPoint presentation, breaking down on the day.

If the above were to happen, several stakeholders will not be able to meet their expectations. For

example ...

Your staff or managers will not get the required trainingand will be disappointed. It may

affect their motivation.

Your manager will not be happy. Without the training the performance of the staff or

manager will may not improve. This may have negative effect on the customers, etc.

The quality of training may suffer if the trainer loses the use of data projectorhalf way

through training, thus not meeting yours and your staff or your managers expectations.

So, what can we do to manage risks? It is important to note that we cannot meet all the possible

risks - life is uncertain. The following realistic process is recommended ...

1. Identify the risks: List all the risks which can occur.

Cause- what are the likely sources of the risk?

Event- describes the uncertainty in terms of the opportunity or threat

Effect- the impact in one or more of time, cost, quality, scope, benefits, etc.

2. Assess the chancesof each of the risks occurring.

Probability-the likelihood of the risk occurring. Rate low/medium/high

Impact-Assess the impacton the project, and the organisation, if the risks do occur

Proximity- identify when the risk might occur. Rate: imminent, at what stage of the project, etc
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3.

Plan Counter measures-

Threats avoid, reduce, fallback, transfer, share, accept

Identify measures which can be taken to prevent the risks occurring.

Opportunitiesexploit, enhance, share, reject

Identify contingency arrangements which can minimise or eradicate their effect if the risks

4.

Implement & Communicate The Project Manager is now responsible for monitoring and controlling the risks and planned

counter measures unless other named individuals have been given these responsibilities.

Project Control Chart

This is a very simple way of controlling risks. See the control chart below which can be applicable to

many projects

Control element What can go wrong? When will I know? What will I do about it?

1. Control elementis what might go wrong, e.g. the trainer.

2. What can go wrong?The trainer is ill on the day of the delivery of trainer and is not able to

deliver the training.

3. When will I know? This will you help to devise a structure. Ask your trainers to give you as

much notice as possible, if they are ill.4.

What will I do about it?This enables you to have a contingency plan which you decide in

advance. For example, you may decide to have a bank of trainers and, if one of your trainers is

ill, another trainer is allocated to take place of the trainer who is ill and deliver the training.

Further Ideas on R isk M anagement

Risk management is a continuous process. It starts during the beginning of the project and carries on

until the project is completed.

Risk management can help a project manager to achieve the following ...

Identify potential problems and plan to solve them, if they occur.

Focus on the projects aims and objectives by looking for any possible obstacles, particularly

the ones which may affect quality in the planned results.

Involve team members at all levels in solving problems if, and when, they occur.

Increase the chances of the project succeeding.


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Controlling, monitoring, evaluating and closing projects

He who controls the present, controls the past. He who controls the past, controls the future.

George Orwell

To enjey freedom we have to control ourselves.Virginia Woolf

To control and monitor a project, the project manager and the team needs to collect relevant

information on a regular basis. The information is then checked against the plan as can be seen

below ...

Plan Information on results

Aims and objectives Work done

Activities and tasks Quality

Risks Variance on budget and CFF

Time plan/schedules Delays

Costing Breakdowns (equipment) Budget Absenteeism

Cash flow forecast (CFF) Delivery of materials

Etc. Etc.

The lists above will depend on the nature of the project. The comparison will show if the project is running on

time.

Controlling projects also implies that the problems are solved as they arise.

If there is a variance in the comparison, corrective action should be taken without delay. The following process

may help ...

Identify causes of the variance.

Brainstorm options on actions.

Select an option/Decide an action plan.

take action(s)

Measure results.

It would be helpful to if a progress report is produced on a regular basis and discussed with the

project sponsor and/or with the client.

Monitoring the Progress

The project manager needs to observe and have conversations with team members who carry out

tasks and activities. This is also an informal data gathering process before receiving written progress

reports from team members. Monitoring is a checking activity. The project manager should ...

Talk to the team members to determine how things are progressing.
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Encourage team members to discuss and concerns or problems

Check that the resources are received as promised and that they are working for project

tasks and activities.

Excessive monitoring should be avoided as it will be perceived as interference by team members.

