A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials for the Teaching and Learning of...

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A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials for the Teaching and Learning of Jazz Author(s): Robert Witmer and James Robbins Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 96, Research in Jazz

Education II (Spring, 1988), pp. 7-29Published by: on behalf of the University of Illinois Press Council for Research in Music

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A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials for the Teaching and Learning of Jazz

Robert Witmer York University James Robbins University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Jazz students and educators are faced today with a boggling array of published pedagogical materials. This is not an entirely new phenomenon, despite the common perception of jazz as an unwritten musical tradition, and despite near-legendary accounts of prominent jazz musicians learning entirely from records or on (or behind!) the bandstand. Music reading, and forms of institutionalized or "legit" training, have always been a part of jazz (Suber, 1976; Shapiro and Hentoff, 1966, pp. 26-33). The tradition of published instructional materials for Afro-American musical traditions extends at least as far back as banjo tutors in the 1850s (Nathan, 1962, p. 189). Down beat has featured "how-to" columns on jazz since its inception in 1934. Similar material appears even earlier in Metronome. The "Jazz Age" itself was not without its method books, including such items as How to Play Breaks and Endings (Winn, 1924), Jazz Bass for Piano (Shefte, 1925/27), Up-To-The-Minute Jazz Breaks (Shefte, 1925), Axel Christensen's Instruction Book For Song and Novelty Piano Playing (Christensen, 1927) and even Das Jazz-Buch (Baresal, 1926).

During the past thirty years, however, a quantum leap in the institu- tionalization of jazz pedagogy has occurred. Concurrently, a spate of published materials for jazz education has appeared. We are concerned here primarily with these more recent materials: with ques-



8 Teaching and Learning of Jazz

tions as to the premises from which they are derived; the approaches which they employ; and their utility in achieving their purported end, teaching students to play jazz.

How much material is there? Much more than we will discuss or even mention in this article.1 Our selection of material for this survey has been less than totally systematic. We have chosen material which we know to be widely used or widely discussed, as a means of making this survey as relevant as possible. We have also included some less well known material in order to illustrate certain trends. For the most part, we have excluded books on individual instruments, or books where the teaching of improvisation is clearly secondary (e.g., books on jazz composition, orchestration, arranging, stage band articulation). Nor have we dealt with the immense category of periodical literature.

We will deal first with what might be considered the 'mainstream' of jazz pedagogy - books which attempt to deal generally and com- prehensively with the task of improvising jazz - then consider more specific topics: namely, jazz 'theory', cliches and "licks", and rhythm.

Some key works of the 1950s and early 1960s

Bugs Bower's Complete Chords and Progressions (1952) likely reflects the learning processes many jazz musicians went through prior to the publication of his book - the technical instrumental exercises typical of Arban, Hanon, et al, and the acquisition of a pool of "licks". At the same time, its attempt to condense these processes in- to a "jazz method book", its organization, and its content anticipates the works of pedagogues starting in the late 1960s which have become standards in the field.

The first section of Bower's work is devoted to exercises on chord types from triad to thirteenth which are, by and large, unidirectional arpeggios beginning on the root in eighth or triplet-eighth notes. Exer- cises are written out in all keys.

While this practice may have been of value in the models from which Bower appears to have borrowed - i.e., instrumental books whose purpose was to develop digital celerity - it is of limited value in a book designed for all instrumentalists. In a second section there is somewhat more wheat and less chaff: Bower writes out standard progressions and describes common chord substitutions. Again, exercises appear in all keys, with the possible negative result of suppress- ing the motivation of the student to learn to transpose. In addition,



Witmer-Robbins 9

somewhat less-mechanical lines ("rhythmical inversions") accom- pany each progression, and are different in each key.

Bower's Ad Lib (1953) continues the application of arpeggio and scale exercises to songs including "La Cucaracha" and "Jimmy Crack Corn" - hardly typical jazz repertoire! Another technique is introduced in Ad Lib, namely the use of examples of solos. Each song is presented with three solos: one using arpeggios, one using scales, and one mixed. The technique of using model solos has been less pervasive in later pedagogy but is still central in some works (e. g., Mehegan 1962 and 1964).

Mehegan's Tonal and Rhythmic Principles (1959), the first of his four-volume series on jazz improvisation, has become fairly well- known among students and teachers of jazz, if not widely used. His choice of terminology and notational conventions is clearly designed to distance his work from its 'vernacular' counterparts.2 But in basic approach and content of the Mehegan series is essentially a sophisticated version of Bower's method. The scope is extended in Mehegan's work to the consideration of a few more chord types, to their application to more progressions, and (exceptionally for this literature) to widely-played standards, which form the basis of many exercises.

Mehegan's approach to jazz melody differs significantly from Bower's in its emphasis on the concept of mode. This coincides chronologically with a florescence of interest in the application of modal concepts to jazz, one manifestation of which was Russell's The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization (1959; first published 1953). There is a fundamental difference between Mehegan's and Russell's employment of modes, however: in the former case, the mode is built on the root of the chord forming the underlying harmony; in the latter, it is built on other pitches in specific relation to the root. In both cases, the particular mode employed depends on the scale degree of the root, in relation to a tonic or temporary tonic.

The Mehegan series deals with rhythm more extensively than do most books. A concept of "rhythmic counterpoint" is introduced (pp. 54-55): the relations between different parts of a jazz ensemble in terms of predominant note values. Arpeggio exercises employ a variety of note values and mixed rhythms (pp. 57-67), the latter being com- parable to Bower's "rhythmic inversions." Another suggested practice technique involves the use of "rhythmic composites" - four- measure rhythmic phrases to be used as isorhythms over standard songs - with different "rhythmic composites" for different tempi (pp. 72-80). These rhythmic ideas are also employed within the context of




scale exercises. There is a discussion of "basic syncopations" (including anticipations), with a drill on "the 60 arpeggios" (p. 136).

In the second volume of the Mehegan series, Jazz Rhythm and the Improvised Line (1962), discussion of rhythm forms part of a broader consideration of jazz styles and of the elusive phenomenon of "swing." According to Mehegan, swing has three components: "melodic swing," "harmonic swing," and "rhythmic swing." For- tunately, the three are not completely separated into homostatic elements. For example, one of the twelve points comprised by "Melodic swing" is the relation of the line to the pulse. An extensive description of style-specific aspects of rhythm treats various types of "rhythmic counterpoint," average tempos and tempo ranges, and ranges for note values in the melodic line. The latter is demonstrated by a paradigmatic transcription of twelve well-known solos over a twelve-bar blues progression.

