A brief survey of English grammar M.Ferenčík

A system of language (langue):

clause/sentence

↑↓

phrase

↑↓

word (lexeme)

↑↓

morpheme ↑↓

phoneme

WORD Word clases Description:

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Semantic Morphological Syntactic

N substantiality, nominal categories: H of NP

stable dimension countability, number, gender

in space and time case, determination

V processuality, vebal categories: person, number H of VP

processes developing in time tense, aspect, mood, voice

Aj qualitativity (black) inflected for gradability H of AjP

(comparative, superlative)

Av circumstatiality adverb affixes (-ly, -wise) H of AvP

evaluation of qualities inflected for gradability

and proceses (now)

pn do not denote but point to marginally variable: case (them) proform (=NP substitute)

objects (=deixis) (they)

p relation (at, in front of) invariable ´heads´of PP

det range of reference of N (the) invariable constituent of NP

en quantifying information invariable (often included among

on Ns (third) determiners)

cj linking words (and, but) invariable introduce Clauses and Phrases

ij expressions of feelings (wow) invariable loosely integrated

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detThe Nfulfilment pof detthe Ajgeneral Ajcommercial Nconditions punder detthe NSet pof NDocuments AjAvailable

pto detthe NPublic vshall vbe Mvassessed pby detthe Ajrespective Ntypes pof Ncross-border Ntransmission.

PHRASE ((Mn) H (M

n))

major types of phrase: NP, VP, AjP, AvP, PP

NP → det (M) N (M)

AjP → (M) Aj (M)

AvP → (M) Av (M)

PP → p NP

VP → (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) (Aux) Mv

The fulfilment of the general commercial conditions under the Set of Documents Available to the Public shall

be assessed by the respective types of cross-border transmission.

NP

Determiner(s) (Premodifier(s)) HEAD (Posmodifier(s))

pre- central post-

NP(detThe H

fulfilment M

PP(of NP(the AjP(general commercial) H

conditions PP(under NP(the H

Set PP(of

NP(H

Documents AjP(Available PP(to NP(the H

Public))))))))))

VP(auxshall auxbe Mvassessed)

PP(by NP(the AjP(respective) H

types PP(of NP(cross-border H

transmission))))

CLAUSE

A model of English simple sentence (clause): (A) S (A) P (Oi) (Od) (C) (A)

Clause elements: Subject, Predicate, Object (direct, indirect), Complement (subject, object), Adverbial

Clause elements and phrase types:

S P

O C A

NP VP AjP AvP PP

[NPS(The fulfilment PP(of NP(the AjP(general commercial) conditions PP(under NP(the Set PP(of NP(Documents

AjP(Available PP(to NP(the Public)))))))))) VPP(auxshall auxbe Mvassessed) PP

A(by NP(the AjP(respective) types PP(of

NP(cross-border transmission)))) ]

SPA, where P is passive: shall be assessed

assess = transitive verb: Subject ASSESS Object

Major clause patterns:

Verbs Intensive SVC The culprit seemed tired..

SVA The prison is on the main street.

.

Extensive Intransitive SV The client disagreed.

Transitive mono SVO The lawyers refused the strategy

di- SVOO The senator sent his voters a message.

Complex SVOC My neighbour calls his lawyer Dave.

SVOA The court put the man to prison.

Major sentence types:

Note: Major sentence is built upon a full proposition: Pass me the water!

minor sentence is not: Water please!

Types of syntactic (structural) complexity:

horizontal - the number of modifiers and clause elements

vertical (levels of embedding) - the number of subordinate phrases and clauses

The structural complexity and medium:

writing - complex phrases, longer clauses with multiple embeddings

speech - simple phrases, shorter clauses, lower degree of embedding, extensive use of non-clausal material

(major)

sentence

simple = CLAUSE [ ]

multiple

Complex [ ____ ] → subordination

[ ]

Compound-complex [ [ ____ ] + [ ] ] → coordination +

[ ] subordination

compound [ [ ] + [ ] ] → coordination

Structural analysis of (a stretch of) written language:

1. Identify the type of sequence:

A. does it contain a verb?

a/ if it contains one verb → clause

the verb = predicate (= the core of the clause)

identify other clause elements which Predicate requires: (A) S ← P → (O/C/A)

make sure you can locate the boundaries of each element and the structures which realize it

b/ if it contains more verbs functioning as predicates → multiple sentence

See how the clauses are related to one other:

coordination → compound sentence

subordination → complex sentence

both → compound-complex sentence

2. if it does not contain a verb → phrase

identify its type which depends on the class of its head: ((Mn) H (M

n))

