a As.

GRAMMAR

JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE,

W. GrKS TON,JAPANESE SECRETARY,

D. LIT.,

H. B. M.'s LEGATION, TOKIO, JAPAN.

FOURTH EDITION.

FOR SALE BY LANE, CRAWFORD & Co., PUBLISHERS. KELLY & WALSH, LIMITED.

THE HAKUBUNSHA.lon&on:

TRUBNER &

Co.,

LUDGATE HILL.

1888,

PREFACETO THE

FOURTH EDITION.THIS Edition has been thoroughly rewritten. It is much enlarged, and is almost completely a newexclusive attention has been paid in it to the dialect, which now bids fair to become the

also

work.

MoreTokio

language of the upper classes of Japan generally. At the suggestion of a friend, a literal interlineartranslation

No examples has been added. translation, however, has ordinarily been given of the Their meaning can be particles which occur in them.of the

found in the chapter on particles. The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging the assistance which he has derived from the writingsof

He

MR. E. M. SATOW and MR. B. H. CHAMBERLAIN. is also indebted for some hints to DR. IMBRIE'STOKIO, NOVEMBER, 1888.

Japanese Etymology.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.I.

II.

Syllabary Pronunciation. Parts of speech

.

.

. .

. .

. .

. .

i

5

III.

Noun. . . . . .. .

7. . . . . .. .

IV. Pronoun.

11. .

V. Numeral.

. .

. .

.

.

. .

. .

. .

. .

344293 108

VI. VerbVII. Adjective. VIII. Auxiliary words.. . . . . . . . . ..

.

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

.

.

. .

. .

. .

'

IX. Particles

118. .

X. Adverbs, Conjunctions, Prepositions and Interjections. XI. English into Japanese. .. .. .. .. ..XII. Honorific andXIII. Syntax

157 ..161

Humble

forms.

. .

. .

. .

. .

. .

166

182. . . .

XIV. Time, money, weights and measures.

. .

. .

186. .

XV.XVI.

Errors in speaking Japanese. Extracts

. .

. .

. .

. .

191

192...... ..

Index...

..

..

..

..207

A GRAMMAROF

THE

JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE,CHAPTER

I.

THE SYLLABARY PRONUNCIATION.

i. IN Japanese, every syllable is supposed to end in a vowel, and generally does so, e.g. sa-yo de go-za-ri-ma-sii. The exceptions occur mostly in foreign words, or are owing

to

contractions.

There being nois

final

consonants, the

number

of syllables

the Japanese at and by another,of

necessarily small, and is reckoned by forty-seven according to one arrangement,at fifty.

There

are,

however, modificationsis

some

of them,

by which the number

increased to

seventy-five. There areletters

in

Japanese no means of writing separatesyllableis

as

in

European languages, and each

therefore represented by a single character, n final, which has a character to itself, being an exception. But n is

supposed to represent an older mu.

The

language arranged according to whator fifty sounds.

following table shows the syllables of the Japanese is called the Go-jiit-on,

JAPANESE SYLLABARY.

a

PRONUNCIATION.It will

3

be seen that there are ain the

and repetitions

above Table.

number of irregularities These are owing to the

circumstance that there are certain sounds which a Japanese For si, he says cannot, or at any rate, does not pronounce.shi, for Int,fu; foryi, wi, wit

on.

These

irregularities play

and we, i, i, u and ye, and so an important part in the cona in fat, father. ay in say. ee in meet. o in more.oo in fool.

jugation of verbs, and ought therefore to be carefully noted.2.

aei

is

pronounced,,

like

,, ,, ,,

o

,, ,,

uI and

jare

frequently almost inaudible.i,

In such cases they

have been written

u.

Thus,

shita, 'below,' is

pronounced

very nearly shta ; tatsx, 'a dragon,' almost tats. Longer double vowels are distinguished by a line drawn above themthus,i,

o, u.

Theit.

distinction between

i

and'

i,

6 and o,

u

and

n,

must be

carefully attended to, as the

meaning

often

depends uponwhile koshisoto, 'outside

Koshi

for instance

means;'

'the loins.'

means an ambassador,' Soto means 'suitable,' but

kuki, 'the atmosphere,' kuki, 'the stem of a

plant.'

The consonants are pronounced as in English, 3. except r, h, f, n, d, t, and g, which differ somewhat from the corresponding English sounds. The true pronunof these letters must be learnt from a Japanese, but the following hints may be found useful. R before i is the most difficult of Japanese sounds for aciation

European

to reproduce correctly.

It

is

then pronounced

except that the tip of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth farther back. Some Japanese make itnearly like d,r

Before other vowels the Japanese nearly j in this position. more resembles the English sound. There is never any-

thing in Japanese like the rough pronunciation given this

4letter in

PRONUNCIATION,

French and

Italian.

R is often omitted before

i

in the

words gozaiinasH, nusaimasu, for gozariinasu, nasariinasii. and / are considered the same letter in Japanese and The under lip their pronunciation is not very different.

H

does not touch the teeth in pronouncing /; ches them as in pronouncing n'h in which.

it

only approaIn the vulgar

Tokio

dialect the syllable hi

is

undistinguishable from ski.

is

In pronouncing the Japanese d and t the tip of the tongue pressed forward against the teeth instead of only touchingis

the o gum as in English. o

Little or no distinction most Japanese between dzu and zn. by G at the beginning of a word is pronounced

made

like the

English

^hard

;

in'

any other position like the

German

(not

the English) ng in finger.' In the syllable yc the y is inso,

most words

silent, or

nearly

and

is

often omitted in romanized Japanese.

In the case of double consonants, both

Thus

ainmci, 'a shampooer,''

must be sounded. must be pronounced differently'

from aina, a fisherwoman^4.

;'

katta,

bought,' from kata,

'

side.'

The

nigori.t

Thesoft

syllables ga, gi, 311, gc, go, za

j:,

zit, ze,

zo etc.,

begin with type the Japanese not as consonants and are considered by different syllables but simply as modifications of the syllablesprinted in

small

italic

in the

above

table, all

beginning with hard consonants in the lines immediately above them. This distinction is indicated in writing by a small mark, which is often omitted. Ka for instance witha diacritic markis

read ga,

shi,ji and so on.

The formation

of

compounds andit

derivatives

is

often ac-

companied by the modification of a hardthisis

into the correspond-

ing soft consonant, so that change, which, with thecalled in

is

important to take note ofit is

mark by which'

indicated,

Japanese nigori, or

impurity.'

CHAPTER

II.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

5.

The words Noun,''

'

Adjective' and

'

Verb' have two

meanings

in'

The terminflected

ordinary grammars of European languages. noun' is sometimes applied to a class of wordsaparticular

in

way, with

cases

and number,

and

it

also

means anything capableproposition.

of beingit

made

the

subject

of a

In other words

means, one

thing for etymological purposes and another in syntax, one thing in respect to changes within itself, another in its relations to other words.

significations of a similar kind.

'Verb' and 'Adjective' have double This mode of classifying

words according of inflection and

to

two

distinct principles viz. (i) the

form

(2) their syntactical relations, is not with-^ out inconvenience even in European grammars, where it has led to the introduction of the awkward term participle,''

word which is partly a verb and partly an But such forms are after all the exception in European languages, where it is the general rule that words which as regards their declension or conjugation

meaning

a

adjective or noun.

are nouns, adjectives or verbs are also nouns, adjectives or

verbs for purposes of syntax. In Japanese, however, this is by no means the case. Here it is rather the rule thanthe exception that a word with or even without a change of inflection can be converted at pleasure into a verb, an adIku, to go,' for instance, looking to its jective or a noun.'

conjugation sentences as sugu ni iku,

is

a verb, but

if'

we

consider

its

position in such

he goes at once,' iku ga yoroshi,

O'

PARTS OF'

Si'KliCH.

'

the going is good,' i.e. he had better go,' iku hito ga ant, a going person is,' i.e. there is somebody going,' it is'

only in thesentence,adjective.

first

case that

itit

in

the second

plays the part of a verb in the is a noun, and in the third an

The Japanese grammarians have avoidedby classifying words as na or'

this;

ambiguity

uninflected names,' words,' kotoba or hataraki-kotoba, 'words' or 'inflected words,' including the verb and adjective, and tcnin>ohai.e.

.or 'particles.'

But

this is not the place to attempt to intro-

duce a more

scientific

sufficient to retain the familiar

English terminology. It will be words, noun, verb and adjec-

tive, taking care to use them in such a way as to prevent confusion between these two significations.j

6.

The noun

is

uninflected.

All

Chinese words

in the

Japanese language are uninflected, and are therefore strictly speaking nouns, but most of them, by the help of Japanese terminations are made to do duty as verbs, adjectives, oradverbs.

Along with the noun or uninflected word are classed the pronoun and numeral adjective, which in Japanese have no inflection. They have some peculiarities however which

make

it

convenient to consider them separately.is

Prepositions and conjunctions are included mainly under the head of particles. Adverbs do not form a separate class of words. A particular form ofarticle.

There

no

the adjective does duty as an adverb, and other words which must be rendered as adverbs in English are in Japanese

nouns, or parts of verbs. The verb and adjective have a substantially similar mode of inflection in Japanese and should be considered as really forming only one part of speech.

CHAPTER

III.

THE NOUN.

In Japanese nouns have no inflections to distinguish 7. masculine from feminine or neuter, singular from plural, or

one case from another, but they are preceded or followed by particles which serve these and other purposes.8.

