A Brief Introduc/on to Immunology · Immunology " Study of the immune system " Immunity –...
Transcript of A Brief Introduc/on to Immunology · Immunology " Study of the immune system " Immunity –...
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ABriefIntroduc/ontoImmunology
© Dr. Craig Murdoch 2016 OMMS, Clinical Dentistry
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LearningObjec/ves
BytheendofthisLectureyoushouldknow:• Thecellsandsolublefactorsthatmakeuptheimmunesystem
• Thestructureofan/bodies• Whattheinnateimmunesystemis• Howtodescribeinflamma/on• Howimmunecellssensemicrobes• Howimmunecellsleavethecircula/ontoasiteofinfec/on
• Howimmunecellseatmicrobes
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Immunology
" Studyoftheimmunesystem
" Immunity–‘immunitas’exemp/onforcivicdu/esofferedtoRomansenators.
" Hasevolvedtoprotectusfrompathogens
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ImmuneSystem" Mustdiscriminateselffromnon-self
" InnateImmunity–Non-specific,ins/nc/ve,doesnotdependonlymphocytes
" Adap/veImmunity–Specific‘Acquired’immunity,requireslymphocytes,an/bodies
" Ismadeupofcellsandsolubleproteins(humoral)
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BasicImmunology-outline
" ComponentsoftheImmuneSystem
" InnateImmunity
" Adap/veImmunity(nextlecture)
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Bon
e M
arro
w
Blo
od
Tiss
ue
Lymphoid Progenitor
Pre-B Cell
Pro-B Cell
B Cell
Lymph node
Plasma Cell
Thymocyte
Thymus
Cytotoxic T cell T-helper T-Reg
Cytotoxic T cell T-helper T-Reg
ORIGIN OF CELLS Haematopoietic pluripotent stem cell
B. myelocyte
Eosinophil
Eosinophil
CFU-eosin
E. myelocyte
Basophil
Basophil
CFU-basophil
Macrophage Neutrophil
M1 M2
LPS INFγ
IL-4 IL-13 TGFβ
Myeloid Progenitor
CFU-gran
N. myelocyte
Monocyte
CFU-monoc
Pro-monocyte
Neutrophil
CFU-erythrocyte
Reticulocyte
Erythrocyte
BFU-E
CFU-Meg
Megakaryocyte
Platelets
CFU-GM Myelomonocytic stem cell
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Neutrophils
Size 10-14µM, 3-11,000 per mm3 blood (65%) Lifespan – 6h-12d, express CD66b * Play important role in innate immunity
- Phagocytosis Have 2 main intracellular granules: Primary lysosomes - contain myeloperoxidase, muramidase, acid hydrolases, proteins (defensins) -Secondary granules containing lactoferrin and lysozyme Primary lysosomes combine with phagosomes containing microbes to digest them. Have Fc and complement receptors Can kill microbes by secreting toxic substances (superoxides)
Polymorphonuclear leukocyte
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MonocytesMononuclear leukocyte
Size 14-24µM, 100-700 per mm3 blood (5%) Lifespan – months, express CD14 * Play important role in innate and adaptive Immunity , Phagocytosis & Ag presentation Differentiate into Macrophages in the tissues Main role – remove anything foreign (microbes) or dead Have lysosomes containing peroxidase that can kill microbes Have Fc, complement receptors also Pattern Recognition Receptors (PRR) Toll-like and mannose receptors – can bind to all kinds of microbes
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Macrophages‘Large eaters’
Reside in tissues, Lifespan – months/years Eg. Kupffer cells – liver, microglia - brain Play important role in Innate and Adaptive Immunity – Phagocytosis & Ag presentation Most often first line of non-self recognition Main role – remove foreign (microbes) and self (dead/tumour cells) Have lysosomes containing peroxidase (free radicals) Have Fc, complement receptors also Scavenger, Toll-like and mannose receptors – can bind all kinds of microbes Present Ag to T-cells
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EosinophilPolymorphonuclear leukocyte
Size 10-14µM, 100-400 per mm3 blood (5%) Lifespan – 8-12d, express CD125 Granules stain for acidic dyes (eosin) Mainly associated with parasitic infections and allergic reactions. Granules contain Major Basic Protein – potent toxin for helminth worms MBP – activates neutrophils, induces histamine release from mast cells & provokes bronchospasam (allergy – Done in the 3rd year)
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BasophilPolymorphonuclear leukocyte
Size 10-12µM, 20-50 per mm3 blood (0.2%) Lifespan – 2d Granules stain for basic dyes Very similar to mast cells Express high-affinity IgE receptors (FcεR1) Binding of IgE to receptor causes de-granulation releasing histamine – main cause of allergic reactions mainly involved in immunity to parasitic infections and allergic reactions.