Make sure you can locate the boundaries of each element and the structures which realize it

Cf. BLOCK language = inscriptions, headlines, product names, titles, slogans, lists

See also whether there are any cases of coordination or subordination

Types of coordination: word, phrase, clause

Types of subordination:

direct [ _____ ] ( ____ )

[ ] ( )

Indirect [ _______ ]

( ____ )

[ ]

[S(The TSO and the TS User)

P(will make)

O(all their effort)

A[P(to AvP(amicably) settle)

O(any dispute

[S(which)

P(may arise)

A(from the Contract]). ] ]

Subordination:

[SPOA_____ _]

[PO_____] = direct

(HM___) = direct

[SPA] = indirect

P(to AvP(amicably) settle) = split infinitive

Prevádzkovateľ PS poskytuje užívateľom prenosovej sústavy na základe uzavretej Zmluvy prenosové služby

a cezhraničný prenos elektriny prenosovou sústavou.

SPOAOA

The TSO provides the users of the TS with transmission services and cross-border electricity transmission by

means of the transmission system as subject to the contracts concluded.

SPOOAA

Prevádzkovateľ PS zabezpečuje v súlade s ustanoveniami tohoto Zákona prevádzkovanie PS podľa

Dispečerského poriadku pre riadenie prevádzky Elektrizačnej sústavy Slovenskej republiky (ďalej len ES SR), v

súlade so všeobecne záväznými predpismi a s medzinárodnými záväzkami a štandardmi, ktoré vyplývajú z

členstva v UCTE.

SPAOAA

Pursuant to the Act the TSO ensures the operation of the TS in compliance with the Dispatch Order for the

management of operation of the Power System of the Slovak Republic (hereinafter referred to as the TS SR),

with generally binding regulations and international obligations and standards arisen out of the membership in

the UCTE.

ASPOAA

Labels, symbols and conventions used in structural analysis:

Function labels: Mv Main verb A Adverbial

O Object Aux Auxiliary Od Direct Object

C Complement Oi Indirect Object Cs Subject Complement

P Predicator Co Object Complement S Subject

H Head Voc Vocative M Modifier

Form labels:

ACl Adverbial Clause NCl Noun clause Aj Adjective

NP Noun Phrase AjP Adjective Phrase p Preposition

Av Adverb PCl Prepositional Clause AvP Adverb Phrase

Ph Phrase CCl Comparative Clause pn Pronoun

cj Conjunction PP Prepositional Phrase det Determiner

N Noun e Enumerator RC Relative Clause

GP Genitive Phrase ´s Genitive marker ij Interjection

SCl Subordinate Clause MCl Main Clause Se Sentence

VP Verb Phrase V Verb (lexical, full) Wo Word

v Verb (operator)

Composite labels

Verb forms: V base Vs 3rd

person, singular, present tense

Vi infinitive Ved1 past tense

Ving present participle/-ing form Ved2 past participle

Brackets

( ) used around phrases

[ ] used around clauses

{ } used around optional elements

< > used around coordinated elements

links interrupted (discontinuous) elements

Labelling

NP (form labels) written as subscripts before the opening brackets/words S (function labels) written as superscripts before the opening brackets/words above the form labels

An overview of grammar of (not only) legal English

(based on Bázlik and Ambrus 2008)

MORPHOLOGY

Least different from other registers, unique features: archaic forms, foreign plurals, proforms, subjunctive,

modal verbs, connectors

legal E prefers analytical features over synthetic: make a decision/urobiť rozhodnutie vs. decide/rozhodnúť

occurrence of WC - all exc. ij

NOUNS Typical features:

1.determination: Common Ns used as key words (=unique meaning) behave like proper Ns, hence capitals, or

no determiners:

Specific determiners: the said, the same, such, any (= no matter which)

(3) Any person who averts an attack in a manner referred to in paragraph 2 shall not be held criminally liable if he acted

in a state of intense agitation caused by an attack, in particular as a consequence of confusion, fear or fright.

(3) Ten, kto odvracia útok spôsobom uvedeným v odseku 2, nebude trestne zodpovedný, ak konal v silnom rozrušení

spôsobenom útokom, najmä v dôsledku zmätku, strachu alebo zľaknutia.