The presentation of the material on rhythm in this volume is problematic in that the approach is primarily analytical and there are few exercises for the student. The second section of the volume, "The improvised line" (pp. 59-137), goes even further in this direction, con- sisting simply of a number of solo transcriptions, without commentary.

Similarily problematic is a two-page section (pp. 200-201) on ear training and memorization. Typical of subsequent literature as well, the caveats about the importance of ear training are belied by the relative lack of space given to it, and the failure to integrate ear training with the rest of the text.

The most impressive of the immediate successors to Mehegan's 1959 and 1962 volumes is Coker's Improvising Jazz (1964), a concise, readable, and practical text. Many of its emphases overlap with Mehegan: modal-chordal relations, Roman numeral notation of progressions to standards3, a sense of "rhythmic counterpoint," and a similar apprach to harmony. In addition, Coker emphasizes "motivic" organization of melody. There is proportionately more attention devoted to ear training (pp. 34-37) than in most general works. Special attention is given the rhythm section (pp. 20-25), and there are exercises for group performance throughout the book. A chapter on "swing" (pp. 45-49) anticipates books designed primarily to teach students how to properly interpret jazz charts (Niehaus, 1966; Niehaus, 1964; Giuffre, 1969) by suggesting that written examples with eighth notes be played as triplet quarter-eighth, with upbeat ac- cents and "jazz articulation," and with upbeats slurred to subsequent downbeats. Coker further suggests that performances of written examples be "followed by an improvised chorus, attempting to carry on



Witmer - Robbins 1 1

the feeling of the written choruses into the improvised chorus" (p. 49). This way of integrating written examples (or transcriptions) into the teaching method contrasts with more common instructions which in- troduce an analytical step between example and improvised solo, thereby limiting the scope of the exercise to what the student is already able to describe analytically.

These methods share a common predominant emphasis on pitch control. However, technical exercises which use arpeggios and scales are in some instances followed by less mechanical work developing other aspects of melody: "rhythmic inversion," "rhythmic composites," or "motifs". Like many of the methods which succeed them, these methods concentrate on "a technical approach which consists of the more easily objectified . . . aspects of music performance" (Bash, 1983, p. 1).

The ascendancy of 'pattern playing' pedagogy, chord/scale recipes, and play-along records

Coker's The Jazz Idiom (1975) is similar in format to his earlier Im- proving Jazz, but more diffuse, and with more questionable material. The chapter titled "Jazz improvising" emphasizes the mastery of patterns governed by chord/scale relations. Other chapters deal with transcription, playing along with records to develop "tone quality, phrasing, articulation, time feeling, etc." (p. 12), and functional keyboard skills. Coker suggests that the beginning improvisor use "fast moving chord progressions", do "musical pushups" (p. 61), because he or she is:

not likely to be ready for a lyrical-melodic concept of playing . . . [and] needs to be let off the creative hook . . . Another reason it is easier to begin with progressions having chords of short duration is that the player is forc- ed (for now, anyway) to use short and easily remembered patterns, such as a 1-2-3-5 pattern played in four eighth notes to encompass the duration of a chord lasting only two beats. The pattern would have to be played twice to accommodate a chord lasting four beats ... (p. 61).

Something curious seems to have happened in the years between the publication of Improvising Jazz (1964) and The Jazz Idiom (1975). Mehegan's "scale fragments" and Coker's "motifs" appear to have evolved into "patterns". As the modal jazz of the late-fifties may have encouraged the use of modal concepts in jazz pedagogy (see Robbins n.d.), so the experiments with fast harmonic rhythm and unusual root movement of the early-sixties (e.g., Coltrane's "Giant Steps" and "Countdown") may have encouraged the use of patterns as a means




of bridging the gap between chord/scale relations and the improvised line in jazz pedagogy.

At any rate, the late-sixties saw the emergence of published jazz pedagogical materials stressing, above all else, the mastery of patterns. Prominent among these were publications of David Baker and Jamey Aebersold, the two most prolific producers of jazz study materials to date.

The first of what are now more than 30 volumes in Aebersold's A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation series appeared in 1967. The series consists of booklets and play-along records of background tracks by top-rate rhythm sections, over which the aspiring student im- proviser is expected to solo. This aspect of the "new approach" was anticipated by the "Acompo Records" of the late 1930s (with or- chestral accompaniment), the "Jam at home" records (with rhythm section accompaniment) of the late-1940s (Suber, 1976, pp. 367 and 369), and the "Music Minus One" series, which began in the 1950s (Kuzmich, 1975, p. 6).

While recordings are potentially excellent tools for the transmission of musical skills which are not easily described verbally, this potential is somewhat quashed by Aebersold's dictum: "The basic ingredients in music are SCALES and CHORDS" (1979a, p. 1 , italics in original). In keeping with this view of music, the booklets accompanying each record provide notation not only for chord progressions and melodies for each of the recorded tracks, but also for the appropriate scale from which to play for each chord.

Those volumes which contain a significant amount of printed instructional material (volume 1, 1979a, orig. 1967; volume 21, 1979b - both designed for beginners) further emphasize the primacy of chord/scale recipes. First, a method of practising chords and scales is presented, i.e., playing them up and down from the root on a downbeat. This form of exercise is written out (1979a, pp. 2-10) and the student is then advised to apply the same method of practising to the chord progressions on the record (1979a, p. 5). "Beginning to improvise" involves playing scales in "prearranged rhythms" isorhythmically (1979a, p. 14). Hence, the exercises involve no true 'improvisation', in the sense of doing something unforeseen: the musical results are completely prescribed.

In addition to playing scales up and down, they are to be practiced in sequential patterns (Aebersold, 1979a, pp. 5-13, 20-22). These "digital patterns" as they are later described (1979b, p. 34), may be



Witmer- Robbins 13

supplemented by patterns from Rubank, Arbans, Belwin, H.L. Clarke and other instrumental technique books (1979b, p. 5).

