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A genealogy of arches: A confluence of Western and Orient influences

Table of Contents

1. Architecture as a continuity of cultures ................................................................. 2

2. The arch form: Transitions and transformations .................................................... 3

3. Generalife - Merging the orient and the West ..................................................... 11

References .................................................................................................................... 14

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1. Architecture as a continuity of cultures

Huntington’s (1996) provocative “clash of civilisations” thesis has stirred much

controversies and furore among scholars and policymakers alike, with detractors

slanting it as being xenophobic and advocators praising its bold and visionary

perspective. Huntington’s (1996) theory has since been adapted to a discussion of the

West and Islamic worlds, in particular a distancing and opposition relating to

differences in religious and political values (Norris and Inglehart, 2002).

The divide between the West and Islam worlds has also been described by Hurd (2003,

pp. 32) as a means by the West to appropriate, dominate, colonise or commodify, stating

that “Orientalist conventions served as vehicles through which Americans were able to

negotiate the difference of Islam on a cultural level as a means of counteracting its

threat as a contending ethos. […] domesticating [Islam’s] alterity as a resource of

significant power for framing their own cultural enterprises”.

This chapter seeks to demonstrate that unlike contemporary political ideologies which

emphasise differentiation, division and power struggles between Western and Islamic

worlds, Islamic architecture emerged out of a unification of ideologies between the East

and the West. The author argues that Islamic architecture is emblematic of a multi-

layering of chronological strata, inheriting the traditions and knowledge of the Greek,

Persian and Roman civilisations which were conquered.

In particular, features such as the aqueducts, arches and great roads of the Roman

Empire, Byzantine basilicas and mosaics and Persian pointed and horseshoe arches

were being adapted into the Islamic architecture of aristocratic and religious buildings

ranging from palaces to castles to mosques to shrines and tombs (Stimson, 2012). Not

only does Islamic architecture survive as a living testimony to the excellent

craftsmanship and unparalleled engineering feats of ancient civilisations, the vault and

dome constructions in Islamic architecture has also been influential in informing the

architectural language of the West, namely the European Gothic (The Observer,1933).

The capacity of Islamic architecture to converge architectural thoughts and

developments across multiple centuries and cultures has led to the designation of

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several Islamic architectural monuments by UNESCO as being the finest heritage sites

worthy of praise and conservation. Examples can be seen in the Moorish monuments

of Alhambra in Granada and in the historic centre of Cordoba which constitutes

mosques, gardens and fountains, citadels, light and elegant palaces, all of which adorn

unique features of domes, porticos, colonnades, stalactites, colour mosaics and

arabesques (UNESCO, 1984).

Another example is in the capital of Baghdad, which embodies a confluence of cultural

influences from Persian architectural traditions and Central Asian styles into its

Abbasid architecture which marks the beginnings of the Islamic Golden Age (Blair,

2011). Central Islamic architectural features include arches with foliate decorations,

pendant vaults, muqarnas and polychrome interlaced spandrels.

Evident from both the above examples of magnificent Islamic architecture is that

arches, in the forms of multi-foil, horseshoe, pointed, transverse and ogee, were the

distinctive elements. Arches had both a symbolic significance as well as a utilitarian

function, enabling builders to construct mosques with vast expanses of space and light

to exude grandeur and beauty, and allowing a subtle segregation of sacred and secular

spaces. In view of the dominance of arches in Islamic architecture, this paper seeks to

explore the historic Western origins of the arches, Islamic interpretations and

transformations of the arch form and the travelling of the Islamic arch back to Western

architecture in Europe.

2. The arch form: Transitions and transformations

The arch originated from as early as the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia.

Arches originated in the tombs of Egyptians and Greeks which were made mainly of

stone, existing in the form of a lintel, with corbelling to remove the direct overbearing

(Arnold, 1991). Early examples are in the Tholos tomb of Clytemnestra (1300-1250BC)

in Greece (see Figure 1) and the Pyramid of Meidum (2610-2600BC) in Egypt which

has a corbelled roof of seven steps (see Figure 2). The use of arches during this period

was more for a practical function of relieving stresses produced by the walls and

protecting the horizontal thoroughfare beneath (Arnold, 1991). As such, arches were

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mainly confined to the architecture of crypts and not adopted in monumental

architecture such as temples.

Figure 1: Tholos tomb of Clytemnestra

Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/profzucker/12261408044/

Figure 2: Pyramid of Meidum

Source: http://www.narmer.pl/pir/snofru_en.htm#1architecture: Arch

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True arches appeared in Egyptian architecture much later when construction with mud

bricks necessitated the arch form. A barrel vault emerged in Djoser’s great mastaba,

constructed with bricks wedged together and bonded from above using mortar and

gravel (Petrie, 1883). Similarly, the 12th dynasty pyramid at Hawara consists of a brick

arch an approximate one meter thick, erected on top of the rock burial chamber and

passageways, dividing and supporting the upper part of the pyramid which is made up

of bricks laid in sand and limestone covering (Petrie, 1883) (see Figure 3).

Figure 3: Pyramid at Hawara

Source: http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/building/elements.htm

It was only during the Roman times that the arch form was more fully developed and

exploited in a variety of architectural structures such as bridges, aqueducts and large

scale developments. The Romans borrowed the idea of the true arch and sought to

increase the span of the form, inventing the idea of propping the arch on top of two tall

pedestals to span walkways.