Gender.

With'

the exception

of a few'

common';

words such as musuko,

son

'

;

mttsiime,

daughteris

chichi,

'father;' haha, 'mother,' no distinction

ordinarily

madeeither

between the masculine and feminine.''

Thus'

ushi

is

bull

or

'

cow

'

;

muma

is

eitheris

'

horse

or

'

mare.'

Whenono ushiis

necessary, gender

for the masculine,'

me

or'

distinguished by prefixing o_ or Thus men for the feminine.a cow;' on dori,' a cock;'

a bull

'

;

me

ushi,

men

dori, 'a hen.'

These are

really

compound nouns.'

Such

phrases as otoko no ko, 'a male child;' onna no ko, 'a female'

child'

are

also in use,

otoko

meaning

man

'

and onna

woman.'

Number. As a general rule the plural is not dis9. tinguished from the singular, but a plural idea can be expressed whenever necessary by the addition of one of theparticles ra, gata,

domo,

tachi, or shin,

which

will be

found

more

particularly described in Chapter IX.

ft

NOUN.

Examples.Yakunin gata. Xinsoku domo.Officials.

Coolies.

Kodomo Kodomo

ra orshin.

Children.Cats.'

Neko domo.

Some nouns have a kind of plural formed by reduplication. But these forms correspond rather to the noun preceded by every than to the Thus shina is an article,' shina jiiia, all sorts of ordinary plural. articles tokoro a place,' kuni, a country,' kunigitni, every country tokoro dokoro, 'different places.' The first letter of the second half of these forms almost invariably takes the nigori. (See 4.)'' '' '

'

'

'

;

;

10. Case. j Properly speaking, Japanese nouns have: no cases, but a declension can be made out for them by the

help of certain particles, as follows

:

TORI, 'A BIRD.'

Nominative.Genitive.

Tori or tori ga, a bird. Tori no_or tori gcL, of a bird or aTori ni or toriyc,,

bird's.

Dative.

to a bird.

Accusative.Vocative.Ablative.

Tori or tori

700,

a bird.

Tori or

tori yOj

O

bird

!

Tori kara or toriyori, from a bird.Torini, at, to or in

Locative.

a bird.

Instrumental.

Tori dc, with or by means of a bird.

The

plural terminations:

come between thesewoshowed

particles

and

the noun, asOfficial

Yakmiin gatamiscmashita.

ni to

tnciijii

I

my

passport to the

passport

officials.

showed

Theparticles.j

student

is

referred

to

Chapter IX

for

an account of these

ii.

1st

Compound nonns. Compound nouns are formed From two nouns. Ex. Kazngnntimi a wind-mill,''

THE NOUN.from kazc,kobunc,''

9'

wind,' and kurunia,'

a wheel

;'

hanazono,'

'

a

flower-garden,' from liana,

a flower,' and

a boat,' from ko,

'

a child,'

'

func, 'a boat ;' ya, 'a house.'

Jioityn, 'a book-seller,'

a garden ;' soiio, something small,' and from lion, 'a book,' and

'From the stem of an adjective and a noun. Ex. Akagane, copper,' from aka, stem of akai, red,' and kane, metal ;' Nagasaki, long cape,' the name of a place, from

2nd

'

l

1

'

naga, stem ofnagai,

'

long,'

and saki

'

a cape.' verb.

yd'

From

a

noun and the stem of afrom mono,l' '

Ex.

Mono'

shiri,

a learned man,'

stem of shiru, 'to know'; jibiki. character,' and hiki, stem of hiku,ifth

a thing,' and shiri, a dictionary.' from/f, ato draw.'

From'

the

stem

of

a

verb

and

a

noun.'

Ex.

Urimnno, a thing for sale,' from uri, stem of uru, and mono,' a thing.'$th

to sell,'

From the stem of an adjective and the stem of a a man who swallows as Supensuni no maru-nomi, verb, Herbert Spencer whole,' where maru is the stem oimarni,' 1

round,' and nomi, the stem ofnoDitt, 'to swallow.'6th'

From two

verbal stems, as hikidaslri, 'a drawer,'

a pull-out ') from hiki, stem of hiku, 'to pull,' and (lit., daslii,' stem of dasu, 'to bring out ;' kigaye, 'a change of to wear,' and kaye, stem of clothing,' from hi, stem of Mm,' '

kciycru,

to change.'

letter of the second part of a compound noun takes the nigori. Thus the k of kane generally (See 4.) is changed into g in the compound akagane, the / of Junefirst

The

into b in kobnne.

The

final

vowel of the

first

part of a

compound

is

oftena.is

most common change being from e to modified, Thus from sake, 'Japanese rice-beer' and te, 'hand,'the

IO

THE NOUN.

formed sakate, 'drink money ;' from shiro, the stem of sJiiroi, white,' and kc, hair,' is formed shiraga, grey hairs.'' l '

(for

prefixes denoting gender and the honorific prefixes o, nil and which see Chap. XII) must be considered as forming compounds with the nouns to which they belong.

The

12.

Derivative nouns.

Abstract nouns are formed from' '

adjectives by adding sa to the stem, as takasatahai,'

height

from

high.'

It is

occasionally added to words of Chinese'

derivation asfubinsn,'

pitiableness.'

The

adjective follow-

ed by koto, thing,' is also used in a nearly similar significaIt denotes however tion, as in the following examples. rather the degree of a quality than the abstract qualityitself.

Takasaheight

wa

Iku-kcn

desu ka ?is?

How manyin height?

ken

is

it

how many ken

Takaikoto! do.no! high thing some how Ima no wakasa

Whatni.

a height!

Atof

your

young

time

present youthfulness at

life.

Many nounsbeleft

change of form, as nokori,'

are simply the stems of verbs without any remainder,' stem of nokoru, to' '

stem ofkakusu, 'to conceal ;' stem of watasu, to make to cross over.' watashi, ferry,' A few stems of adjectives are used in the same way, asover;' kakushi, 'pocket,'''

sJiiro,is

white,' a dog's

name, stem of shiroi,

'

white.'

There

here however a slight change of meaning, nokori, kaknsJii, watashi, and shiro having a more concrete signification

than the verbs or adjective from which they are taken. It will be seen later that for purposes of syntax, certain parts of the verb and adjective must be consideredas nouns.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE PRONOUN.

WatakZshi, 1 (plural watakushi domo, 'we'), is the ordinary word for the pronoun of the first person. Ore is less respectful, and is the word (plural orera) mostly used1

'

13.

by'

coolies, etc., to

each other.

To

inferiors

it

is

a some-

what haughty word.I'

Students and soldiers say bokn for'

ivaga hai for we '. Temaye is a humble word for',

I,'

much used by

the lowerIt is also

classes of Tokio in addressing their superiors.

used as a pronoun of the second person.their

Some

people usefirst

surname instead of the personal pronoun of the''

person.

Other words for

I

women),

ivashi

(very

are ivatashi (familiar), waiai (by familiar), wattchi (rustic), sessha'

(formal), oira (familiar), jibtin (properly

self).

Examples.WatakushiI

vaa

zeikan

no

I

am

a customhouse officer.

customhouse

yakunin de gozarimasu.officer

am

Ore moI

ikv.

I'll

go

too.

too will go

O(hon.)hi tori.

yama

no taisho

oreI

I'm the king of the castle,the children's game.)

(in

mountain of general

alone

12XtindaoreI

THE PRONOUN.avottcru

Whatof;

!

I

drunk

?

Not

a

bit

what

is

being drunk?

ti

(for yotte iru)

mono ka.thing

\VntukiishiI

wa

go(hon.]

tiny

.ereaning

=O u u-c

cr o

^ ~

.=

# 5

i= c

?

WO O w

Q

3

s

N

,

ocL T3

as

2^2o

ri

c3

1>

-T

t/2

>

~ C C O rt

eu

2

5

ua

C. -C

5

(72

O E aQ

c C O o otr.

o"rt

S

w-5

-

T^

s

-~

r^o:

2 4-

U

y

O

r3

rt

^

^IS.-

~

abovi

CO

;3 ^'i

jO"S'

this

is

the

posture

because

Korchodo osoroshikatta kotothis

Ij

never

was

so

frightened

much

afraid

was

thing

n

mv

j[fe nara ho ga ii. yoshita if it is have given up side is better(for sore

Sonna

that kind of

Sorethat

wa

so to.

thus'

Let that be so the subject.is

i.e.

to

change

Shite,

having made,'

understood at the end of the

last sentence.

22Sh

THE PRONOUN.shO sokora (or sokolra) dc thereabouts

Wait

a

little

thereabouts.

a

little

matte lire. waiting remain

Yo no naka no koto\vorld interior

u-a

minaall

Such

is

the

wav

of the world.

thing

sonna mono sa. such thing (emph. part.)

So dathatis

so yo.

Sotoki

it

would appear.I

appearancesonolinjimctefirst

Sore nlthat totrue

In addition to that,

then for

that timelearnt

the

first

time learnt the truth.

hontu no koto ico shitta. thingteas

Anata youkcrcdomobut

osshahnasusay

You

say so. Sir, but-

so

Sonnanisokoto

much

o nnji nasarn (hon.) anxious dois

There

is

no reason

for

your

being so anxious.

u-a gozaimasciiii.

thing

there

notira

Sahodo no koto dc

aru-

I

thought

it

would not so very

somuch of thingmainot beto

(pred.) will

much

signify.

omotta.

thoughtIf thatis

Sa mo nakcrcbaso evenif is

not even so

not

Soshitc (or so shite) tstiule thus having done opportunityinikan U'O sukoshi at orange a littleiii

And

won't

you

take

the a

katte

opportunity of few oranges?

buying

me

bought?

kite

kndasaiiiiascnit

ka?

come

give (neg.)