It is evident that Aebersold owes much of the approach described here to Bower and Mehegan. In several respects, his ideas carry Mehegan's a step further in rigidity. Thus, while Mehegan suggests improvising pitches isorhythmically, Aebersold suggests playing scales in the same way. Both rely on modal terminology to describe chord/scale matches: Mehegan suggests that the mode used over a minor chord should be chosen according to the function of the chord (1959, pp. 89-92). Aebersold stresses the primacy of the Dorian mode in minor chord situations (1979a, p. 2; see also the scales accompanying the chord progressions of 1979b). While Aebersold's "scale syllabus" (1979a, p. 36a; 1979b, p. 10) lists scales other than Dorian to use over minor chords, the lack of concrete examples of these usages could encourage beginning students to automatically 'think Dorian' whenever improvising over a minor chord. This would prove disastrous for them in some situations, most notably when negotiating a iii chord in a major key. A minor chord in this context usually func- tions as a substitute tonic chord: the sixth degree of a Dorian scale built on iii of a major scale is, in terms of the overall key area, a 'raised tonic' - a generally avoided dissonance in mainstream jazz treatment of tonic harmonic areas. In other words, Mehegan's 'functional' approach to minor chord/scale relations, cumbersome though it may be, is pedagogically more astute than Aebersold's.

Some of the topics which are raised peripherally also appear derivative. Aebersold's advice on ear training will be familiar to readers of Coker (1964) and Mehegan, with the addition of a sugges- tion to tape one's own singing and then attempt to replicate it on one's instrument (1979a, p. 16). A section on articulation is conceptually the same as Coker's chapter on swing (Aebersold, 1979a, pp. 33-35).

Other peripherally-treated topics are more original. Among these are some excellent, but far too limited, forays into problems of phrasing (1979b, pp. 26-31) and time feel. The latter may be "Ahead of the beat (on top), On the beat (right on) [or] Behind the beat (laying back)" (1979a, p. 28). It is precisely this type of statement which needs to be illustrated with sounds and accompanied by appropriate exercises im- itating those sounds. It is regrettable that nothing of the sort is found on Aebersold's play-along records (or any others, so far as we know).

David Baker's A Method for Developing Improvisational Technique (Based on the Lydian Chromatic Concept) (1968, republished in 1971 as Techniques of Improvisation, volume 1: The Lydian Chromatic Con- cept) appeared shortly after the first volume of the Aebersold series. A




compendium of patterns, mostly sequential, mostly two, four, or eight beats in duration, beginning on downbeats, it was designed for use over the scales of Russell's Lydian Chromatic Concept. The patterns devoted to "Blues scales" differ from others in that they are, by and large, not sequential perpetuum mobile exercises, but collections of licks with varied phrasing (Baker 1971b, Vol. 1, pp. 82-85). But the re- maining three volumes in the Techniques of Improvisation series (1979b, Vols. 2, 3, 4) are largely compendiums of mechanical patterns over ii-V7 progressions (volume 2); "Turnbacks", e.g., l-blll-bVI-bll (volume 3); and cycle of fifth progressions (volume 4).

The core material of Baker's most general and comprehensive book, Jazz Improvisation: A Comprehensive Method of Study for all Players (1971a; first published 1969) also concerns chord/scale relations, and patterns. This is evident in both the nature of the exercises and Baker's recommendation that "everyone be completely comfor- table with the materials in chapters one and two [the chapters on chord/scale nomenclature and the 'foundation exercises'] before go- ing on" (p. 6). The "foundation exercises" are arpeggios and scales, (including scales in broken thirds, fourths, and fifths), all but a few starting on roots, all starting on downbeats, and all to be practised in every key (pp. 14-21).

A number of topics are addressed, however, which do not appear in Aebersold's publications. Material on melody is presented by example, using transcriptions of Baker's solos on three songs (pp. 1 09-1 20). Other chapters deal with common progressions, specific advice for members of the rhythm section (piano voicings; patterns for bass players); eartraining (singing and identification of intervals, scales and arpeggios; instrumental call-response exercises; transcription), and melodic development (similar to Coker, 1964). Group interaction is ambiguously addressed with advice on how to relate to the rhythm section during a solo: play with them, against them, or "on a parallel plane ... but functioning relatively independently" (pp. 104-105).

Each chapter of Jazz Improvisation concludes with suggested reading, recordings, and exercises or assignments. A number of the latter are particularly unfocused. For "Developing a feel for swing" students are directed to "Form a playing group with other instrumentalists and learn bebop tunes" (p. 77). Others are little more than trivial. The chapter on scale construction suggests students "List at least four other books that have to do with scales" (p. 57). Obviously, assignments and exercises such as these are of little pedagogical value.



Witmer-Robbins 15

Baker's other publications include a later series of pattern books (Improvisation patterns: The Bebop era, volumes one, two, and three, 1979a) which reproduce a number of the same patterns found in volumes one and two of 1971b. In each volume of the 1979a series the first 13 pages are identical.

Also among Baker's publications are two more specialized pattern books (1979b; 1979c), and a pair of ear training books (1976, 1977). Fifty-two pages of the 68-page volume two, Advanced Ear Training (1977), are verbatim reproductions of material from A New Approach to Eartraining for Jazz Musicians (1976). In addition to liberal recycl- ing, Baker's seemingly copious output includes a good deal of material which is written out needlessly: transpositions; patterns which are merely all possible permutations of one another; arpeggios and scales written out over chord progressions after being written out for individual chords.

Despite these reservations, some of Baker's books contain valuable contributions - particularly Jazz Improvisation (1971a), and the two ear training books (1976; 1977). His advocacy of solo transcription and his discussion of procedures to that end (1976, pp. 71-73) are particularly laudable. His recent Jazz Styles series (e.g., Baker, 1982) contains transcriptions, biographical and discographical material, and some comments on salient features of the styles of individual musicians. Licks are taken from solos conforming with harmonic situations dealt with in his other books (ii-V's, "turnbacks, " and tonic). Although restrictive, his analytical categories convey information in an assimilable form for the student: preferences in tune types, tempos, meters, keys, scales used, range, "melodic devices," "dramatic devices" (the last two being roughly equivalent to licks and instrumental tricks). The approach of this series was anticipated by Mehegan (1964, 1965) though these volumes dealt only with piano players, and devoted more attention to textures and voicings than to matters of line.

The market for instructional materials emphasizing chord/scale relations and patterns has by no means been cornered by the "big three" (Aebersold, Baker, Coker). The increasing fashionability of jazz among young musicians during the late 1970s promoted efforts by Ricker (1977), Kynaston and Ricci (1978), Most (1980), and Schenkel (1983) which are clearly indebted to the publications of Aebersold, Baker, and Coker. A shortcoming shared by virtually all such publications remains the conspicuous and apparently deliberate separation of technique and music:




This book does not deal with the aesthetic aspects of jazz, nor does it cover rudimental jazz theory ... It merely presents a method of studying scales and chords (Ricker 1977, p. 1).