Measuring the Progress

It is important to agree with the team members the following ...

Outputs for each activity.

The level of performance expected for each activity.

The frequency of measuring and recording outputs.

How to report the progress including any variances.

It is important to remind the team members to watch out for the risks, at each stage of the project,

which can create obstacles.

Project Evaluation

Project evaluation is the process during which a project is reviewed to identify ...

What went well in the project?

What went badly in the project?

What the variances were and why?

What lessons can be learnt for future projects.

If the project was worth doing.

If the benefits can be identified.

Evidence of good practice and success.

The following is usually evaluated ...

Technical work.

Achievements.

Project processes.

Management of the project.

Records, documents, records and templates.

Progress reports.

Contribution of internal and external stakeholders

Evaluation is usually carried out at the end of the project.

It is important to note that evaluation should not put blame on individuals in relation to what went


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badly.

Anything which is learnt should be accepted and communicated to all the members of the team

who can benefit from the experience.

A report is usually written and sent to appropriate stakeholders.

.

Closing Projects

When a project has been implemented and aims and objectives achieved, there is nothing to be

done but to close the project or hand over to appropriate people if the results of the project are an

input for another project. It is important to have a handover or a closure plan.

The process for a project handover or closure will depend on the size of the project. The following

are the actions which the project managers will generally take ...

Meet with stakeholders to get final approval of the project.

Finalise all contractual commitments with suppliers, send thank youletters to them for

their services and provide constructive final feedback.

If the end results of the project are inputs for a new project, transfer responsibilities to

appropriate people.

Release remaining resources, e.g. equipment and materials so that they can be disposed of

or used for other projects. Return people to their departments or functional areas.

Close the final accounts of the project and pay any outstanding bills.

Write a report to include the summary of the evaluation report, results of the project and

recommendations.

Thank team members - and have a party!

Summary

A project needs to be controlled to deal with problemsas they arise.

Monitoringa project involves checking the progresson an on-going basis so that corrective actions can be taken if

needed.

Evaluationof a project takes place either at the end of the project or in a large project, at the end of each phase. It helps

to see the lessons which can be learned for projects in the future.

A project needs a handover or closure planwhich should go through a well-defined process.


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The role of project manager, developing and managing a project

team

Before we discuss how to manage a project team, let us look at what project managers actually

do. It can be argued that the role of project manager is similar to the role of any manager who

manages people and other resources. However the emphasis within the role is different. In

general, the role of a project manager will involve.

Estimating and planning

The project manager will usually have to ...

collect information about what exactly needs to be done within the project and prepare adetailed plan.

decide how the project is going to be organised, mainly who is to do what and when? This

requires effective scheduling.

calculate how much it will cost to deliver the project by taking into account the cost of all

resources including people with various skills.

work out how long it will take to deliver the project.

look at the interdependencies of various activities and tasks so that project schedules can be

planned and implemented effectively.

Assembling a team

The project manager will assemble a team of people with the right skills, or skills which can be

developed within team members for when they are needed. Often, a project will train the members

of the team if they are lacking in specific skills. Managing time, communicating effectively with team

members and stakeholders are some of the examples. The project managers skills lies in assembling

people and making them into a teammotivating them, ensuring that good communication flows

between them and managing conflict amongst them.

Reporting and liaising

The project manager is the spokesperson for the project. It is his/her job to liaise with senior

management or the sponsor, clients, regulatory bodies (if required) and everyone contributing to

the project or has a vested interest in the project and expects to be consulted and kept informed.

Putting resources in place

These will include people with skills, materials, equipment, money and other resources which are

needed to implement the project and complete it on time.


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Co-ordinating the work

Once the project begins, the project managers job is to manage the work done and co-ordinate the

efforts of different team members and different departments within the organisation in order to

achieve the projects objectives. It is essential that quality is achieved at every level of the project

implementation and in every output produced.

Managing change

Not many projects turn out to be exactly as they were planned. Problems which arise often require

changes to plans: these may be short-term or long term changes depending on the project.

Examples of changes which may occur include changes in clients requirements, changes in the

regulatory, legislative or financial climate in which the project operates. When changes occur, the

project manager institutes a formal way of noting, estimating and carrying out approved changes. If

this is not done, the project can get into chaos.