Ai wa itasanakatta did not meet sos

d,-su.is

It

seems they did not meet.does not seem likely to rain.

Ame garain

furlfall

s

moeven

nai.is

It

notIt

Fiifn nl

initte

seems they have become manwife.

husband and wife having become and

imremain

s

shite

you i> kaare?

how having done?I

koko here?

Ano-vatakusJn ka

is it you are here ? Eh I? (the use of ano ideates embarrassment.)

Howit

!

Ah

!

Is

here

Ano

Ikcda san.'i'

I

say

!

Mr. Ikeda.fall

BakufuShogunatenatte

anothat

y

in

Since the

of the Shogunate.

manner

kara.after

having become

Athat

in

hanasJii

It

is

seldom we hear a story

way

called

story

of that kind.

mcttani kikimasaiii. hear seldom

A

in

fuzctsnreport

ate

ni

One cannot depend onof that sort>

reports

dependence

i;ara>ini.

do not become

THE PRONOUN.22.

Ka,

'

that.'

The words

in this

column have the same meaning as the

corresponding words in the previous one but they are much less commonly used and only by educated people. They belong properly to the book language. Kano has some-

times the meaningIn

'

a certain.'is still in

some phrases kare

common

use.

Examples.Kare kore him noondesu.is

It

is

just

about noon.

Kare kore iwazunot saying

to ike.

gomakebe beaten

None of your objections, but be off with you.

Nanno(for

(for

nani no} kannoto

kare

MO)

He went on talking as much as to say that he was not going to be beaten.

oshimi wo itta. reluctance said

Hito

wa

kare kore tothis

wa

Though people do not makeany remarks.

that people iwanai keredomo. not say although

Nani ya ka ya.23.'

Anything whatever.

Da, 'who'.

Dare, who,' is the only word in this column, the places of the others being supplied by the derivatives of do 'which.'Dare da?

Who?

is it ?

who

goes there

?

Dare no mosen

Whosemoney ?

blanketdid

?

Dare

ni kane wo yatta ? to money gaveso iimashita ?

To whom

he

give

the

Dare ga

WhoomotwhileI

said so

?

whoDare ka

so*

said

whotara.I

to /sign of indi-\\rect clause./

wondered who

it

was.

thought

2624.

THE PRONOUN.Do, 'which.'isis' '

still

Dore, 'which.' An old form of dore is idzure which in use in the sense at all events,' at any rate.' Itlit.'

here put short for idzure ni mo,

in

whichever

(ca'se).'

Donata,is

(for

dono knta,

'

which

side'), is

used as a polite

substitute for dare, 'who.'

A

still

more'

respectful phrase

donata sama.

Fromdoka,of our' '

do,

'how,' are formed dozo,

somehow

or other,'

somehow,' both of which words have nearly the forceplease.'

ExamplesDore which masu?iv a

of dore, etc.

yoroshiu

gozariis

Which do you

prefer

?

good

Dono func ? Dono gurai yoroshiuwhat quantity good masu ?

Whichgozariis

ship

?

How much

do you require

?

Doka somehowmdsktmasti*

o (hon.)

negai

Please do,

I

beg of you.

beg

(humble word.)

Dohowis

in

hanashitalk

de(predicate)

What

is

it

all

about?

called

gozariinasu ka ??

Donata dc

gozainiasu, ?is

Who(polite.)I

is

there

?

whohow muchscnit.

Donnani ureshi ka shiremajoyful?

cannotI

tell

you

how

de-

cannot

lighted

am.

know Do howshlyu ?shall

Whatdesu,is

shall

I

do?

doka??

Dore ! dore ! kore which which this

Letit

me

see?

!

let

me

see

!

is

this

one

THE PRONOUN.Doannomotte.yosii state of affairs

27the state of

ka?

to

affairs

Wondering what was.

thinking

Ima nowidzure

kokoro-atari

wa

mind

hit'

is

nai ga, not

At presentviewbuti

I

have nobodyal j

in

atj ri

events

I

will

tadzunete mimashd. having inquired will see

make

nqu

es .

DO Do

nasaimasii ?

What

do you propose to do

?

howka

donasaimashita ka??

Is anything the matter with

you

?

somehow have doneSono shUgiinthat

wa Napoleon

Whichgeneral or

is

the

stronger

that

general to dochi ga tsuyu gozaimasu ? and which strong is

Napoleon?

Do

kangayete

mo.

Nooverit.

matter

how

I

think

how having thought even25.

Na, 'what.'

is

There Nani, 'what,' is used of inanimate objects only. no adjective form. Nani no, usually contracted into nanis

no or dono,

used instead.

is for na-zo-ye, zo being an emphatic and ye an exclamatory particle. See Chap. X. Nanihodo, contracted into nambo, is used by the Japanese of the central and western provinces instead of the familiar

Naze,

'

why,'

ikura,

'

how much,'

of Tokio.

ExamplesNanda(for

of nani etc.

nani de

am)

?

Whatmatter?

is

it ?

or

what?

is

the

Kono mono wa nanda ? this thing what isSonothatto in ?

Whatnan'

is

this

thing

gunmanman-of-war

wa

Whatca u e d?

is

that

man-of-war

what

called

28Nan: shi what doni

THE PRONOUN.kiln ?

to

have come

What have you come to do what has brought you here ? Whathere at once.

?

Nan! whatte

? sugiini

at

iniimawo hitonce horse having

(nonsense)! lead the horse

koi.

led

come(for

NannarabecauseivatakushiIit is

nani narcba)to

Well thendo,

!

as

I

have nothing

whathitna desu kara,leisure is because

mo

have you any objections

to

my accompanying

you

?

o(hon.)

iotno

'i-o

itashitc-

accompany having done?

moeven

yoroshiu gosaimasu ka

good

is

?

issho Nani shiro what do(imperative) togetherni iki

Suppose you go along with me.

nasal.(polite imperative)

go

Bimbu dapoor

nan'to

in

kokoroheart

Putting away the feeling that

I

what

called

was poor

or anything of that sort.

wo

haislnte.

giving up

Yubin-bato ni shi-kotnu to ka train that ? post-pigeon as nani to ka ittc.

Saying he was trainingcarrier

it

as a

pigeon or something

of

that sort.

something that

?

saying

Nan no gowhat

ydshiyG

desiiis

ka??

WhatIs

is

your business

?

(hon.) businessto

Nani

ka

wa

art-

there?

nothing

which

can

do mannertnasnmai ka ? not be

will

be done

Naze hayaku konai ? why quickly not come

WhyTo

don't you

come quickly ?

Naze

to iyeba.if

explain the reason why.

whyNani,

say

in

the combinationis

nan'desii

'what'

is

it'

and

constantly introduced by some speakers in a meaningless way, something like our don't you know.'similar phrases,

THE PRONOUN.26.

29the addition of the

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

By

particles ka, mo, demo, zo, interrogative

pronouns become

indefinite pronouns.

Dare

ka,

'

somebody.'

Example.Dare ka shitani mattebeloworu.

Somebody

is

waiting below,

waiting remainsis

Dare mo, 'anybody,'verb.

generally used with a negative

Examples.Dare moshiranii.

Nobody knows.iwanai not say

Dareyo.

yeto

moeven

You

don't

tell

anybody,

(imperative.)

(emph.

part.)'

Dare de mo means

any one whatever.'

Example.Dare de mo yoroshiu gozariis goodmasu.

Anybody whatever

will do.

Dore mo,used

'

any

one,' dore de

mo,

'

in a similar'

way

to dare

mo and

any one whatever,' afe dare de mo.

Nani

ka,

something,' anything.'

Examples.Kono hako no nakaboxka haliteiruni naniIs there

anything

in this

box

?

inside

ka

?

having entered

is ?

Kojikl ni nani kao yari nasare. do beggar to give

Give something to the beggar,

Nani mo,

'

anything at

all,' is

used with negative verbs.

30

THE PRONOUN.

Example.Nani mo gozarimasenu.Thereis

nothing at

all.

Nanl

dc mo,

'

anything whatever.'

Examples.Konotabcru. eats

mits-imc

wn

nanl dc

mo

Thiswhatever.

girl

eats

anything

g irl

Nani de mo

shitte

iru.

He knows

every thing.'

Nanl

zo, usually contracted into nanzo,'

something or

another,'

any.'

Example.Nanzo omoshiroidiverting

shinibun go-

Have you not somenewsto tell

diverting

news

me

p

zarimascnu kais

?

not

In thedefinite,

same wayas doko'

interrogative adverbs'

may becomedoko ka)'

in-

where,' dokka

(for

some-

where,' dokodemo

anywhere.'

Example.Doko ka de mi to.omoimasu.think

yd

ni

I

think

I

have

seen

(him)

seen manner

somew here.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. Jibun, self,' Jibuti no, one's own,' is the commonest reflexive pronoun in the Japanese spoken language. It is sometimes replaced by'

j

27.