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MastCell
Size 10-14µM, Only in tissues (precursor in blood) Very similar to basophils Express high-affinity IgE receptors (FcεR1) Binding of IgE to receptor causes de-granulation releasing histamine – main cause of allergic reactions (Done in 3rd year) Mainly involved in immunity to parasitic infections and allergic reactions
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TLymphocytes(Tcells)Mononuclear leukocyte Size 5-12µM, 300-1,500 per mm3 blood (10%) Lifespan – hrs – yrs, Mature in thymus (T) Express CD3 (T cell receptor complex) *Play major role in Adaptive Immunity
- Recognise peptide Ag displayed by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) 4 main types - T helper 1 (CD4 – ‘help’ immune response intracellular
pathogens) - T helper 2 (CD4 – ‘help’ produce antibodies – extracellular pathogens) - Cytotoxic T cell (CD8 – can kill cells directly) - T reg (FoxP3) – regulate immune responses ‘dampen’
Found in blood, lymph nodes and spleen
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Mononuclear leukocyte
BLymphocytes(Bcells)
Size 5-12µM, 300-1,500 per mm3 blood (15%) Lifespan – hrs to yrs, Mature in bone marrow (B) Express CD19 + 20 (depends on maturity) * Play major role in Adaptive Immunity
Recognise Ag displayed by Antigen Presenting Cells (APC) Express membrane bound antibody on cell surface Differentiate into plasma cells that make Antibodies Found in blood, lymph nodes and spleen
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NaturalKiller(NK)Cells
Account for 15% of lymphocytes Express CD56, Found in spleen/tissues Look like ‘large granular lymphocytes’ NK cells recognise and kill:- Virus infected cells Tumour cells By apoptosis – programmed cell death
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Solublefactors
" Complement
" An/bodies
" Cytokines,Chemokines
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Complement(C’)Group of ~20 serum proteins that need to be ‘activated’ to be functional.
Classical - Ab bound to microbe Alternative – C’ binds to microbe Lectin – activated by mannose binding lectin bound to microbe
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An/bodiesHallmark of Adaptive immunity – they bind specifically to Antigen (Ag)
Immunoglobulin (Ig’s) - soluble - bound to B cells as part of B-cell antigen receptor
Ig’s are glycoproteins – 5 distinct classes. IgG (IgG1-4) IgA (IgA1 & 2) IgM IgD IgE
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‘Lingo’
Antibody (Ab) – protein produced in response to an antigen. It can only bind with the antigen that induced its formation – i.e. specificity. Antigen (Ag) – A molecule that reacts with preformed antibody and specific receptors on T and B cells. Epitope – the part of the antigen that binds to the antibody/receptor binding site. Affinity – measure of binding strength between an epitope and an antibody binding site. The higher the affinity the better.
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‘Lingo’
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Immunoglobulin(Ig)G
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IgG
Predominant in human serum – 70-75% of total Ig in serum
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IgM
Accounts for 10% of Ig in serum Pentamer, formation requires J chain Mainly found in blood – big so not cross endothelium Mainly primary response, initial contact with Ag The monomeric form (mIgM) is present as an antigen-specific receptor on B cells.