We have made no attempt in the course of this text to dictate or even discuss style or related areas like phrasing and articulation (Kynaston and Ricci, 1978, p. 215).

This is a book of tools; it should in no way replace the experience of actual- ly performing music (Schenkel 1983 p.vi).

While jazz certainly has its formulaic elements, the pedagogues who emphasize patterns and chord/scale recipes imply, by this very emphasis, that jazz is essentially a centónate music: a patchwork of preexisting elements. And students who are taught to negotiate chord changes by practising scales are likely to end up mainly playing scales - as opposed to melodies - when they improvise. Again, Bash (1983, p. 1) was in essence correct when he characterised most jazz method books as concentrating on a technical approach based on the "easily objectified."

Alternative Approaches

If any method book published in the late 1960s has a valid claim to the word "new" it is likely LaPorta's unpretentious A Guide to Im- provisation (1968). LaPorta's approach is distinctive in that it does not start with the assumption that a student must learn to play scales and arpeggios in every key before attempting to improvise. The emphasis of his "method" is, rather, making "simple" things sound right. LaPor- ta begins with articulation, discussing matters such as "Lester Young half notes," (p. 5). His exercises involve learning short (two-measure) rhythmic patterns, and call-and-response ear training. Initially, all exercises are in Bb, using pentatonic pitch material; gradually other keys are introduced. Eventually, brief discussion of pentatonics (and other scales) as theoretical constructs is presented. Initially, however, they appear simply as sets of notes with which to play, so that sound precedes theory. The move beyond pentatonic material comes with the introduction of "blue notes," which notably are presented as loci suitable for certain types of articulation ("smears"), rather than merely additional pitch material.

The student gradually learns to build extended phrases by alter- nating longer sections of improvised material with written lines. Toward the end of the book, the blues form is introduced. Here again, LaPorta's treatment is novel in its use of a "blues guide line" (p. 49): the student is not taught to think from roots, but rather, in terms of a slow-moving melodic framework.



Witmer-Robbins 17

While LaPorta's book is restricted in scope, in the context of beginning improvisation this may well be a virtue rather than a defect: the essential material on phrasing, ear training, and articulation is not buried in a mass of scale/chord theory; nor are beginning students in- timidated by suggestions they lift Charlie Parker solos from recordings or read Susanne Langer to get their musical sensibilities together (cf., Baker 1971a, p. 11 and p. 162). It presents, in short, a far more holistic approach than do the contemporaneous works of other authors.

Benward and Wildman (1984) attempt a more integrative approach than many of their predecessors. They are perhaps representative of an emerging trend in the literature reacting to the overly rigid thinking that has often dominated it in the past:

[It is not] sufficient for students to memorize changes from a number of tunes if their improvisations on these tunes more closely reflect the con-

tents of a scale pattern book than the possibilities within the original music . . . Without the element of individuality, a formal jazz education will simply

produce regurgitated "school music tradition" and not the subtle interplay of traditional concepts and their maturation in a personal style ... (p. xv).

Accordingly, Benward and Wildman give relatively even treatment to a broad range of subjects, (melodic patterns; scale formations; chord formations and relations; interdependence of scales, chords and keys; evolution of structure, rhythm and articulation), and the student is guided through them three times, at three different levels of proficiency (p. xvii). Exercises continually stress aural as well as digital skills, and they are keyed to specific recorded examples so as to provide students with models of application of theoretical concepts. The approach to the use of recorded examples is more realistic than that in other books, as they are drawn from the easily accessible and broadly representative Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz (Williams, 1973). The emphasis and exercises on developing a sense of "group time" at the elementary level are particularly laudable (pp. 57ff.). Also commendable is the deliberate exclusion of technical exercises at the advanced level: instead, "the student is strongly advised to create his or her own exercises in order to establish logical and personal practice routines" (p. xviii).

To some extent, Benward and Wildman share the collective culpability of most published jazz pedagogues for excessive reliance on the /efees recues of "legit" theory and analysis. Exercises, once again, tend to be heavily oriented to roots and downbeats. Discussion of phrasing is based on the "motive-phase-period" mode of thinking (see p. 49ff.) derived ultimately from Riepel via Koch and Riemann, as opposed to what we consider would be a more productive treatment of




phrase placement within the cyclic chorus structure. The blame for these shortcomings must be shared, however, by musicologists and theorists who have not yet developed analytical tools to deal ade- quately with some of the unique musical problems posed by jazz.

Jazz Theory

Jazz theory has deep roots reaching to songwriting and arranging/orchestration texts devoted to popular music (which antedate the century). It embraces a wide variety of material, from the practical "how-to" columns found in trade journals explaining "modern sounds" and "voicings", to the mathematically oriented works of Schillinger and Van Eps. A number of post-1 960 writers on jazz point to George Russell as an important "father" figure (or jazz "mother", according to Brooks, 1960) in the development of "theoretical method book[s] designed expressly for use by jazz musicians" (Robbins, n.d., p. 26 - see, for example, Baker, 1968; Collier, 1978, p. 432; Tirro, 1977, p. 354.)

Russell's important book, The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Improvisation, was first published in 1953, but re- ceived little attention until its republication in 1959.4 It begins with a discussion of the theory and practice of "Vertical Polymodality", the part of the "concept" most often borrowed by later writers. The essence of "vertical polymodality" is the proposition that chords may be converted into scales, and the corollary that a progression of chords may be understood as a progression of scales for the purpose of improvising or writing lines (Russell, 1959, p. 2, and p. 22). The fundamental ("parent") scale of the "concept" is the lydian.5 There are two altered versions of the lydian which may be used, as well as three 'auxilary' [sic] or nonlydian scales (pp. 2-5). The root of each chord type corresponds to a different degree of the lydian scale, chosen to maximize the correspondence between chord tones (including, im- plicitly, common tertial extensions) and scale tones. Thus, for example, a dominant seventh chord is built with its root on the second degree of a lydian scale (pp. 11-12). This kind of thinking is evident in the terminology of other vernacular harmonic practices in North American music, both within jazz (e.g., 'tritone substitution') and without (e.g., 'cross-harp playing').

The application of "vertical polymodality" involves possibilities of "framing" chord tones with scalar nonchord tones (p. 8), using alternative scales for a single chord type (p. 16), using "parent scales" with the same root for ii-V type progressions (p. 19) and "preparing" for "improvisation" by writing out "parent scales" indicated by chord



Witmer-Robbins 19

symbols (pp. 20-21). (The last mentioned possibility has been exploited by Aebersold - see 1974.)