'

Waga means jishin or onore. icaa ko, 'one's own child,'brothers and sisters,'

'

one's\i~aga

own

'

in

the phrases'one's

kiodai,

own

wnga

knni, 'one's

own

country,' and

perhaps some others.

THE PRONOUN.

Examplesyibuntetsudatte

of jibun etc.Becauseself,I

de

dekinaican't

kara because

can't doplease.

it

by my-

help

me

kudasare.giveIt is his

lending hand

ga waru.himselfis

own

fault.

badni

Tegamiletter

wa yduseItte

tatanai ; stands not

A

letter is of

no usehimself.

:

go and

talk to the

man

jishin ni

o hanashi nasare.

going

speaktokl

dodeatIt will

Go(hon.)

jibun no

do at your own time.

ownit is

time

yoroshiu gozarltnasu.

good

Yokei na o sewa needless (hon.) trouble

daoye.

:

I

don't

want your assistancefrom your

;

it is

brush the

flies

own head.

jibun no atama no hai

wo

head

flies

drive offItis

Samukute, jibun no te da ka hand is ? being cold ownnaii'da

so cold,

I

don't

knowhands

whether they areor

my own

ka wakaranu.is

what

is ?

not clear

what they

are.

siitcte, yibun no inochi wo life abandoning

Throwing awayhe aided others.

his

own

life,

hito

wo tasukemashita.aided

Observe the force of hito

in this sentence.

For each'

'

other,'

one another,' Japanese use the adverb'

tagai ni which

means

mutually.'

Examples.Tagaini mite

orimasMta.

They looked Theyassist

at

one another.

Tagai ni tasukcru.28.

each other.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

The

Japanese

language

has no relative pronouns. verb of the relative clausethe relative pronoun refers.

Tois

express the same idea, the put before the word to which

In the case of passive verbs a

32similar constructionis

THE PRONOUN.foundEnglish. Thus, for the may say, 'the murdered man,'in'

man who wassaretahlto.

murdered,'

we

which corresponds exactly

to the

Japanese phrase, koro-

Examples.Anaia gao uri nasattajukiscn.sell

The steamer which youThesailing vessel

sold,

did

steamer

hobune. Sakujitsu katta yesterday bought sailing-ship

which (we)fast,

bought yesterday.

Hayaku susnmnquick

fune.

Afast

ship

whichship.

sails

or

a

advance ship

sailing

Nihon.

J a ? antt

go languagehi to.

wakaranot

A man whostand j apanes e.

does not

under-

understand

man

Instead of korosh ita Into, 'the man ta hlto, 'the man who was killed,'

whoit

killed,'

korosare-

is

possible to say

koroshita tokoro no hito, korosarcta tokoro no Into, tokoro'place,' but this construction can hardly be said to belong to the colloquial language. Such phrases, however, as kiita tokoro niyotte, 'according to what I have heard,' are not unfrequent.

meaning

29.'

OTHER PRONOMINAL WORDSHltoon,'

:

Hito man'.It

is

used

in a similar

way'

to the'

German'

man, the French

and the Englishother people.'

one

or

people.'

may

also

mean

Examples.Hltopeopleikenai.

wo

bakafool

nl to

shite,

You shouldpeopi

not

make

fools of

making

e>

cannot go

Hlto ga

in

no

ni.

According to what people say.

say

in

THE PRONOUN.H',to no kodomo. children

33

Other people's children,

Mina,MinaKi ga

'all,'

is

used either alone or after a noun.They haveThetreesall

kareta.m'nia karcta.

withered.all

havein

withered.

MinaMinaall

de ikutsu ?

How manyirasshai-

all?

san

yokn

Youmerii

are

all

welcome, Gentle-

Mr.

well (hon.)come

mashlta.(past)

Ika (root)

'

how

'

is'

only found in a few combinations such

as iltani or ikaga,

how,' ikahodo,

'how much.'

Iku, 'what number,' appears in the following combinationsikutsu,

'how many,'objects,''

ikura,

'how much,' ikumai,cylindrical

'how many

flat

ikuhoHy'how many

objects,' ikitka,

manyitsuzo,

days, ikutari or ikunin, men,' and other similar phrases.'

how manyis

'how

7/57*,'

when,'itsu

found alone and

in

the'

combinations

at

some time

or another,' itsuka,

another,''

mo

or itsu

demo,

'at

on some day or any time at all,'

always.'

Rio-ho,

lit.

'both sides,'

is

used for 'both,' butdockira

mo

is

commoner.

CHAPTERNUMERALS.

V.

30.

The

Japanese

language

has

two

series

of

numerals, one consisting of original Japanese words, the other borrowed from the Chinese. The Japanese seriesextends no further thanthe

number

ten,

after

which

Chinese numerals only are used.List of

Numerals

:

JAPANESE.I

CHINESE.

NUMERALS.

35

Larger numbers are expressed by multiples of man. Ex. 150,000, jiu go man; a million, liiaku man. Consecutive

numerals follow the same order as

in

English.

Ex.

1868. sen hap piaku rokujiu Iiachi.

Rio

'

both

'

the phrase rid

sometimes used instead of ni san nin, two or three persons.'is'

'

two as

'

in

Nana1

jiu

is

sometimes

used

instead'

of shichi jiu,

seventy,' in

such phrases as nana jissen

seventy cents.'

The following rules are to be observed in the use 31. of numerals:

1.

The

underEx.

only cases in which the Chinese numerals eleven are employed are alone or before unor monosyllabic

compoundedjfiu

nouns of'

Chineseroku

origin.'

go

'

kin,

fifteen

catties

;

nin,

six

men;' hap

The

letter

piaku (for hachi hiaku), 'eight hundred.' changes which take place will be bestfrom the numerous

understoodelsewhere.2.

examples

in

32

and

The Japanese numerals whenan old possessive

prefixed to

nouns of

Japanese origin lose the final syllable tsu.

Tsu

is

really

particle.

Futa hako.

Examples. Two

boxes.parcels.

MlYo3.

tsutsumi.hiro.

Three

Four fathoms.

The

possessive particle no

is

sometimes introducedEx. FutatsU no mono,

between the numeral and the noun.'

two4.

things.'

The numeral

is

very often placed after the noun,

36

NUMERALS.

Examples.Yanmfittatsf:.

Two

mountains.

Miktin yotsK,

Four oranges.itself.

5.

The numeral may stand by

Example.Ikiitsu

am ?

How many

are there

?

Jin

ichi gozcirimasii.

There are eleven.

32.

AUXILIARY

NUMERALS.is

It

is

comparativelyto

seldom that the numeralnoun.in

joined

immediately

the

What mayTheycattle,'

use.

be called Auxiliary Numerals are much correspond to the English phrases, 'six

head ofshoes.'

'four brace

of

'

partridges,'

two pair of

Examples.Kamiichlmai.(for ichi soku).

One One

sheet of paper.pair of shoes.(//.

Hiikimono issoku

Akindo jin i:hi nin.

Eleven merchants chants eleven men).

mer-

Most of theseandfall

under Rule

auxiliary numerals, are of Chinese origin, A few i of the preceding section.fall

are Japanese words, and

under Rule 2 as knra hitoare

tomai, 'one godown.'

They commonly placed after the noun, but a construction similar to that described in Rule 3 is also admissible. Ex. Sanniit no akindo, three'

merchants.'

These numerals

are in daily use, and

a

knowledge of

some

of

them

is

absolutely necessary,

NUMERALS.

37

The most common

are

:

NUMERALS.FOR HOUSES. FOR SHIPS.GLASSES OF WINE, SHOES. CUPS OF TEA, ETC.

NUMERALS.33.

39

prefixing

ORDINAL NUMBERS. The ordinals are formed by the word dai or affixing ban to the ChineseI St.'

numerals.

2nd..

3rd.4th.

5th.

Dai ichi Dai ni Dai san Dai ski Dai go&c.

or

Ichi ban.

Ni,,

ban.ban.

SamYo Go

ban. ban.

,,

&=c.

ordinals precede the noun, the possessive particle no introduced between. being

The

Examples.Daiichi

no yakti.

The

first,

or highest office.ship.

Ni ban

nofitnc.

The second

Daiship.'

ichi, ichi

ban mean

'

literally

numberfiine,

one.''

Me

is

often added after ban, as ni ban

me no

the second

34.in the

FRACTIONS.of

following manner: ar-iooths(lit.

Fractional quantities are expressed is hiaku bun no ni

jiu

one hundred parts twenty one.) The and bu substituted for bun. commonly omitted, Thus for one third the speaker has a choice betweenichi,

no

is

'

'

sain

bun

no

ichi

and

samit

buis

ichi.

When

there

is

no denominator expressed, are meant.

understood that tenths

Examples.HachiShichite

bu.

Eight tenths.ni

bu,sam bu

wakehavin

Divide

it

into

seven

tenths

and three tenths.

o kurc.

divided

give

4o

NUMERALS.

Onefourth

halfare

is

han,

or

ham

bun.

One

third

and one

sometimes

milsii ichi

and yotsU

iclii.

These

forms have been sanctioned by usage, but as a general rule Japanese and Chinese numerals cannot be combined in this way.particular

35Sono.