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IgAAccounts for 15% of Ig in serum In humans 80% of serum IgA is as a monomer (most animals serum IgA is a dimer) The predominant Ig in mucous secretions such as saliva, colostrum, milk, bronchiolar & genitourinary secretions - Called Secretory IgA (sIgA)
sIgA is held together with a J chain and a secretory component
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IgD
Accounts for 1% of Ig in serum A transmembrane monomeric form (mIgD) is present on mature B cells
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IgEAccounts for ~0.05% of Ig in serum Basophils and Mast Cells express and IgE-specific receptor that has high affinity for IgE Basophils and Mast Cells are continually saturated with IgE Binding Ag triggers release of histamine by these cells Associated with allergic response and defence against parasitic infections
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CytokinesCytokines - proteins secreted by immune and non-immune cells Interferons (IFN) - induce a state of antiviral resistance in uninfected cells & limit he spread of viral infection - IFNα & β - produced by virus infected cells - IFNγ - releasedbyac/vatedTh1cells
Interleukins(IL)–producedbymanycells,over30types- Canbepro-inflammatory(IL1)oran/-inflammatory(IL-10)- Cancausecellstodivide,todifferen/ateandtosecretefactors
ColonyS/mula/ngFactors(CSF)- Involvedindirec/ngthedivisionanddifferen/a/ononbonemarrowstemcells–precursorsofleukocytes
TumourNecrosisFactors(TNFα&β)- Mediateinflamma/onandcytotoxicreac/ons
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ChemokinesChemokines - ‘Chemo’tactic cyto’kines’ Groupofapprox40proteinsthatdirectmovementofleukocytes(andothercells)fromthebloodstreamintothe/ssuesorlymphorgansbybindingtospecificreceptorsoncellsCXCL–mainlyneutrophils(butalsoT&Blymphocytes)CCL–monocytes,lymphocytes,eosinophils,basophilsCX3CL–mainlyTlymphocytes&NKCellsXCL–mainlyTlymphocytesTheya`ractleukocytestositesofinfec/on/inflamma/on–likemagnets
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INNATE(Non-Specific)
" 1stlineofdefence" Providesbarriertoan8gen
" Ispresentfrombirth
ADAPTIVE(Specific)
" Responsespecifictoan8gen" Memorytospecifican8gen" Quickerresponse
DefenceMechanisms
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InnateImmunity
" Primi/ve(spreadacrossspecies)
" ‘un-learned/ins/nc/ve’response
" Doesnotdependonimmunerecogni/onbylymphocytes
" Doesnothavelonglas/ngmemory
" IntegrateswithAdap/veresponse
Hallmarks:
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InnateImmunity
" Physicalandchemicalbarriers
" Phagocy/ccells(neutrophilsandmacrophages)
" Serumproteins(complement,acutephase)
Includes:
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AnatomicalBarriers
" Skin Dermis&Epidermis " Sebum (skinsecre/ons)pH3-5" IntactskinPreventspenetra/on Preventsgrowth(lowpH)
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PhysicalBarriers
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MucousMembranes
" Saliva" Tears" Mucoussecre/ons" Mucous-entrapment" Cillia–bea/ngremovesmicrbes" Commensalcolonies–a`achment,nutrients
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PhysiologicalBarrier
" Temperature(pyrexia)- ChickenshavehighbodytemperatureandareAnthraxresistant
" Feverresponseinhibitsmicro-organismgrowth
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Physiological
" pH
" Gastricacidity(Helicobacterpylori)- Neonatestomachlessacidicthanadult- andsosuscep/bletoinfec/on" Oxygentension-aerobes/anaerobes
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Inflamma/on" Some/mesthebarriersarebreached
-Tissuedamage(trauma)orinfec/on
" Response
- Stopbleeding(coagula/on)
- Acuteinflamma/on(leukocyterecruitment)
- Killpathogens,neutralisetoxins,limitpathogenspread
- Clearpathogens/deadcells(phagocytosis)
- Prolifera/onofcellstorepairdamage
- Removebloodclot–remodelextracellularmatrix
- Re-establishnormalstructure/func/onof/ssue
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Inflamma/on
‘A series of reactions that brings cells and molecules of the immune system to sites of infection or damage’.
Hallmarks:
" Increasedbloodsupply
" Increasedvascularpermeability
" Increasedleukocytetransendothelialmigra/on‘extravasa/on’
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Inflamma/on
" AcuteInflamma/on- Completeelimina/onofapathogenfollowedbyresolu/onofdamage,disappearanceofleukocytesandfullregenera/onof/ssue
" ChronicInflamma/on-Persistent,un-resolvedinflamma/on
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SensingMicrobesIn blood – Monocytes, Neutrophils In tissues – Macrophages, Dendritic cells
PRR – Pattern Recognition Receptors (on cells) PAMP – Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (on microbe)
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SensingMicrobes–Toll-LikeReceptors
TLRs recognise Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns expressed by microbes
TNFα, chemokines, ICAM-1 etc
Cell membrane
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Complement(C’)
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ComplementC’can:-
" Lysemicrobesdirectly(MembraneA`ackComplex)
" Increasechemotaxs(C3aandC5a)
" Opsonisa/on
(C3b)
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Extravasa/on
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Tissue
Lumen of post-capillary venule
Extravasa/on
Endothelium
Infection
BUG
MØ
Chemokine
E-Selectin
CD15
GAG CD31/PCAM-1
Adhesion Molecule (ICAM-1)
Chemokine Receptor
Integrin (CD18/CD11b)
Neutrophil
TNFα
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Phagocytosis
" Phagocytosis–‘cellea/ng’Mainlyby" Macrophagesandneutrophils(alsobydendri/ccells-adap/ve)
phagolysosome
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N = nucleus B = Phagocytosed Bacteria
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Phagocytosis
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter2/animation__phagocytosis.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeuL3HPfeQw
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=fpOxgAU5fFQ
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Phagocytosis
Human macrophage eating a polystyrene bead and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (see arrow). These can live in macrophages
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" Twokillingpathwayspresentinpolymorphsandmacrophages
" O2-dependentReac/veOxygenIntermediates(ROI)Superoxides(O2)convertedtoH2O2then·OH(freeradical)NitricOxide(NO)-vasodila/on(Viagra)increasesextravasa/onbutalsodirectlyan/-microbial.