This method of application of "vertical polymodality" is only one part of the "concept," however. In total, it comprises four "types of melody that embrace all melodies that are now being invented, or that ever could be invented in the equal temperament system by any im- proviser" (p. 21). These are "Ingoing Vertical Melodies," "Outgoing Vertical Melodies," "Ingoing Horizontal Melodies," and "Outgoing Horizontal Melodies." Further refinements involve the application of "chromatic enhancement": the scale used in any of the melodic types may appear in its diatonic ("absolute") form, or with chromatic embellishment (p. 21). "Ingoing" melodies use chord/scale relations as described above; "outgoing" melodies potentially use the entire "lydian chromatic scale" (i.e., the twelve note chromatic scale), typically with interval-cell melodic construction or a 'substitute' scale not related, or distantly related, to the corresponding chord. While "vertical polymodality" involves immediate chord/scale relations, in "horizontal polymodality," "the scale we choose conveys the tonal center to the listener rather than the chord" (p. 29). Thus, single scales may be used over several chords when related to long-range harmonic goals ("tonic stations") (p. 34). Lester Young characteristically plays in "horizontal polymodality" and Coleman Hawkins in "vertical polymodality" (p. 28).

The rather broad range of possibilities suggested by the "concept" is governed by principles of tonal "gravity" and by "relativity." Notes are neither "right" not "wrong"; they are relatively close or distant to a center of tonal gravity. The use of the lydian scale to represent the simplest form of the tonic scale is justified, in the section titled "Theoretical Foundation," by its tetrachord structure (both "resolve to" - i.e., have semitones located below - tonic triad pitches) and by the position of the tonic as the lowest pitch when the scale degrees are arranged in an unbroken ascending fifth series (pp. i-ii).

Most of this has been lost on Russell's successors (most sadly, his ideas on "horizontal polymodality"), although some jazz theorists and pedagogues have since occupied themselves with generative systems based on fifth series and modal substitutions, for example, York University's John Gittins. Furthermore, most current 'jazz theory' focuses on chord progression, a subject which Russell only briefly touches upon (pp.42-48). The true heirs to Russell's concept of chord/scale relations have been not the theorists, but the pedagogues who have filled their books with exercises to develop facility at using chord symbols as cues to play scales.




Books on jazz harmony involve a variety of theoretical approaches, from the generative to the descriptive/empirical. For the purposes of improvising, the empirical are most useful in teaching students the kinds of progressions they might expect to encounter in a typical playing situation. The value of generative approaches lies in their potential to teach students how to create their own chord progressions for the purposes of composition or reharmonization.

A good example of a practical, empirically-oriented text is Michalek's Modern Harmonic Progression (1977). Its practicality is enhanced by the intelligent application of reductive analytical techniques to understanding and creating substitute progressions and extensions. As well, specific common progressions and idiosyncratic harmonic practices (tritone substitution, "minor key cliche lines," progressions employing diminished sevenths, etc.) are dealt with in- dividually. Students are thus prepared to be flexible in their harmonic thinking, and, at the same time, taught to recognize situations where flexibility is not generally called for. Michalek's book is a model of clear explanation. His eschewal of tables and lists of transpositions, which only serve to promote laziness, is to be commended and, one might hope, widely imitated.

Stanton's Jazz Theory: A Creative Approach (1982) is of the generative school. Simple rules for creating sequences of chords are presented (root movement by fifth, basically) and elaborated. As with Michalek's book, additional progressions are dealt with separately as "Practical Devices" (p. 183). A limited number of substitute chords are taught by rote (p. 99), and these are used to generate alternate progressions. To some extent, the "creative approach" will teach a student what to expect from a typical chart, but the real emphasis (clearly expressed in the exercises) is on writing.

The sections dealing with harmony in Jaffe's Jazz Theory (1 983) are also concerned with describing the principles of creating progressions, rather than of rethinking and negotiating them. However, the book is potentially more useful than Stanton's in its extensive reliance on 'real' examples, frequently citing songs and performances. Jaffe's inclusion of chapter bibliographies and discographies is exceptional in a jazz theory book, as is the inclusion of a chapter on rhythm.

As is the case with contemporary "legit" theory texts aimed at student musicians, jazz theory texts emphasize aspects of pitch manage- ment (scalar resources, harmony, progression, etc.) while giving less attention to explicating the abstract principles of other parameters of the music.



Witmer-Robbins 21

Licks

Among the more enduring methods of teaching various types of North American vernacular music is the mastery of a repertoire of short musical fragments, either for insertion at appropriate times, or to string together in order to create a longer musical fabric. Winn's How to Play Breaks and Endings (1924) featured "more than 100 novelty jazz and blues 'breaks', endings, space 'fillers', and modern counter melody forms." Readers of the April, 1937 Down Beat (Vol. 4, No. 4) were beckoned with the advertisement, "Hey Cats, Get the Book-o- Lix" (p. 20). The more soberly titled Progressive Jazz Patterns (Smith, 1972) exemplifies what could be termed the purist approach to licks: the first section consists of short melodic fragments taken from the solos of "Jazz greats," all transposed to the key of C "so that they can be pieced together" (p.i). The second section comprises "Jazz" and "Blues Cocktails" - "constructed from the phrases in the first part of the book'" (p.i) - whose "ingredients" are attributed to musicians such as Miles Davis, Joe Newman and Shorty Rogers. The final section offers students opportunities to concoct their own "cocktails": chord progressions are provided for a "Modern Jazz solo," a "Swing Solo," a "Rock 'n' Roll Solo," and so on.

Still more soberly titled, Alston's Improvisation Analyzed (1975) is a late representative of the "old school". Here, separate sections are devoted to licks over different chord types (1,17, V7) and progressions (ii-V). A similar format is found in some of Baker's books (1979b and 1979c). Alston includes some patterns built on fourths, not associated with particular chord types, and provides "Rhythm" changes and blues changes (in C) for the application of the licks.

While the "lick" approach is still prevalent in instructional materials dealing with improvisation on individual instruments (space does not permit an examination of this extensive category of materials), it lost ground during the sixties to the chord/scale approach in the books designed for use by all instrumentalists. Perhaps for that reason, Col- Iver prefaced his 100 Jazz Cliches (1972) with this defense:

Cliches are a vital part of improvisation as they can 'bail you out1 when original ideas are not forthcoming. The 'language' of jazz is based a great deal upon rhythmic and melodic cliches, therefore, they are always accep- table and can often be passed off as original ideas if done tactfully (1972, P. 1).