Exampleskasa iva iktiraii-a

of

Numerals.

that umbrella

? He; how much

How muchOneisI

is

that umbrellaif

?

fifty

sen but

ippon

gojisscn de gozarififty

one piecemasu.

centso

three,

will

is

you buy make them one yen

ga

;

sambon

kai

twenty sen.

three pieces (hon.)

buyni

nasareba, ichi yen.if

nijissen

do

one

twenty cents to

itashimashu.will

maketstitsnini

Hlfoone

niin

hiakn

There are one hundredshirts, or

(dollars,in

package

hundred

other

flat

objects,)

mai

imasu. piece each having entered isdziitsu

haitte

each package.

Sorethat

wafuta

tsuki mayc no two month before

That

is

a

thing

of

two

months ago.

koto

da.is

thing

Minnaltogether

de

ikntsu ?

How many

altogether

?

how manyThere are seven.s

nani ka drawing something

Please

for

me,

and

the

o kure.

doing

give

termination tari originally had no alternative meaning, and in some of the above phrases the alternative force is not very evident.j

The

52.

THE CONCESSIVEislit.

PAST.

Kashltaredo, tabetaredo.

This formta to iyedo,

not'

commonlyadded to

still,

used, being replaced by kasJilthough one say that (he) lent,' or more by kashita keredo. Mo 'even' is often

much

all

these forms.

'Though'

is

the correct transit is

lation of the concessive terminations but

usually

more

convenient to render them in English by placing 'but', atthe beginning of the subsequent clause.

Example.Yohodo

much

inayc before

ni

Itanc

iao

I

lent

himbutvetit

moneyhe

a

longnot

money

time

ago>

has

kashita kercdo, niada kaycshilent returned although yetmascnii.

re t urnecj

not

Kashlte

moit

is

also

much used with

nearly the

same

meaning, but

is

of no special tense, and

may

be either

present, past or future.i

53.

DESIDERATIVE

ADJECTIVE.

Kashitai,

tabetai.

See Chap. VII.54.

THE POLITE FORM. Kashimasu,is

tabemasu.

Theuse,

conjugation of this form see Chap. XII.55.

given in

45.

For

its

THE- NEGATIVE

use as separate words.

BASE. Kasa, tabe are not in This form has no meaning by itself.

6256.tcibcnii.

THE VERB.

THE NEGATIVE PRESENTfinal

INDICATIVE.

Kasanu,

The

u of

this

formis

is

inaudible,at.

very distinct pronunciation

aimed

except when The Japanese

it in writing the spoken language. Instead of this form, the Tokio dialect generally prefers the Negative Adjective kasanai, tabenai. (See Chap. VII.)

themselves often omit

tive Present

Like the other tenses of the Indicative Mood, the Negamay be either a verb, an adjective or a noun.

(See remarks on the Past Tense.)

Examples.1.

As a Verb.dckintiis to,

.

Kane ga money

hoall

If

money

is

not

procured,

not

made

if

there will be duns_ii ._ all niiarl r< iludiLCis.

coming from

bu kara kakctori ga kuru d'ard. . .. ... r sides from dun come will

Shiran it.

I

don't know.

Are

kiri

(pron.

arckkiri)

I

have never seen him since,

that cut offaimascnii.

not meet(Thelast

example shews that this form

is

sometimes used where we have a

past tense.)

Sorathattc,!

!

ivaraioanu not laugh de

to

mushi-

There!afteri

have you not laughed

havingiva naiis

iav j ng sa ;d you

wou id

not

?

waratta

ka??

said

laughed (pred.)

not

(This example illustrates the principle that in Japanese there are no special forms for indirect narration. If a man says u'uniisnn"i 'I won't laugh' the same word warau-anti is used in repeating v.-hat he said, though in English we change 'will' into 'would.' For warawami as a future see the section on the Future Form).

2.

As an

Adjective.koto

Shiranu.

wa gozarimais

He

certainly knows.

not-knowscnu.

thing

notShiraniikoto

am

mono

Don't

tell

me you

don't know.

not-know thing existing thing ka ? (vulgarly moiika).is?

THE VERB.DekitiH not-can-dotoki

wa

shikata

If

it

can't be done, thereit.

is

no

time

do-manner

help for

ga

nai.is

not

Shiran ti hi to.

A man whom(also,

I

don't

know,

a

man who

does not know.)not

ivakaranu. Ycigo English words not-understandInto.

A man whos tand

does

under-

English.

manIchl

ncnyear

mo

tatanii

Before even a year had passed.

onenchi iii. within3.

even not-stand

As

a

Noun.is I don't know (a very humble form of expression used by people of the lower classes to their

Shirimasenii dc gozaimasu.

not-know

superiors).

Diimo ski ya shi nai kara do not because any how donigenii

dc

mois

You needn't run away, do anything to you.

I

won't

ii.

the not-running-away even

good.Correct(in

O(hon.)

ki

ni

iranii

wo

what

displeases

you

minddo

not-enter

me).

o naoshl nasare.

mend

A number

of

Compound Tensesetc., to the

are formed by adding

dc aro, de atta,

Negative Form (or the Neg.

Adj.) taken as a noun.

Examples.SkiranH not-knowingd'aro. will bed'attaro.

He He

probably does not know.

Kamawanu57.

probably did not care.

not-caring probably

was

THE NEGATIVE

PAST. Kasananda, tabenanda. This

form

usually replaced in the Tokio dialect by kasanakatta, tnbenakatta, the predicate form of the negative adjectivesis

64

THE VERB.

(kasanaku tabcnaku] combined with the past tense of ant, to be,' the u final being elided before the a of am.'

Kasanii (or kasanai] de attathe

may

also be used to express

same meaning.

Examples.Ikimasenanda.I

did not go.did not sellit

Sonnani yasiiku wa urananda so did-not-sell cheap(or uranakatta.}.

I

so cheap as that,

Hanashitalk

nl

ukaretefloated

on

ki ga mind

I

was so taken up by the conI

versat i on tna t

did not notice

it.

tsitkananda. not-stick

A

or the negative adjectivesuitable.

Japanese often uses the negative of the present tense where the past seems to us more

O

ide nasatta'

Thus, ka

in

answer

to the question,

Did you go

?

? the reply will very likely be, Ikimasenu,

for

I

did not go.'

is particularly true in the case of indirect clauses or where the Negative Past, if used, would be an adjective or a noun.

This

Examples.Chnmonorderiu

shita ka scnu ka to did ? do not ?

They weretion of

discussing the quesit

whether

had been order-

koto

wo

ha:iashlte

called thingotta.

e d or not. (Note that the Japanese prefers the Active to the Passive

talking

remainedKi'> made itoma to-day until leave nai mono.

construction).

wo

negatednot-

Those who have not resigneduptill

to . day

when

a

man

warenai toki wa tsubureru no can pay time smash up wa mochiron no koto desu. of course thing isMiunichitatsii

pay his debts that he should smash up.t

can

yo-ake

ni shutstart-

to-morrow day break atsnru

ytmi

chantoin perfectly

do ing shitakupreparationikcnai.

manner

must make everything ready so as to start at daybreak tomorrow.

You

quite

wo shinaku cha if not make

does not do3.

As

a Verb.soto

Dare ka somebody

outsidetaisu

de matsu. waits

Somebody

is

waiting outside.

Ka ga

oru.

There are a great many musquitoes.If today,it is

musquito many abideKonnichi narato-day(for

nareba),

in time.

ma

ni an.

space meets

74Yugo.

THE VERB.areba,if is te

wo

tataku.strike

If I

have anything

for

you

to

business

hands

do,

I

will clap

my hands.is

that the present

(Observe used here, not

the future, there being no doubt.)

Jinten

rl

nara,if it

kiizvazu

ni

If

it

were ten

rl,

I

could (or

dc

mo

were not eating iku ga, hlaku rl dcsu

would) go even without eating, but as j t ; s 1OO r ;_

"kara becausetakn ye agarn o to-day (hon.) house to go up nodes* ga, ashi ga itamimashlistc,

Konnlchi

I

day> but as(I.

-

would go to your house to\ have a bad leg am afraid sha n not be ablej.

leg

being pain-

ful (shall

(ikarcmasumai). not be able to go)

66.

THE NEGATIVE

IMPERATIVE.

Kasuna, tabcnina.

Examples.IkunaSore! !!

Shuchi suruna

Don't go ! Don't consent

!

wo

tabcruna

Don't eat that.

67.

THE NEGATIVE FUTURE.in the First,

Kasiimai, fabcmai.is

Thein the

termination mai of this tense

attached

to

the

Present Indicative

and

to the

Negative Base

Second conjugation.Adjective followed by aro, future offor this

The Negative'to be,'is

am,

sometimes used

form

as, sliirauak'ard,

'he probably does not know,' for sliiranai. Sliiranli daro, shiranai daro have also the same meaning.

For the true meaning of the Future see

5.

64.

ExamplesMir,nichi

of Negative Future.

madetill

iiaorima-

He

won't

be

better

by

to-

tomorrowtimai, will not

recover

morrow.

THE VERB.Hi torialonedcdfkitnai.will not be ableI

75will not

Alone he

be able.

Animal.

don't think there are any.is

Mcshirice

tabcmai. ico will not eat

HeIt

not likely to eat rice.

Ashitanimo naonimai mono tomorrow not recover thingdc

is

possible.

he

may

recover

even tomorrow

mo

nai. is not

even68.

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.Conditional Baseis

Kase, tabero.

Theexcept

in the First

not in use as a separate word, Conjugation, where it coincides with the

In the Second Conjugation ro, or in the Imperative. western dialect yo, is added to the root in order to form

the Imperative.

