A bird of filth and splendour

Changes in the appearance and identity of the hoopoe throughout the history of art

by S.J. van Ettinger

1. Introduction

A while ago I wrote an article about

the occurrence of several bird

species in the Netherlands during

the 18th century. Among those bird

species was the hoopoe (Upupa

epops), the sole member of the

Upupidae family (Figure 1).

Whilst seeking for 18th century

images of the hoopoe, I also

encountered much older depictions

dating from the Medieval period.

I noticed that birds were depicted

in an odd fashion. Details were left

out and even the bird’s most

prominent feature, its crest of

feathers, was sometimes omitted.

By no means do I call Medieval art

a disgrace, in contrast I believe it is

fascinating and mysterious.

Frankly, I’m fortunate that the

hoopoe’s beauty was restored by

17th and 18

th century naturalist painters.

But, how did we get there? How did depictions of the hoopoe changed throughout the course of time?

And above all, what factors are to be held responsible for these changes? In this article several

depictions of the hoopoe will be shown and changes in the appearance and identity of the bird will be

examined.

The following time periods will be discussed:

1. Ancient history (Egypt and Minoan Crete)

2. Classical antiquity

3. Medieval Europe

4. Renaissance and (Dutch) Baroque era

5. The 18th and 19

th century

Fig. 1: Hoopoe (Upupa epops)

Photo credit: Rajiv Lather

2 Ancient history

2.1 Ancient Egypt

According to Kunstmann (1938), the oldest pictorial record of the hoopoe dates from the Twelfth

Dynasty of Egypt (Dynasty XII, c. 1900 BC)1. The depiction is part of a scene found on the walls of the

rock-cut tomb of Khnumhotep II (BH3) at Beni Hassan (Egypt)2, one of the most notable tombs of the

whole necropolis (Figure 2).

The hoopoe is sitting on a branch of the Egyptian thorn (Acacia nilotica).The scene itself is highly

symbolic. Not only does the evergreen acacia symbolizes eternity, but the Egyptians also believed that

migratory birds were the reborn souls of the dead, coming “from a northern exit of the Duat (ed: realm

of the dead)” and entering this world2. The hoopoe is relatively common

3 bird that resides and breeds

in Egypt2. However, their numbers increase significantly during migration periods

2.

Completeness mattered most to Egyptian artists4. For this reason, everything was presented from the

most representative angle, resulting in “flat” images. For instance, the hoopoes head and body are

shown from the side, whereas its tail is displayed from the top. For a profound period, artists stuck to a

geometrical sense of order and truthfulness. The hoopoe shows its recognizable crest, slender curved

bill and patterned wings. However, the tail should not be forked (Figure 2)5,6

. Furthermore, the tip of

the tail should have been black instead of white. Nevertheless, the Egyptians were able to achieve a

very realistic portrait of the bird.

Fig. 2: Presumably the oldest depiction of a hoopoe (1900BC).

1: A doorway leading to the shrine, decorated with three major hunting scenes.

2: A close-up of the scene above the doorway.

3: Microscene with a variety of migratory birds in an Egyptian thorn (Acacia nilotica)

Figures derived from David, A. (2014).

2.2 Minoan Crete

Another wall piece that is worth mentioning is a late Minoan (1500-1100 BC) fresco where the hoopoe

is depicted amid birds that resemble rock partridges (Alectoris spp., presumably Alectoris

chukar)(Figure 3)7. It was discovered in 1924 by the English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans, famous

for unearthing the palace of Knossos and several other buildings, among which the “Caravanserai”.

This building presumably used to be a hostel for travellers coming from the south through central

Crete and other areas in order to visit Knossos8.

According to Evans’ chronology, this work dates from the MM III - LM I epoch, and should therefore be

dated around the middle of the 16th century BC (c. 1550 BC).Evans thought the frieze resembled “the

wall of a Dutch dining room hung with pictures of game or domestic fowls..”7. He concludes that the

work is likely to be pure genre, meaning that no clear symbolic value can be attributed to the wall

piece.

This (reconstructed) depiction shows no curved bill, no black spots on the crest and no white belly.

Furthermore, the artists seem to have the ruddy buff hue of the hoopoe’s crest (and plumage)

converted into a brilliant orange yellow, whilst the right colours were available as shown in the very

same frieze. However, the Cretans did manage to portray a straight and black tail. Nevertheless, the

previously described Egyptian wall piece shows a better likeliness of the hoopoe than the Minoan

frieze. This statement only holds true if we assume that Gilliéron restored the frieze to its original state

and did not make up the hoopoe’s head and its flaws.

Minoan art was less strict and rigid than Egyptian art4. Possibly, the strict Egyptian conventions

caused their display of the hoopoe to stand out. Minoan artists might have experienced more artistic

freedom, resulting in a free and graceful style, and allowing artists to flavour their own works. As a

result, naturalistic flaws could have been produced. The difficulties whilst identifying the partridge

species would also tell that Minoan artist did not strive to achieve a true-to-nature frieze.

Artistic freedom in Minoan culture might be explained by the lack of a complex system of polytheistic

beliefs and rituals. Minoan religion focused on female deities7. Therefore, birds (and a range of other

objects) do not seem to have an explicit spiritual value in Minoan society, contrary to birds in Ancient

Egypt.

Fig. 3: “The partridge fresco” from the pavilion of “Caravanserai” at Knossos. (Both sections) Restored drawing by E. Gilliéron (1928).

3. Classical antiquity

I haven’t come across a single piece of art from the classical antiquity that displays the hoopoe.

However, the bird’s identity undergoes some major changes during this time period. I tried to get hold

of the hoopoe’s major identity changes in the Greco-Roman world.