1. Countability: non-count Ns → Count Ns: an information/informations, but cf. informations = report

on sb./trestné oznámenie

2. Number: Meaning shifts: moneys → funds, presents → listina, damages → odškodné ...

3. Case: ´s genitive used with a restricted group of Ns, of- is more frequent due to complex NPs:

Cf.: Ajs are descriptive, of-constr. are restrictive:

(1) A felony is an intentional criminal offence carrying a maximum custodial penalty of more than five years

pursuant to the Special Part of this Act.

(1) Zločin je úmyselný trestný čin, za ktorý tento zákon v osobitnej časti ustanovuje trest odňatia slobody s

hornou hranicou trestnej sadzby prevyšujúcou päť rokov.

5.Gender:

He is inclusive (hence he or she, s/he are less common): (2) Where it is more favourable for the offender, he may receive a penalty provided for in the law which is in force

at the time of the proceedings on the criminal offence.

PRONOUNS due to expliciteness, used rel. rarely, rather, full NPs are repeated

Types: pronoun-determiner : his/her

NP pronoun: he/she

impersonality of legal documents → rel. few pns

1st person pn I – rare, but cf. the affidavit: I in apposition to the proper name

generic he → masculine only

Non-generic/gender specific pns:

Proforms: here-/there-/where- + preposition: by, after, in, under, with ...

ADVERBS

ak - where

ADJECTIVES: Types:

a/ preM → Attributive: relatively rare, max. 2/3, descriptive prevail over restrictive, limited

coordination and intensification

- post-posed attributive Ajs: president elect, heir apparent, notary public

- comparative/superlative degree from Latin: major, minor, superior, junior ...

- Ajs within terminological units: mutual rights and obligations, legal entity, established time,

present act, criminal liability ...

-

„dislike“ of premodifying Ajs in legal E (Bázlik and Ambruš 49)

b/ complements → predicative -ed Ajs derived from Vs

VERBS -archaic forms: subjunctive, proved/proven

-phrasal verbs – rare (polysemantic, Germanic) set forth/stipulate

-analytic verb forms (passive, progressive, perfective) common

- performative verbs

1.Tense: depends on the type of text

Present (=timeless) → definitions

Future → will/shall = obligation Past = referential past time

2.Aspect: permanent events/states hence mostly simple aspect

3.Modality: mood: esp. indicative, imperative rare, exclamatory absent

subjunctive (esp. BE-type) I demand that he be present.

modal verbs: esp. shall/may

Esp. deontic (degrees of obligation): shall for binding nature of texts

should for less binding

may for permission (neg.may not)

must is much rarer

epistemic (degrees of possibility): can

4.Voice: passive is common, also with have (is had), often by-PP is present

5.Non-finite verb forms:

-common, add to the syntactic complexity

a/ infinitive: all forms - passive/progressive/perfective

for + NP + inf.constr. It is essential for a witness to testify in person.

split infinitive to timely appear

b/-ing form: participle and/or gerund

c/-ed participle, esp. in NP as postM

PREPOSITIONS - more frequent bec. of the general analytical tendencies of English

- common word + prep. Constructions: liable to, result from, contravene by

- in legalese esp. by (in passive)

through (method, means)

under (= according/pursuant to in cross-referencing)

Secondary prepositions: regarding, according to

Complex prepositions: as of, as for, prior to

notwithstanding (= regardless of)

coordinated pairs: on or before the day

phrasal preps: pursuant to, in lieu of

pronominal compounds there/where/here + prep: hereinafter, whereof

CONJUNCTIONS:

esp. coordin.: and, or, but;

subordin: if, provided, in case, unless, until, whereas

SYNTAX General characteristic of legalese: considerable syntactic complexity

Basic word order: SVOCA, or (A)S(A)VOC(A)

Major syntactic type: declarative sentence

Peculiarities:

1.Coordination – at ALL levels of structure (word, phrase, clause)

–e.g. Noun: binominals/conjoined phrases (comprehensiveness + precision)

e.g. terms and conditions

2.Subordination:

A.Finite – adverbial: conditional: if, in the event that, in case, provided that, unless

temporal: when, as soon as

purpose: in order to/that, so as to, for the purpose of

B.Non-finite: a/infinitive

b/participial: -ing, -ed (instead of finite relative Cl.)

C.verbless cl. (result from ellipsis, esp. of BE):

Literature:

Bázlik, M. and P. Ambrus (2008). A Grammar of Legal English. Iura Edition.

Hrehovčík, T. and M. Bázlik (2009). Súdny preklad a tlmočenie. Iura Edition.

Leech, G., M. Deuchar and D.Hoogenraad (2005). English Grammar for Today. Macmillan.