Instead

of the bare Imperative,it is

which

is

style of address,

generally preferable to use

a very rough some of the

minor honorifics, even when addressing servants.of to ivo shimero,it

Instead

is

better to say to(for

wo

shimete, to

wo

shimete o kure or to

wo shime na

shimc nasarc}.

Examples.Achithere

ike!

Get away!

!

goShut the door!

To wo shimerodoorshut

Kono hako wo akcrothis

!

Empty

this box.

Open

this box.

box

open

Waki ye yore !side

Go

to

one side

!

approachiro !

Shlta ni

down

remain

Squat down (as was formerly done by Japanese when a man of rank was passing).to

Ten no da bachi heaven punishment isakiratncro.

Make up your mind that punishment from heaven.

it is

a

make up your mind

76

THE VERB.Nani whatni shiro,

warm

koto

Anyhow

it is

a bad business.

make bad

thing

da.it is

Shikkari shiro. do firmlyOsok^arc hayak'are kuin ni be it late be it early arrest

Bear upsteady!

!

(to

a sick

person)

Helater.

will

be arrested sooner or

narimashd.willS

become

69.

THE CONDITIONAL FORM.

Kascbn, tabcrcba.

Properly speaking there is the same distinction between this form and the Hypothetical Form kascba, tabcba, that there is between the forms in tareba and taraba, i.e., the

former denotes a condition either realized, or looked upon as likely to be so, while the forms in aba represent a merehypothesis.in practice,

ButAll

this distinction is almost wholly neglectedin

and the forms

eba and aba are used indis-

the hypothetical forms, however, seem to criminately. be gradually falling out of use and are not much employed except in particular phrases. A distinction between these

forms

is

always observed by correct writers.'

Nareba, the conditional of narucontracted into nara.

to be

',

is

nearly always

ExamplesAsiiko there

of ConditionalisstwIfI

Forms.I

J*to

ikcba,if

go there,all

shalllife.

have no

go

one

life

annoyance

my

komaru kototrouble thing

nashi.is

notsnrcba,if

Waruibadmitkui

koto

thing

do

warni bad

If

you do

evil,

there

is

an

evil

reward.

ga

aru.is

rewardMiiscbaif tell

kaycttc

goto

on the contrary (hon.)U'O

thought that if I were to tell you, I should on the contraryI

kuroanxiety

kakcyu

omotta.

cause you anxiety.

hang

thought

THE VERB.Arcbaifil

77(not a confident hope)

to

omottc.

HopingWhilejustified

there areto

is

goodnaii1

thinkingto

there might be some.

Dorobuthief

ka?

ka?

hein

wouldcalling

have

beenthief,

somethingnoni.

him a

iyebaif

yoiis

or the like.

say

good while

70.

THE CONCESSIVE FORM.is

Kasedo, tabedo.

This Form

mostly superseded by the Present Indicative

followed by keredo or, more rarely, by to iyedo. Both these be used with any tense of the Indicative expressions may

Mood, thus producing a

series of Concessive Tenses.

They

may Form

also be added to adjectives.

Keredo

is

the Concessive

of keru,

which

is

probably the perfect tense of kuni

'to come,' and iyedo, the Concessive

Form

of in, 'to say,,

so that to iyedo

means

'

literally

Mo,

'

even,'

is

frequently added to

though one say that.' all the Concessive Forms.

Examples.narcdo Tenki weather though itKiisnriviois

samui. is cold

Though

fine, it is cold.

medicineoranai. recovers

nomcdo nathough drink not

Hecine.

will

not

recover,

even

though he do

(or does) take

medi .

Toninperson in question mushlta de mosaid

sayo thus

The man himself maylikely

have

said so,it.

but

I

very can

evensore that

arimashd will be

hardly believe

kcredomo, althoughchito

wa

domo somehow

shinjiraremascnu.

a

little

cannot believekeredomo, althoughI

TadzuncmasUitainquired

inquired, but there

was none.

gozaimascnu. is notKitetruto

Although he has come.

having comeiycdomo.

remains

though

78

THE VERB.

In p eaking Japanese, the student should not use the Conct.^ive Form standing by itself or the Form with toiycdo.I

They occur

so seldom that Mr. Satow's

Kwaiwa

Hen, believe, does not contain a single example of them. The Indicative Mood (or Attributive form of Adjectives)followed by kercdo or kcrcdomo the past participle followed byis

better, or

he

mayor

usethe

mo

(kashitcmo},

adverbial form of the adjective followed by temo (osoku temo).

DERIVATIVE VERBS..

71.

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

In English, there are seldom distinct words or forms for the transitive and intransitive applications of the same Thus the words ride, sink, break, bend and verbal root.

many

to circumstances.

others are either transitive or intransitive according In such cases, the Japanese languageroot.

has usually two distinct verbs containing the same

Noverbs,

rule can be given for

forming transitive or intransitive

but

some

of the:

more common modes of doing so

are exemplified belowIntransitive.

Transitive.to

Tatsustand.

(ist.

Conj.),

Tatcru (2nd. Conj.),set up.

to

Susninitto advance.

(ist.

(Conj.),

Susumcru (2nd.encourage.

Conj.), to

Yamucease.

(ist.

Conj.),

to

Yamerucease.

(2nd. Conj.), to

Iru enter

(ist

Conj.),

to

Ireru

(2nd.

Conj.),

to

-

putConj.),let

in.

to

Sagaru (ist come down.

Sagcru down.

(2nd. Conj.),

to

THE VERB.

79(ist

Waknboil.

(ist.

Conj.), to

Wakasu make boil.Chirnsuscatter.

Conj \ toConj.), to

Chiruscatter.

(ist

Conj.),

to

(ist.

Ncrnsleep.

(and.

Conj.), to

NckasuOrosulower.

(ist.

Conj.),

to

put to sleep.(ist.

Oriru (and; Conj.), todescend.

Conj.),

to

Derngoout.

(and.

Conj.),

to

Dasuout.

(ist.

Conj.), to put

Theforce,

Intransitive Verbs illustrated inclass.

the following ex-

amples form a separateof the

They have usually a potential but must not be confounded with the passive formsverbs.

same

Kireru (and. Conj.), tobe discontinuous.

Kirn

(ist. Conj.), to cut.

Ureru (and. Conj.), tobe saleable, tosell.

Urn

(ist.

Conj.), to

sell,

Miyeru (and. Conj.), to be visible, to be ableto see.

Mini (and

Conj.), to see.

Kikoyeru (and. Conj.),to be audible, to be able

Kikuhear,

(ist.

Conj.),

to

to hear.

Ikeru (and. Conj.), to be able to go.

Ikn

(ist Conj.), to go.

The Frenchthese verbstransitive

se couper,

se

curately to kireru, ureru.

The example

vendre correspond pretty acikeru shows that

may

be formed from intransitive as well as from

verbs.

Ikeru'

is

familiar to us in the negative'

adjective form ikenai, it is no go ', it won't do '. Note that while the termination eni may belong either to

the transitive or to the intransitive form, verbs ending in su

8oare transitive only.

THE VERB.Exception.as,'

sometimes

intransitive,',

Dasu in combination is nmc ga furi-dasJilta, it has'

come on

to rain

tobi-dashlta,

he rushed out

'.

In the examples given below, verbs containing the same root.

we have

pairs of transitive

Kcirn

(xst.

Conj.),

to

Kasit (ist. Conj.), to lend,

borrow.

Adzukaru

(ist. Conj.),

Adsukeru (2nd. Conj.)givein

to

to take charge of.

charge.(and.Conj.),

Kiru (and.wear.(2nd.see.

Conj.),

to

Kiscruclothe.

to

Conj.),

to

Misci'u

(2nd.

Conj.),

to

show.of Transitiveboiled

ExamplesYUhot water

and Intransitive Verbs.Is the hot

ga waita ka ??

water ready

?

He,yesit is

ima

ndkasfuMOsi de

Yes,

I

am just

getting

it

to boil.

now

make

boil

gozatmasu.

Hara gabelly

tail a.

He

got angry.

arose

Umi-taic no tamago. lay set up eggTatfiiai.

AI

new-laid egg.

cannot stand.

I

do not

set up.

cannot standBuchfin(see Ch. XII.)I;T

O

nckashUc having put

When

you have put young masyou can gotoo.

ter to bed,

kara,to

bed

after

omaye mo iictc too having you

mogoneto

yoroshi.is

bed even

good

Betsudanhodo

hiina

ga

torcru

particularly time

can takewill not be

thing

There probably won't be anywhich will occupy any

no kotothing

mo arimasumai.

amount

great time.

THE VERB.Sekcn yc world tonchi ni. withinshircnai

8lit

Before

becomes known

to

not become

known

tne wor id.

Kokoja hanascnaiherepart.)

yo.

We

can't talk here,

cannot talk (emph.

Hitori

moevennai.is

oneyatsufellow

man

hanaseru can talk

There

is

not a

single

fellow

worth taking to .

wa

notni o

Taisi)

very

much!

(hon.)

kawari change

Howarej

very

much changed you

nasatta nc

Dashintikc niabruptly

enoug h to be unrecognizable if one met you all of a sudden,

doneattara,if

ml-chigayern

gnrai

met see can mistake amount

da.it is

72.

CAUSATIVE VERBS.

Causative verbs are formed by adding seru to the Negative Base of verbs of the first conjugation, as tsukuru to make ',(

tsukuraseru

'

to cause to make.'