" O2-independentEnzymes-defensins(insertintomembranes),lysozymepH,TNF
MechanismsofKilling
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Inflamma/on–accessorymolecules" Acutephaseproteins(presentinbloodandincreaseduring
infec/on)CReac/veProteinSerumproteinproducedbyliver,bindstosomebacterialcellwalls(pneumococci).Promotesopsonisa/on,bindstoC1qandac/vatesC’Mannosebindinglec/n(MBL)Bindstolec/nonmicrobes,promotesopsonisa/on(viaMBLR)andac/vatesC’Surfactantprotein-A(SP-A)Bindshaemagglu/ninininfluenza–reducesabilityofvirustoinfectcells
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INNATEIMMUNITY" Effec/vebutlimited" Canbeevaded" SupplementsandaugmentsAdap/veimmunity.
Adap/veimmunityhas:-" an/genspecificityanddiversity" immunologicalmemory" specificself/non-selfrecogni/on
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INNATE(Non-Specific)
" 1stlineofdefence" Providesbarriertoan8gen" Ispresentfrombirth" Nomemory" Notrequirelymphocytes
ADAPTIVE(Specific)
" Responsespecifictoan8gen" Memorytospecifican8gen" Quickerresponse" Requireslymphocytes
DefenceMechanisms
Innate and adaptive responses are integrated
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WhydoweneedAdap/veImmunity?
" Microbesevadeinnateimmunity(DrStafford)(proteases,decoyproteins,etc)" Intracellularvirusesandbacteria‘hide’frominnateimmunity
" Needmemorytospecifican8gen–‘seenitbeforesofasterresponse’" CellMediated-Tcells-intracellularmicrobes" Humoral(Ab)-Bcells-extracellularmicrobes
It’s a WAR
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TheAdap/vePlayers
T cells Thymus
Primary Lymphoid
B cells Bone Marrow
Secondary Lymphoid
Spleen, lymph nodes, MALT
APC Dendritic cells Macrophages B cells
Bone Marrow
Tissue
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Recap
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Cell-MediatedImmunity
Interlaybetween:" An8genPresen8ngCells(APC)- Macrophages- Dendri8cCell- Bcells" Tcells
" Requiresin8matecelltocellcontact–controlAbresponsesviacontactwithBcells–directlyrecogniseandkillviralinfectedcells
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Cell-MediatedImmunity
AlsoRequiresMajorHistocompa/bilityComplex(MHC)Intrinsic/Endogenous(intracellular)an/gensExtrinsic/Exogenous(extracellular)an/gensRecognise‘Self’or‘Non-Self’
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TCells
DONOTrespondtosolublean/gensonlyintracellularan/gens‘presentedan/gens’
Tcellsthatrecognise‘self’arekilledinthefoetalthymusastheymature(calledTcellselec8on)
TCRrecognisesforeignan/gensinassocia/onwithMajorHistocompa/bilityComplex(MHC)
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TCellReceptorT Cell Receptor (TCR) - structure similar to Fab Ig’s Heterodimers – 90% are αβ, 10% γδ
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TCellsrecogniseAgwithMHC
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MajorHistocompa/bilityComplex(MHC)
Displaypep/desfromselfORnon-selfproteins(eg.degradedmicrobialproteins)onthecellsurface–invasionalert
InhumanscodedbyHumanLeukocyteAn/gen(HLA)genes
MHCI–codedbyHLA(A,B&Cgenes)-glycoproteinsonALLnucleatedcells(grairejec/on).