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Project Team

Development

A project team will go through a process before it becomes a teamperhaps a high performing

team. The following framework, created by Bruce Tuckman, can help to understand the stages in the

process.

Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning

High performing team

Real team

Working group

Potential team

Pseudo team

Team effectiveness

As it can be seen in the above diagram, a project management team goes through five identifiable

stages as follows:

FormingWhen a project team is formed, assuming that all the team members are new to each

other, initially they are nice to each other. At this stage, the team is actually a working group,

achieving a certain amount of performance after the project work has started. In this stage, aims

and objectives of the project are explained and expected contribution of each team member.

StormingOnce the members of the working group get to know each other, they usually

challengeeach other. Arguments between them may take place. As a result of this, theperformance of the team (a pseudo team) may fall. Initially, the project manager will observe the

dynamics in the team. If the members do not resolve their arguments and differences, he/she will

intervene. The challenge for a project manager is to ensure that the team members do not get

stuck in this stage of the process.

NormingOnce the arguments or conflicts have been resolved amongst the team members, the

performance will begin to rise especially if the team is motivated through the efforts of themselves

and the project manager.

PerformingIf the team members are working well and they are motivated, it is possible for theteam to become a high performing team. Of course, the project manager will have to ensure that


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effective communication is maintained and that team members are supported and enable to solve

problems on a day to day basis.

Adjourning- This stage is reached when the project is coming to an end. The project will either get

closed down or its work will be maintained often by other staff within the organisation. For example,

a training project, if successful, will become a regular event by human resources department based

on specific needs of managers and staff each year.

Managing a Project Team

The following are key skills which are expected from project managers ...

Motivating project team members

This is invaluable. Motivated project team members will get the work done and help each other. A

project manager should be able to gauge the level of motivation amongst the team members and

take steps to motivate team members by supporting them in their work, meeting their needs on a

day to day basis and enabling them to resolve issues which may occur.

Communication

Communication is the key to ensuring that stakeholders, both internal and external, are kept

informed about the progress of the project. In relation to managing team members, a project

manager should be able to give clear instructions, listen to the concerns of team members, make acase for resources to the sponsor when needed and deal with suppliers and contractors of the

project when issues arise relating to timely delivery of materials and equipment.

Preventing and solving problems

A project manager should be able to think ahead (effective planning will help) and prevent problems

before they occur. If problems do occur he/she should be able to find solutions and solve them while

consulting team members.

Providing an appropriate leadership

Leadership is the skill of influencing people towards the achievement of goals or objectives. A

project manager should be skilled in influencing team members (and other stakeholders) so that the

work relating to various activities is completed on time. To be able to be effective, the project

manager will use appropriate leadership styles.

Making decisions

A project manager is expected to make considered decisions without wasting time. He/she should

consult team members so that skills and experience of the team can be utilised in decision making

and the whole team has an ownership in to decisions and their implementation. However, certain


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strategic decisions may not require input from team members.

Effective delegation

A project manager cannot do all the activities and tasks single handedly. He/she should be able to

delegate bearing in mind the skills and work load of team members. Delegated responsibility should

be given in such a way that it gives opportunity for team members to acquire more skills.

Difference between managing and leading projects

Managing a project is about ...

Making a project planand working out details.

Setting up a structureso that the project plan can be implemented.

Monitoringprogress against the project plan.

Producing the resultsin line with outputs, outcomes and impact expected.

Leading a project involves ...

Developing a vision for the projectfor the future.

Getting the stakeholder and the project team on board and giving them direction.

Motivating,inspiringand energising people to overcome any barriers in achieving project

aims and objectives.

Summary

The role of the project manager involves estimating and planning, assembling a team, reporting and

liaising, putting resources in place, managing and co-ordinating the work and managing change.ug

The process of developing a project team consists of five identifying stageswhich the project manager

has to manage based on specific skills.

The project manager has to manage and lead projects. Managing is about getting things

done.

Leading is mainly about providing a vision and strategic direction.

A Practical Guide to Project Management-Final2

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