In verbs of the second con'

jugation saseru is added to the stem, as tabcru tabesaseru 'to cause to eat.'causatives of the irregular verbs Imru and kosaseru and saseru.All causative verbs

to eat,'

The

sum

are

belong to the second conjugation.

Instead of the causative verbs, such phrases as iku yd ni

sum,used.

'

go-manner-make'

i.e.

'

to

make him

to go,' are

much

Thein

transitive verbs in su (ist. conj.)

and the causativesthe

seru

are

constantlyat

confounded,

same

person

saying

for

example

one time kikashUe and

at another

kikasete.

THE VERB.

ExamplesTaihendreadfullynio (honorific)

of Causative Verbs.I have kept awful time.

you

waiting an

matase

mushita.to wait (respectful) ni manic

made

Mumahorse

beans

wo kuwaseta made eatkikasete

Didbeans?

you give

the

horse

his

ka?

Mo

ichido

Please

let

me

hear once more.

more once having made hearkiidasare.

give

Konothis

ko ni kega wo sasete child wound cause

It

won't do to cause any hurt to

this child.

sumanai.not finish

Jiutenshuchi

ni

shichi

hachieight

wa

I

have an idea that

it

is

sevenI

sevenitasaseru

or eight chances out of ten thatshall

kokoro deheart

make him

consent.

agreementgozarimasv.is

cause

Fusokuinsufficienttoraseytl.

nara,if is

motto

If

it is

not enough,

I

will give

more

you more.

will

make

take

Hont~>reality

no

okka mother

sail ni

He was

kind enough to cause

her to meet her real mother.

kudasatta. awascte having made meet he gave

A.

Musume

daughtertorasete

ni to

mttko

wo

husbandraku KOease

having made takeshi'>

A. My reason for giving my daughter a husband is not that I B. I intend to enjoy my ease.will not allow her to take (a hus-

to

in

wake de wareason

will nai.is

makeB.

called

band) on any account.

\VatakushiI

wa

do

not

how

shite

moeven

having donetorasenai.

do not make take

THE VERB.73. PASSIVEtial

83Passive or Poten-

OR POTENTIAL VERBS.

Verbs are formed by adding areru to the present indicative form of the active verbs, the final u of which iselided.

Thus:is

Mirarcru, to be seen,

formed from mint, to,,

see.kill.

Korosarcru, to be killed,

,,

korosu, to

Tadzuncrarcni, to be sought,

,,

tadzuncru, to seek.

The

passive forms of the irregular verbs suru, kuru are

serareru, korarem.

The Passive

verbs have also a Potential meaning.is

In the

case of Intransitive verbs, this

their ordinary signification?

although in such sentences as teislii ni shindremashlta she was died by her husband,' i.e. she was separated by'

'

death from her husband,'sive of

we have somethingless

like the pas-

an intransitive verb.is

The Passive Voicein

much

used in Japanese than

English.All passive verbs are of the and. conjugation.'

By,' after

a passive verb,

is

rendered in Japanese by ni.

Examples.yimminpeopleni

kimwareru. is hated

He

is

hated by his subjects, saved by a boatman,?

Sends ni tasukeraremashita. boatman was savedMiraremashlta ka?

He was

Could you see

Ikarcru dc aro ka ?

Will he be able to goI

?

Mairaremasenu.iwaremashita. scolding he was said

cannot come.got a scolding,

Kogoto

Heno wo

Tanji nomite.

korosarcru

On

witnessing Tanji's murder.

being killed

having seen

THE VERB.Hachijiu yeneightytaikinu-oto

in

calledtorareta.

THE VERB.

85

In the terminations of Transitive, Intransitive, Causative

and Passive Verbs,'to do,'

it

is

easy to distinguish the verbs

sum'

am'

'to be'

andis

em

'to get.'

The

termination

areru of Passive Verbs

nothing more than aru 'to be

and eru

to get,''

the literal

meaning of mirareru,easy to see

'

to

be

seen,' being

get-be-see.'

It is

why

the

same

form

may74.

also have a potential signification.

OTHER DERIVATIVE VERBS.

Verbs are formed from nouns by adding various terminations as:

Yadoru, to lodge,Tsukaniu, to grasp,Tsuncigu, totie,

from yado, a lodging. from tsuka, a hilt. from tsuna, a rope.from uta, song, poetry.

Utau, to sing,75.

Chinese and other uninflected words (which are really nouns) do duty as verbs with the help of the

Many

In most cases of this kind Japanese verb sum 'to do.' sum remains a distinct word, as shimpai sum to be'

anxious,' hai

sum

'

to abolish,' rioko

sum

'

to travel,' etc.

But with some words

sum

in

this

position suffers a con-

siderable change. The 5 takes the nigori, and becomes j, while the conjugation is assimilated to that of verbs of the second conjugation whose stem ends in i. Thus kin, a

Chinese word which means 'prohibition,' forms with suru a verb kinjirtt which is not conjugated like suru but likedekiru.76. Derivative verbs are

formed from adjectives byintransitive, to

addingstem.

mu

to

the stem.

These verbs areverbs

The corresponding

transitive

add

mem

the

86

THE VERB. Examples.Takamti,takai, high.to

become

high,

takamcru, to

make

high,

from

HiromK,hirui,

to

become wide, hlromcru,

to

spread abroad,

from

wide.noiocliii

Fujin

ico

I

think of raising the position

womantakamcyo make high

positiononion.

of %vomen .

think

The schemes of conjugation given on pp. 44 to 49 77. are intended to show the formation of the simple moodsand tenses of the verb, but there are many compound These are pressions in use as their equivalents.ex-

so

impossible to give them all, but the tables, which comprise a selection of the more following common, may be useful. The Auxiliary Verbs used in

numerous that

it

is

these combinations are treated of in Chapter VIII.

the

must not be supposed that the forms arranged under same heading are used altogether indiscriminately. There are distinctions between them, some of which areIt

pointed out inpractice.

these

pages and others

will be learnt

by

THE VERB.

CONJUGATIONKasit,to lend.

I.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

88

THE VERB.

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

THE VERB.

8g

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

go

THE VERB.

79-

CONJUGATIONTaberu,to eat.

II.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

THE VERB.

CONDITIONAL MOOD.

92

THE VERB.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

CHAPTER80.

VII.

THE ADJECTIVE.TheAdjectiveis

conjugated as follows:

HIROI WIDEStemPredicate, Adverb or Indefinite

Hiro

Wide

Form

Hiroku orhiro...hirokuhiroku hirokutete te

Wide; widelyif

wamo

being wide wide

even though wide

hiroku baor

hirokumbahiroku naihirok'atta

if itis

should be wide

not wide

was widewill be

hirok'aro

wide(before

Attributive

andHiroiHirokerebaHirokeredo

Verbal

Form

Wide

a

Conditional

noun); is wide If it be wide

ConcessiveAbstract

Thoughwide

it is

or be

Noun

Hirosathis conjugation

Widthwith the conjugation of verbs will The stem of the verb cor-

A

comparison of

show

that they are essentially

identical.

responds to the stem of the adjective, and the Indefinite Form to the Adverbial Form. The Negative Base is not in use in the case of theAdjective, fortical

Negative Forms or

for

the Future, but the Hypothe-

Form is hiroku ba where the Adverbial Form stands for the Neg. Base. The Present Indicative of the Verb corresponds to the Verbal Form of the Adjective, and the Conditional and Concessive Forms.

contain a Conditional Base viz. hirokere.

9481.

THE ADJECTIVE.

THE STEM.is

Hiro.in

The Stem

used

forming compounds.'

Thus from nagacape,' is derived' ;

the stem of nagai,

long,'

and1

saki,

'

a

Nagasaki (the literal signification of which is long cape ') from yo the stem of yoi, good, and sngiru, to exceed,' we have the compound yosugiru, 'to be toof

'

'

good

';

usuguroi'

dark-coloured,''

is

formed from usu stem

of nsui,

thin,'

and knroi,

black.'

Hadzukashi-so na kawo de. shameful appearance face withTegani-soniin

With a shamefaced expressiono f countenance.

keredo.

hand

light

say althoughortt.is

Though he manner.

talks in

an offhand

Hfcdzurashi-so ni mite curious looking

He is looking at a curious thing.(

it

as

if it

were

The stemthe phrase82.

occasionally standsni natta,it

makkuro

by itself as a noun, as in has become quite black.'

THE PREDICATE, ADVERB ORor hiro.to the

INDEFINITE FORM.

Hiroku

By adding kuused where

the verb 'to be

stem we get the predicate, or form comes between the adjective'

and the noun.

The same formhirois

is

also used as an adverb.*

The

contracted form

obtained by dropping the

k of hiroku and joining into one syllable the last vowel In this way, of the stem and the u of the termination.

hiroku becomes

first hiroii

and then hiro' ;

;

hayaku becomes

dense,' loses first successively hayail and hayo shigeku, its k and becomes shigeii, which is then contracted into

shigyo; furukit becomes furil. Adjectives whose adverbial form ends in iku lose the k but suffer no further change.

Thus yakamashiku,shiu.*

'

noisy,'

is

contracted

into yakamci-

As

in

German.

THE ADJECTIVE.

95

a predicate, the contracted form is better, but when used as an adverb, the uncontracted form is more usual,

As

especially in the

Tokio

dialect.

Examples.i.

As a

Predicate.