MHCII-codedbyHLA(DP,DQ&DR)-glycoproteinsONLYonAPC.MHCIII–codeforsecretedproteins(complement)
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MHC
α2
α1
α3
α2 α1
β2m
β1
β2
Class I Class II 13-24 aa peptide
8-10 aa peptide
On all Cells On APC
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MHC&TCells
Antigen
Intrinsic Intracellular (eg. virus)
Extrinsic extracellular
(phagocytosis)
MHC
Class II APC only
Class I All cells
T cells
Tc (CD8)
Function Kill infected cell
with intracellular pathogen
Th (CD4) Help B cells make Ab to extracellular pathogen, can help directly kill
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Phagocytosis
phagolysosome
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TCellAgRecogni/on&Ac/va/onMuch more complex than this – as usual !! Involves co-stimulatory molecules CD28 on T cell bind to CD80/CD86 on APC This is required for full activation Activation IL-2 is secreted & binds to IL-2R on T cells (autocrine) Leads to: division, differentiation, effector functions, memory
IL-2
IL-2R
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IFNγ Helps Kill
Intracellular pathogens
Ab production
Kill Intracellular pathogens
directly
IL-2 IFN-γ IL-4,5,10
Func/onalTcells
IL-12lo IL-12hi
naive
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Tc(CD8)Ac/va/on
CD8 + MHCI/peptide = Tc / CTL (effector cell)
CTL forms proteolytic granules & releases perforins and granulysin Also induces apoptosis (cell suicide)
MHC I
TCR
Tc
naive
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Th1(CD4)Ac/va/on
APC presents Ag with MHC II to naïve CD4 T cell Stimulation with high levels of IL-12 activate naïve cells to Th1 cells Th1 cells go to secondary lymphoid tissue (spleen, lymph nodes) Activated Th1 (CD4) cells proliferate (clonal expansion) Th1 cell recognises Ag on infected cells (with MHC II) via TCR (CD4) Th1 secretes INFγ – stop virus spread (and apoptosis)
Extrinsic Ag
MHC II
TCR naive
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Humoraladap/veimmunityBcellac/va/on
" BcellsexpressmembraneboundIg(IgMorIgDmonomer)
" EachBcellcanonlymake1AbthatwillonlybindoneepitopeononeAg
" Wearebornwithmorethan109immatureBcells–enoughtodetecteverysinglepossibleepitopeonallan8gens-ever!
" BcellsthatrecogniseselfarekilledinBM
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B Cells Present Ag to T Cells via MHC II
Monomeric IgM (or mIgD) binds Ag Phagocytosis Peptide displayed on surface with MHC II TCR of naive Th (CD4) binds to MHC II Lots of other co-stimulatory molecules required.
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T cells love helping B cells APC eats Ag (extrinsic) and presents it to naïve CD4+ T cells (via MHC II) These turn into Th2 cells Th2 cells bind to B cells that are presenting Ag (via MHC II). This Ag has been captured using the mIgR on cell surface. Th2 cell now secretes cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and IL-13 ( ) These cause B cells to divide – CLONAL EXPANSION and differentiate into Plasma cells (AFC = antibody forming cell) and Memory B cells (Bm)
Th2 Th2
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Bcellac/va/on-Summary" UponbindinganAgthat‘fits’Bcellsbecomeac8vated" Ac8vatedBcellsgotothelymphnodeswheretheyproliferate(clonalexpansion)anddifferen8ateintoplasmacells
" TheseplasmacellssecreteAbofsamespecificitybutaregenerallyIgM–theselaterturnintoIgGbuts8llhavesamespecificitytothesameAg(classswitching)
" Somes8llexpresscellsurfacemIgMandrecalculateformonths(MemoryBcells)
" Re-s8mula8onofMemoryBcellsleadstosecondaryresponse-Thisisveryquick
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AbeffectorFunc/onsSpecificsecretedAbmay" Neutralisetoxinbybindingtoit
" Increaseopsonisa8on–phagocytosis
" Ac8vatecomplement
LinkbetweenInnateandadap8veimmunity
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" Eg.Tetanusvaccine- TetanustoxoidfromClostridiumtetanicausesmusclecontrac8ons/spasms
- Treatpurifiedtoxoidinthelabwithformalin–lossoftoxicitybutNOTepitopes(shape)
Vaccina/on
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Vaccina/on
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SummaryofAdap/veImmunity
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Reading
Any problems e-mail – [email protected]
Immunology 7th Edition – David Male, Jon Brostoff, David Roth, Ivan Rott (2006) Mosby Elsevier. ISBN 0-323-03399-7