In the often-pretentious world of jazz pedagogy, this demonstrates refreshing honesty and directness.




The organization of the cliches in Colliver's book, unlike others, is by style: Dixieland" (pp. 3-10); "Contemporary" (pp. 11-24), with a subsection employing the "blues scale"; and "Modal" (pp. 25-28). Style classification is not unique to the "lick" approach, but it is almost certainly more valid here than in, for example, Grove's equa- tion of various scale types with various styles (Grove 1975, p. 38).

The 'lick' approach shares culpability with pattern plying pedagogy in its implication that jazz is essentially a centónate music.

Rhythm

Given the emphasis upon the rhythmic qualities of jazz in most at- tempts to define or characterize the music, it is surprising how few books have been specifically devoted to the area of jazz rhythm. This lacuna is only partially filled by percussion manuals, which tend to concern themselves with short, rudimentary patterns and coordina- tion exercises, and have limited applicability for nonpercussionists (e.g., Rothman, 1974).

In more general works of jazz pedagogy the thorny problem of jazz rhythm has most often been dealt with in a manner similar to that described above as the "lick" approach. Patterns are to be memori- zed, then inserted at appropriate points, strung together, or used cyclically. Colin and Bower (1975-76) is a typical example. The Dick Grove Encyclopedia (1971a, 1971b, 1975, 1976) even includes "rhythm cards" containing a total of eighteen two-measure patterns, which are to be used for practising scale and arpeggio exercises. To his credit, however, Grove does address rhythmic concerns such as phrases which cross barlines, pickups to short phrases, and relations between two-measure phrases, eight-measure sections and 32-measure songs (1976, pp. 35-43).

Despite the efforts of Aebersold, Coker, Grove, and Mehegan (among others) to analyze and discuss aspects of what one might call 'mainstream' jazz rhythm, the most common assumption made by pedagogues seems to be that there is not a great deal one can say about it. Consequently, relatively extended treatments of rhythmic the exotic or avant-garde. Jaffe's chapter on rhythm (1983, pp. 1 12-124) devotes more attention to the function of the rhythm section in playing "latin grooves" than to playing "swing" or, as contemporary parlance has it, "playing time." Similarly, Levy's book on rhythm for jazz musicians is concerned exclusively with odd meters (Levy 1973).



Witmer-Robbins 23

Conclusions

Early in this article we dwelt at some length on the first two volumes of the Megegan series, because they exhibit most of the strengths and weaknesses found in books which have followed them, and similarity of presentation. Among these salient features are the following:

1. Heavy emphasis on "tonal principles," approached via the twin routes of chords and scales, the latter usually described with modal terminology (e.g., Mehegan) or, more rarely, with reference to Russell (e.g., Baker). Ex- ercises are usually mechanical, beginning on roots and downbeats and using perpetual motion or eighth notes sprinkled with triplets or quarter notes to make the exercises repeatable at a bar-line. Following such exercises, some licks may be presented. Nonmodal scales are usually given, especially the diminished, whole-tone and some version of a "blues scale." The exercises for these scales conform as much as possible to those given for the modal scales, while "blues scale" exercises tend to be more lick-oriented.

2. Some general discussion of rhythm and "swing," generally with far less space and far fewer exercises than for "tonal principles." (Mehegan is exceptional in the space devoted to rhythm, but not in the content of exercises.) Such exercises as there are take the form of rhythmic patterns of a few bars, and perhaps some systematic presentation of syncopated quarter notes.

3. Some discussion of typical progressions. Often, this is presented with extensive examples of lines for ii-V-l and blues progressions. More often, there are arpeggios and scales starting on the roots of such progressions, laboriously written out in all keys. (Mehegan is again exceptional in basing so many exercises on standard tunes.)

4. Transcribed examples of solos, often with very little commentary beyond "analyze this and use what you can from it in your solos."

5. A very brief section on ear training. (Later books often suggest transcription and call-response exercises, which are absent from Mehegan.)

6. Beyond the "meat and potatoes" of chord/scale relations and basic progressions, there may be found the occasional "condiment" of the author's insight. This, in Mehegan's case, is exemplified by his treatment of inter-

pretation of commercial sheet music for the purpose of soloing (i.e., simplifying harmony, rationalizing harmonic rhythm, altering meter -

1959, pp. 165, 186, 201 ff.). Elsewhere, it may be a few ideas on phrasing or articulation, advice on expressive effects, shaping solos, group interaction, developing ideas, and so on. The quality, usefulness, and thoroughness of these musical "relishes" varies dramatically.




The chord/scale approach has been justified by recourse to the argument of the evolution of jazz:

[T]he increasing harmonic, rhythmic, and structural complexities of contemporary jazz make it virtually impossible for the novice, who would play well, to find his way around without some professional help.

Some twenty years ago, when blues, tunes with "I Got Rhythm" changes, and standards comprised the greater portion of the jazz repertoire, it was conceivable that a player might achieve competency without requiring help in a formal sense, such as schools, etc. Now, however, with increasing technical and musical demands born of advanced and rapidly growing compositional skills, courses in improvisation assume a position of utmost importance (Baker 1971a, p. 5).

This is tantamount to saying that the "old guys couldn't really play, but they didn't have to because the tunes were simple." The important point unwittingly implicit in Baker's statement is that current jazz pedagogy does not address the central issues of jazz performance as it existed before the current pedagogy came along.8

As much of the preceding discussion has no doubt implied, we believe that much of the available published material for the teaching and learning of jazz is problematic in a number of ways. Part of the problem is the tendency to concentrate on what Bash (1983) describes as the "easily objectified" (p. 1), which certainly includes chord/scale relationships in the mechanical form in which they are usually presented, and also such things as polymeter (as opposed to the complex rhythmic play occurring in the typical four-four of most jazz). Another part of the problem is the concentration on momentary activity (which reflects a weakness in jazz analysis and scholarship at large). There is very little information on ideas such as 'shaping' solos: the vague admonitions concerning shaping are rarely accompanied by examples of different ways jazz musicians do so. Harmony ("theory") texts describe ways of adding in chords and increasing harmonic rhythm, rather than ways of using long range goals as a means of organizing playing (with some exceptions, e.g., Russell's "horizontal Polymodality"). A third part of the problem is the pervasive assumption of most methods that the student needs to gain control of complete systems - chord/scale relations, sequential patterns, reper- toires of rhythmic patterns, and so on - before considering relations among them. The resulting isolation of musical 'components', 'elements', or 'parameters' inevitably produces students whose fingers function independently of their ears. Perhaps fractionally less obvious, the unsophisticated treatment of an isolate such as 'scale' or 'mode' (as an available set of pitches rather than a typification of



Witmer - Robbins 25

melodic tendencies) leads to a crude understanding of the function of those isolates in music.9

An area which should be much better represented than it is, is that of phrasing. Books which deal specifically with jazz phrasing deal with it primarily as an isolate to be applied to the interpretation of charts (mainly with school stage bands in mind), and overlap with literature for 'reading' bands (e.g., Raph 1962, LaPorta 1965, Guiffre 1969 and Henry 1981). The aim of these works is neatly summed up by Guiffre when he asks, "How can we make written music sound as though it were being improvised?" (1969, p. 30, his italics). Unfortunately, the systematic study of jazz phraseology, and the generation of a 'gram- mar', is yet in its infancy.