O(hon.)

hayu.early

Good morning. Good morning (moreIsn'tit

O(hon.)

hayu gozarimasii.early

polite).

areearly yet?

Madayet

hayu gozariniascnu ka?earlyis

not

?

Konothis

tniima via

goku fakOvery dear

This horse

is

very dear.

horse

gozarimasii.is

2.

As an Adverb.or hayo!

Hayaku Hayakuquickly

QuickI

!

o

ide

nasare

ComeIt is

quickly.

Come

early.

come

dowell made.it

Yoku

dekita.

Shiroku nurlmasMta.3.

He

painted

white.

As a Noun.He workedtill

Osoku made hataraita. late until worked

late.

Okunumerousshirasete.

no

Into

ni

man

Letting people in general know.

making known4.

As

Indefinite

Form.in

Ride.

Whenever

English two or more adjectives are'

joined by the conjunction and,' all but the last take in Japanese the adverbial or indefinite form. Compare therule

given for the use of the Indefinite

Form

of verbs

on

p. 52.

96

THE ADJECTIVE.

Examples.Kumocloudskitroku,

amc

hidoi.

Therainis

clouds are black and theviolent.

black

rain violent

Kamihead

no

kc ga ktirokit, me hair black eyes

A woman^j ue eveSi

with black hair and

ga

(lu'oi

onna.

blue

woman

UtsnknsJiiku chisai kodomo. little child pretty

A

pretty

little

child.

Oya mo naknparentssisters

not

kiudai brothers orto

a person who has neither parents nor brothers or sisters.is

He

momonopersonda,is

nal

iu

even not

called

no iva sono that having come out no niubu to niiyctc, soma woodcutter's wife seeming ..._ ,. ,. ,. tcshigoro wa mini shichi hachi,

Dete klta

The person who came forth was apparently the woodcutter's wife. She was twenty seven orfair

agede,iro

twenty seven eightshirokit,

twenty eight years of age, with complexion and a straight. '

liana suji

nose

and was a

st >' le

of

woman

complexion whitetori,

nose lineni

not often found in mountain huts.

yamaga

wa

was thorough mountain huts mare na onna de gozaimasu.rare

womanlast

is

The

sentence shows that in this construction the

adverbial forms of adjectives (shiroku) and the stems of In verbs (tori) are given the same syntactical value.

ordinary conversationpreferred.

some other construction

is

generally

83.

Adverb with'

te.

Hiroku

te.

Te

in this

combination

may

be taken as the equivalent

of atte,

being.'

Examples.Knraku, dark

miyemascnu being cannot see

te

It is

so dark

I

cannot

see.

THE ADJECTIVE.Samiikucoldte

97I

tamarimasenn. not endurete

It isit.

so cold

cannot endure

Isogashiku

tsui

go

I

busy

casually (hon.)

have some how or

have been so busy that I another notto see yoiu

busata wo itashimashita. did not giving news

comeIts

Shiroku being white

te

yoroshi.is

being white

is

an advant-

good

age.It is

Atsuku84.

te hiroi.

thick and wide.te

Adverb with

te

wa.

Hiroku

wa, commonly

contracted into hirokucha.

This form

is

a sort of Conditional

Mood.

It is in

very

common

use, especially with the Adverbial

Form

of the

Negative Adjective.

Examples.Hatsuka20thyori

osokulate

te

wa;

I

shall be

inconvenienced

if it

than

s

i

ater

t

h an the twentieth.

komaru. am inconveniencedUsukiichathinikcnai.It

won't do

for

it

to

be too

does not do

thin.I

NakHchaif

notnl

naranu. does not become

must have

it.

Sugicat

knwanakuchanot buying

Some must be bought

at once,

once

naritnasenu.

does not do

84.

Adverb withis

te

mo.

HirokuIt

te

mo.

Thistense.

a Concessive

Form.mo

belongs to no particular

Donnani

kitanakudirty

te

I

don't care

how

dirty

it

is.

how muchkamawanai.don't care

Abnnaku

te

mo

Kamaucare

Whogerous?

cares even

if

it

is

dan-

dangerous being even mono ka ?person?

98Usukuthinte

THE ADJECTIVE.modaijubusafe

dcsu.is

It is

quite safe,

though

it

is

thin.

85.

Adverb with

ba.

Hiroktiba or hirokumba.Hypothetical

BaForm

with the Adverb corresponds to theof the Verb, and likeit is

not

much'

used.

86. The Negative of Adjectives is formed with the help of the Negative Adjectives nai is not,' and the past and future by adding the past and future of aru to be,' to'

the Adverbial form.

Examples.Omoshirok' atta.It

was amusing.must belate,

Moalreadyred

osok

1

art.

It

late will be

Akaku nai nonot

via iranai.

don't

want

I don't not red.

want

any

that

are

87.

This form

THE ATTRIBUTIVE FORM. Hiroi. may be obtained by adding i to:;:

the root.ki,

It is

really, however, a contraction for an older form in being omitted.

the k

This form

is

used when the adjective immediately pre-

cedes the noun.

ExamplesYoihito,

of Attributive

Form.

Warni onna.Atsni kaml.

A good man. A bad woman.Thick paper.

Awoi kawo.Sainiti koto!

A

pale face.

How

cold

it

is

!

(lit.

the cold

thing!).

Fnkai toki wa func dc wataru. If it boat cross deep time a boa t*

is

deep,

I

shall

cross in

The

older form

is

the proverb tori naki sato no kumori,

not quite obsolete. It is retained for example in the bat of No-bird-town,' and in'

the termination bcki.

THE ADJECTIVE.

gg

Thetive.

particle

no

is

No

has

in this position'

often attached to this form of the adjecvery much the force of theone.'It is

English indefinite pronountraction forrate suit the

possibly here a conat

mono

l

thing.'

This derivation would

any

meaning.

Examples.Yoroshi no

wa

nai ka

?

Have you no good ones ?There are only white ones.

Shiroi no bakari aru.

Kuroi noblack

wa ikutsii arimasu ? how many

How manythereI?

black

ones

are

Akai no hitotsu mo gozarimaredSC1IU.

have not a single red one.

Kore wano dc

hiakiishij

no

wandbad

This

is

not the farmer's fault,

farmer

wa

nai.

Yorl-dotte

mo

ii

May

I

have pick and choice

?

choose having taken even good no desu ka ?is

?

Nolated'

ni following this

form of the adjective:

may

be trans-

while,' as in the examples

Sonothatsoto

mamastate

de

ii no good

ni,

naze

why

as they werC)

ye dashitaput-out

?

While they were well enough why did you put them out of doors ?

outside

Samui nocold

ni naze atatakai ki-

whyki

warm

Why

don't

you wear warm?

clothes in this cold weather

mono

nai ka ? clothes wear not

This form of the adjectiveas in the following examplesSuisourta

may:

stand by

itself

as a noun,

mo amai mosweethito desu.

shiri-nni-

Hefectly

is

a

man who knowsis

per-

know passedis

what

what

wish to do

to

.,

omottc itnasii. thinking remain

Theforej

it,

Desiderative Adjective may take either ga or as shown in the last example.

wo

be-

94.

NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES.

important class of adjectives is that which is formed from verbs by adding to the negative base the negativeadjective nni,.

An

(

not.

'

They

are formed from

all

verbs, with a very few excepto

tions, constantly used forms of the verb proper.

and are

replace

the

negative

The

contracted, and the Abstract

Predicate and Adverb of these adjectives Noun is not in use.

is

seldom

Examples.Wakaranai.it is

I

don't understand,

unintelligibleI

rkcnu-anai.

don't guaranteeI

it.

Shiranai hi to.

A mante

don't know.

Yakanaku. not roasting

mo yorosht.is

You need

not roast

it.

even

good

THE ADJECTIVE.Kaze ga nai kara, ho wo wind not because sailkakctcmo kakenakusette

I0 3the

It

is

all

hoist sail or not, as there

same whether you is no

mo

onaji

not set

same

wind.

koto da.

thing

is

Shiranakcwba, sensaku shimainquiryshr>.

If

he does not know,inquiries.

I

will

makeIt

Sonnakcrcba

koto ivo iwanaif not that sort of t'hingit no ni. good while

would have been bettersort.

if

he

had said nothing of the

say

Mono wo mo iwanaithing

de

Heword.

ran off without saying

a

without saying

mgcdashita. ran offI kanakiinot-gotc

wa

if

narimasenb. does not be-

I

must go.

comeIn the idiom exemplified in the last sentence, the .word

narimasenu

is

often omitted,

and

te

wa

contracted into

dm.

Examples.Kawanakucha.Te wo arawanakiicha.II

must buy.must wash

my

hands.

Konakucha naranu.

He must come.''

.95.''

Bcki.' '

This termination, which means'

ought,all

should,

may,

must

'

or

'

'

will,

is

indispensable in

forms of the written language, but, by a curious caprice, it has been almost entirely banished from the colloquial.

The uncontracted forms

beki (attributive), beku (adverb) and

beshi (adj. with substantive verb) are considered bookish and affected, while the contracted form bei is also con-

demned

as characterizing the rustic dialect of the east of

Japan. Byd, the contracted adverbial form, is seldom or never used except on the stage. In a few combinations,

104

THE ADJECTIVE.

however, beki, beku remain in use, as ko subeki hadzu da, thus ought to do necessity is,' i.e. this is how it ought if to be done, narubcku, as far as possible,' narubeku wa,lit' ''