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The semi-circular arch works to dissipate the load forces along the curve of the arch, to

be transmitted down to the end supports (abutments) which carry the entire load of the

bridge (see Figure 4). Such an arch action gives elasticity to the arch, enabling large

spans to be achieved and hence its common use in bridges and aqueducts (Ambrose,

2012, pp.32). Semicircular arches are often placed in line, side to side to create an

arcade, such as in the Roman aqueducts (see Figure 5) (Oleson, 2008, pp. 299).

Figure 4: Semicircular arch action

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch#/media/File:Arch_illustration.svg

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Figure 5: Nero’s aqueduct with semi-circular arch form

Source: http://www.rome.info/ancient/aqueducts/

The Roman arches were utilitarian as it served the function of creating vast edifices

with the humblest of materiality and the most efficient use of materials, with its merit

leading to its use in large-scale constructions such as amphitheaters, triumphal arches,

temples, palaces, bridges and aqueducts. One of the most magnificent Roman

architectural structure constructed out of concrete vaulted arches supported by strong

heavy limestone is the Colosseum built in 70-80AD (see Figure 6) (Sinclair, 2014).

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Figure 6: The Colosseum

Source: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/multimedia/archive/02412/Colosseum_2412363b.jpg

The Roman arches persisted long after the collapse of Roman power, in the

Romanesque architecture of the Normans (Gardner, Kleiner and Mamiya, 2004). The

arch form underwent further adaptations and were incorporated into cathedrals in both

the simple as well as pointed arch forms, such as in the Cathedral of Monreale (see

Figure 7). It appears that the outer facade reflected mostly Roman influences with three

semi-arches (see Figure 7), while the principal doorways consisted of pointed arches

which reflected influences of the Byzantine, Arab and Norman-French styles (see

Figure 8).

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Figure 7: Exterior façade of Cathedral of Monreale

Source:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monreale#/media/File:Monreale_Cathedral_exterior_B

W_2012-10-09_10-23-10.jpg

Figure 8: Doorway of Cathedral of Monreale

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monreale#/media/File:Monreale-bjs-3.jpg

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The presence of Islamic influences in Romanesque cathedrals may be explained by the

evolution of the Islamic arch during the same period, with tremendous advances made

in the arch forms by the Muslims, developing the pointed, horseshoe-shaped and

stacked arches to be used in mosques. The most common uses of arches in Islamic

architecture are in arcades lining mosque courtyards or courtyard houses. The design

of the pointed arches was an innovative breakthrough as it increased the spanning

distance further, allowing for larger vistas, such as in the Dome of the Rock (see Figure

9) built in 691AD or the White Mosque in Ramla in 759AD.

Figure 9: Dome of the Rock

Source: http://www.biblewalks.com/Photos54/DomeRock9.jpg

Another arch typology of the early Islamic period is that of the horseshoe which were

developed in Spain and North Africa among the Visigoths and later adopted by the

Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. Early indications of the horseshoe may be seen in the

Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria (see Figure 10), and later in the hypostyle hall in

the Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain. Unlike its predecessors which designed arches

for its utilitarianism, arches existed in Islamic architecture also as a form of visual

aesthetics, particularly in the horseshoe form which facilitated the achievement of

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greater height, visual rhythm and pattern in the arch and arcade designs as compared to

the semi-circular form (Gardner, Kleiner and Mamiya, 2004, pp .325).

Figure 10: Great Mosque of Damascus

Source: http://www.britannica.com/topic/Great-Mosque-of-Damascus/images-

videos/Interior-of-the-Great-Mosque-of-Damascus-in-Syria/126708

The entry of the horseshoe arch into the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain laid the

way for a travelling of Islamic architectural influences to Europe, through the architects,

scholars, builders living in the northern Christian area of Andalusia (Trend, 1931).

Islamic interpretations of the arches have since influenced architecture in western

regions and the architectural language of the West, such as in the horseshoe arches of

Moorish architecture in the northern Spanish areas (Dobbs, 1994) and the pointed arch

forms in European Gothic architecture (Hill, 1993).

3. Generalife - Merging the orient and the West

Generalife in Granada is an example of Moorish architecture in Spain, built between

the 12th and 14th century as a place of respite for Muslim royalty. It was meant to serve

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as a rural villa in Alhambra region, complete with decorative gardens, exquisite

landscaping and courts. As one of the oldest surviving Moorish gardens, the

Generalife’s Patio de la Acequia adopted horseshoe arches as a key element in the

garden design, such as in the five stuccoed horseshoe arches in the south pavilion (see

Figure 11).

Figure 11: Generalife’s Patio de la Acequia

Source: http://www.davidpride.com/Europe/Spain/SP_Gra_17.htm

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Despite its Moorish origin and its European geography, Generalife exudes a sense of

Orientalism, bearing the creativity of Islamic architectural elements such as the

horseshoe arches, courtyards, muqarnas and tiled motifs. The genealogy of arch design

demonstrates the horseshoe arch of Moorish Generalife to be one which drew

inspiration from its Greek, Egyptian and Roman counterparts, improving on the semi-

circular form to become a functional, vast spanning decorative element.

The Islamic interpretations of arches continue to live on through the works of their

European counterparts, bearing testimony to the power of architecture in uniting

cultures and the timelessness of innovative works of art. Within the space of Generalife

itself, Western touches interact with Islamic art as Generalife was subjected to

reconstructions and modifications into a cathedral following its fall into Christian

hands.

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