The same may be said about jazz melody. Baker's remarks on melody (see especially 1971a) are a step in the right direction, but generally, melodic construction/development receives nowhere near the attention it merits in theory or pedagogical materials.

Even more disquieting is the paucity of information and ideas concerning rhythm, given that most jazz musicians, scholars, and critics consider the rhythmic features and 'peculiarities' of jazz to lie at its very heart.

The production of jazz pedagogy books is, like the production of other textbooks, a commercial industry. If there is an abundance of dross, it is because there is a large market. But the presence of unimaginative recyclings of crude concepts, fleshed out with un- necessary and even harmful filler, does not negate the possibility of imparting, if not everything that can turn an average student into a new Charlie Parker, at least a lot more about jazz performance than has been generally accomplished. It is our opinion that this might be facilitated through a combination of: (1) the integrative and balanced approaches found in the works of Coker (1964, not his later works), La Porta, and Benward and Wildman; (2) much closer attention to the ways in which jazz musicians have traditionally learned (including attention to older published pedagogical material); and (3) a better understanding and explication of the less-easily objectifiable but no less teachable aspects of the music itself.

A number of the authors under review here advise jazz students - albeit, generally only in passing - to listen incessantly, to transcribe recorded solos they admire, and to imitate (initially, at least) their jazz heroes exactingly. Such a program of activities, in our experience, gets results. Still, it is not true pedagogy unless it provides the student more than well-intentioned advice accompanied by a few tips. What is




needed are more thorough, exhortative, well-explicated and program- med approaches than are presently available to teach students how to do all of this: what to listen for; how to avoid a mindless or obsessive (and time-consuming) 'transcription habit' and instead transcribe pur- posefully; how to absorb, apply (and transform) the aural and visual stimuli of recordings and transcriptions. The fact that established jazz musicians have often been heard to mutter "school jazz" when ad- judicating the efforts of high school or college/university jazz musicians is to some extent a telling indication of the inadequacies in the students' training. Authors of jazz method books have before them the challenge of attending more conscientiously to these inadequacies.

Footnotes

1For more extensive bibliographic coverage, we direct the reader to Meadows 1981 (items 2350-2563) and Kuzmich's "An annotated survey of Dazz] teaching materials," which has appeared on a more-or-less regular basis in columnar form in the National Association of Jazz Educators Journal - later retitled Jazz Educators Journal - since the April-May 1975 issue.

2For example, Mehegan employs a combination of Roman numeral and figured bass chord notation, at variance with typical jazz notation (see Witmer, n.d.). While such notations are of value in certain contexts, they have proven quite impractical as vehicles for jazz performance, and have been entirely supplanted by the chord symbol system (see Brandt and Roemer, 1976). The practical value of this notation is further diminished in Mehegan's materials by his adherence to the common practice of needlessly writing all transpositions (e.g., the "60 chords," 1959, p. 11).

3ln Coker's book, unlike Mehegan's chord progressions to standards are not identified by title.

4A brief Rezeptionsqeschichte of Russell's theory may be found in Robbins n.d.

5We are following Russell's terminology in the use of the expression "lydian scale".

6An exception among theorists is Dick Grove, whose massively padded four-volume En- cyclopedia of Basic Harmony and Theory Applied to Improvisation on All Instruments deals not only with progressions (1971b), but also with scale exercises (1975) and chord/scale relations (1971a) presented in a manner reminiscent of "paint-by-numbers" kits.

7Similar musical thinking is found outside of the North American vernacular tradition, of course: one of many examples is the proliferation, in the late-eighteenth century, of "compose by dice" books (see Hedges, 1978).

aConversely, it should be noted here that Baker, Aebersold, Coker, et al, have probably had some influence in stimulating the development of 'pattern playing' in 1960s-80s jazz.



Witmer-Robbins 27

9Here, for once, jazz scholars have not been caught "with their pants down". Sargeant identified a blues scale, abstracted from actual performances, that was a typification of melodic tendencies, as early as 1938 (Sargeant, 1975, pp. 147-172).

References

Alston, Bobby (1975). Improvisation analyzed. Columbus, Ohio: Jazz City Workshop. Aebersold, Jamey (1 974). The II-V7-I Progression. Vol. 3 of A New Approach to Jazz Im-

provisation. New Albany, IN: J.A. Publications. (1979a). A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation Vol. I New Albany, IN: J.A. Publications. Revised 5th edition. First published 1967. (1979b). Gettin' It Together. Vo. 21 of A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation. New Albany, IN: J.A. Publications.

Baker, David (1968). A Method For Developing Improvisational Technique (Based on the

Lydian Chromatic Concept). Libertyville, IL: Today's Music. (1971a). Jazz Improvisation: A Comprehensive Method or sway ror an nayers. Chicago: Maher. Fourth printing. First published 1969. (1972b). Techniques of Improvisation. 4 vols. Chicago: DB Music Workshop. 1976 A New Approach to Ear Training For Jazz Musicians. Lebanon, IN: Studio P/R. (1977). Advanced Ear Training For Jazz Musicians. Lebanon, IN: Studio P/R.

(1979a). Improvisational Patterns: The Bebop Era. 3 vols. New York: Charles Colin.

(1979b). Modal & Contemporary Patterns. New York: Charles Colin.

(1979c). Contemporary Patterns. New York: Charles Colin.

(1982). The Jazz Style of Clifford Brown. Hialeah, FL: Studio P/R. Baresal, Alfred (1926). Das Jazz-Buch. Leipzig: J.H. Zimmerman. Bash, Lee (1983). "The Effectiveness of Three Instructional Methods on the Acquisition

of Jazz Improvisation Skills." Dissertation, State University of New York at Buf- falo.

Benward, Bruce, and Joan Wildman 1984 Jazz Improvisation in Theory ana Practice.

Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. Bower, Bugs (1952). Complete Chords and Progressions. New York: Charles Colin.

(1972). Ad Lib. New York: Charles Colin. First published 1953. Brandt, Carl, and Clinton Roemer (1976). Standardized Chord Symbol Notation, '¿no edi-

tion. Sherman Oaks, CA: Roerick Music Co. Brooks, John Benson (1960). "George Russell." Jazz Review 3/2: 38-39. Christensen, Axel (c1927). Axel Christensen's Instruction Book for Jazz ana Novelty

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(1975). The Jazz Idiom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Colin, Charles, and Bugs Bower (1975-76). Rhythms Complete, 2 vols. New York:

Charles Colin. Collier, James Lincoln (1978). The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History. New York:

Dell Publishing Company, Inc. Collver, Robert (1972). 100 Jazz Cliches. Campbell, UA: B.u. music. Giuffre, Jimmy (1969). Jazz Phrasing and Interpretation. New York: Associated Music

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provisation on all Instruments. Vol. 2 Studio City, CA: First Place Music.

(1971b). The Encyclopedia of Basic Harmony and Theory Applied to Improvisa-




tion on all Instruments. Vol. 3 Studio City, CA: First Place Music. (1975). The Encyclopedia of Basic Harmony and Theory Applied to Improvisation on all Instruments. Vol. 1 Studio City, CA: Dick Grove. (1976). Applied Modal Improvisation. Vol. 4 of The Encyclopedia of Basic Har-

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Harney, Ben (1897). Ben Harney's Ragtime Instructor. Chicago: Sol Bloom. Arranged by T.H. Northrop.

Hedges, Stephen A. (1978). "Dick Music in the Eighteenth Century." Music and Letters 59/2: 180-187.

Henry, Robert (1981). The Jazz Ensemble: A Guide To Technique. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Jaffe, Andrew (1983). Jazz Theory. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown. Kuzmich, John (1975). "An Annotated Survey of Teaching Materials for Jazz Improvisa-

tion [Part I]." NAJE Educator 7/4: 6-7, 27, 32. Kynaston, Trent P. and Robert J. Ricci (1978). Jazz Improvisation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall LaPorta, John (1965). Developing the School Jazz Ensemble. Boston: Berklee Press.

First published as Developing the Stage Band.

(1968). A Guide To Improvisation. Boston: Berklee Press. (1976). Tonal Organization of Improvisational Techniques. Delaven, NY: Kendor Music.

Levy, Henry (1973). The Time Revolution. Los Angeles: Creative World. Meadows, Eddie, S. (1981). Jazz Reference and Research Materials: A Bibliography.

New York: Garland.

Mehegan, John (1959). Tonal and Rhythmic Principles. Vol. 1 oí Jazz Improvisation. New York: Watson Guptill. (1962). Jazz Rhythm and the Improvised Line. Vol. 2 of Jazz Improvisation. New York: Watson GuDtill). (1964). Swing and Early Progressive Piano Styles. Vol. 3 of Jazz Improvisation. New York: Watson Guptill. (1965). Contemporary Piano Styles. Vol. 4 of Jazz Improvisation. New York: Wat- son Guptill.

Michalek, Allen S. (1977). Modern Harmonic Progression. Rexdale, Ont.: Humber Col- lege of Applied Arts and Technology.

Most, Sam (1980). Metamorphosis: Transformation of the Jazz Solo. Tustin, CA: Profes- sional Music Products.

Nathan, Hans (1962). Dan Emmett and the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy. Norman, OK:

University of Oklahoma Press. Niehaus, Lennie (1964). Intermediate Jazz Conception for Saxophone. Hollywood, CA:

Try. (1966). Basic Jazz Conception for Saxophone. Hollywood, CA: Try.

Raph, Alan (1962). Dance Band Reading and Interpretation: The Basic Concept of Dance and Jazz Rhythms. New York: Sam Fox.

Ricker, Ramon (1977). New Concepts in Linear Improvisation. Lebanon, IN: Studio 224. Robbins, James n.d. "Modality, Jazz and Modal Jazz." Unpublished paper. Russell, George (1959). The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Im-

provisation. New York: Concept. First published 1953. Sargeant, Winthrop (1975). Jazz: Hot and Hybrid. New York: Da Capo, First Published

1938.



Witmer - Robbins 29

Shefte, Art (1925). Up-To-The-Minute Jazz Breaks. Chicago: Forster Music Publisher Inc. 1925/27 Jazz Bass For Piano. Chicago: Forster Music Publisher Inc.

Schenkel, Steven M. (1983). The Tools of Jazz. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Shapiro, Nat, and Nat Hentoff, eds.

Shapiro, Nat, and Nat Hentoff, eds. (1966). Hear Me Talkin' To Ya. New York: Dover. Reprinted from the first edition, (1955).

Smith, Hale (1972). "Progressive Jazz Paterns." In Walter Stuart, ed., Encyclopedia of Improvisation. New York: Charles Colin. Original publication date unknown.

Stanton, Kenneth (1982). Jazz Theory: A Creative Approach. New York: Taplinger. Suber, Charles (1976). "Jazz Education." In Leonard Feather and Ira Gitler, eds., The

Encyclopedia of Jazz in the Seventies. New York: Horizon, pp. 366-381. Tirro, Frank (1977). Jazz: A History. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc. Williams, Martin (1973). The Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz. Washington:

Smithsonian Institution (P6 11891). Winn, Edward R. (1924). How to Play Breaks and Endings. New York: Winn School or

Popular Music. Witmer, Robert n.d. "Notation." In Barry Kernfeld, ed., The New Grove Dictionary of

Jazz (forthcoming).

COMING

SPECIAL ISSUE ON CRITIQUE AND ARTICLE WRITING

One of the most popular articles ever printed in the Bulletin was Carroll Gonzo's "On Writing A Critical Review" which appeared 15 years ago, Bulletin 28, Spring 1972. A steady stream of requests came to the Bulletin office requesting guidelines on professionalism in research reporting: the writing of critiques, rebuttals, and articles on research topics.

Carroll Gonzo of the University of Texas, Bennett Reimer of Northwestern University, Robert Petzold of the University of Wisconsin, Michael Saffle of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University join the Bulletin staff in providing a new look at publication in professional research journals.



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