In Greek myths we find references to its splendour, mainly granted by the hoopoe’s crest of feathers.

It’s feathery crown seemed to resemble a royal status in one of Ovid’s myths called Metamorphese

and provided the hoopoe with its role as king of the birds in the Greek comedy The Birds9. The

hoopoe’s royal affiliation can also be found in Jewish lore, where the bird would have obtained its crest

of feathers by king Solomon1,10

.

Speaking about early European history, we have to conclude that the hoopoe was not only regarded

as a magnificent bird. The bird is often described as being filthy. The most known reference to the

filthiness of the hoopoe can be found in Levictus XI, hypothesized to reach its final form in 538–332

BC. Levictus describes the bird as one that should be regarded as unclean and should not be eaten.

Also, the famous encyclopaedias of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) cites Aeschylus and describes that the

bird feeds upon filth (book X –ch. 44)11

. More precisely, Aeschylus did describe the bird as the

overseer of its own evils. This same passage was cited in Aristotle’s History of Animals12

.

A primary role is reserved for the Physiologus (traditionally dated to the 2nd

century AD), a didactic text

compiled by an unknown Greek author. The tenth chapter is dedicated to the hoopoe, and describes

how much the hoopoe’s offspring cares about its parents. Originally, these thoughts might have been

of Egyptian origin. Aelian (c. 150 AD) reported that the Egyptians also used to honour the hoopoe for

its piety towards its parents, supported by Horapollo’s work on hieroglyphs which showed that the

hoopoe stood for understanding and kindness towards parents1.

The Physiologus would later be translated in Latin (700 AD) and into many other language. It was the

predecessor of the immensely popular bestiaries13

.

4. Medieval Europe

Bestiaries brought morals in illustrated volumes that described a variety of animals. Among these

animals we also encounter depictions of hoopoes (Figure 4). Since bestiaries were among the most

commonly read publication in Medieval Europe, especially in England and France, they influenced the

way different species were perceived for a long period of time in Western (Christian) culture. The bird

would still be associated with filth and care for elderly during the Middle Ages. Depictions often show

the bird surrounded by its offspring, plucking the feathers of their parents.

Various generations of bestiaries existed and additions were made by bishops and clerics who often

referred to the hoopoe as a bird of filth. One of the key figures was Isidore of Seville, who expanded

the religious message of bestiaries by publishing Etymologiae14

.

Descriptions were often followed by unrealistic, artistic illustrations of the described animals (Figure 4).

We often notice that the bird’s crest is missing, its plumage is incorrectly displayed, its posture is faulty

or the beak is too large. Generally writers had to base their drawings upon stories instead of personal

observations. Especially English writers should have struggled with the relative rarity of the hoopoe1.

Furthermore, writers tended to view birds as magnificent wonders of the Creator. For this reason,

realism wasn’t necessary as long as the depictions marvelled readers15

. In the same light, artists also

displayed important persons who were identifiable because of their names or added objects, instead

or their likeliness. The sole sake of Gothic artists was to tell the (sacred) story in a moving and

convincing manner4. The predominantly religious interpretation made consistent observations

irrelevant, which is one of the reasons why histories of zoology can leap from antiquity to the

Renaisscance15

.

Fig. 4: Depictions of the hoopoe in Medieval bestiaries

Source: http://bestiary.ca/beasts/beastgallery243.htm#

5. Renaissance and (Dutch) Baroque era

During the Renaissance new ideals of humanism arose and societies would secularize. For this

reason, the copying and illuminating of the bestiaries slowly came to an end. The hoopoe as an icon of

parental devotion would gradually diminish. In fact, the stork had replaced the hoopoe as a symbol of

family love at the end of the Middle Ages1. However, in folklore there would still be reference to its filth.

Mainly, to scientific observations and pseudo-scientific lore of the bird nesting in debris1. Even

nowadays, the bird is described by birders as a bird that prefers to roam in littered environments.

The break from Gothic art resulted in many significant advances in figurative naturalism. Realistic

depictions started to flourish, led by important contributors such as Leonardo and Michelangelo16

.

Artists carefully studied their surroundings by making drawings and watercolour paintings. Watercolour

paintings allowed painters such as Dürer to produce famous naturalistic artworks. The early Italian

Renaissance painter Pisanello (1395-1455) also studied his objects in this manner. Pisanello

succeeds at depicting a hoopoe in a very natural way (Figure 5), showing us that a huge leap was

made since the late Medieval period.

The Renaissance brought confidence in the capabilities of man and led to the idea that they could

excel in many things. New techniques were developed, such as printing17

and engraving which also

gave rise to a new form of depicting and a faster spread of ideas (Figure 6). Furthermore,

Netherlandish artists developed oil painting17,18

, which improved quality of paintings and had lasting

effects on painting worldwide.

Fig. 5: Watercolour painting on paper by Pisanello (1430-1440)

Source: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002.

Although it’s a sole example, it seems like the early Italian Renaissance depiction of Pisanello is highly

influenced by the Italian Renaissance’s ideals of beauty and grace, idealizing the hoopoes

appearance. The Netherlandish engraving of Collaert is less idealized and the hoopoe even appears a

bit clumsy. The bird can sometimes show hefty (Figure 1), but in general I would argue that the bird is

more slender and graceful than Collaert’s display, whereas Pisanello’s effort is a bit too elegant.

The (Dutch) Baroque era was dominated by more secular art due to the Reformation16

. Art was used

as a weapon in a religious war to splendour and flourish for God. However, the surge of true-to-life

works continued and artists still strived to replicate nature as accurately as possible. During the late

16th century, still-life and genre painting already became more popular. We also find an increase in

landscape paintings, among which landscapes with animals. Gombrich even refers to Dutch 17th

century painting as the mirror of nature4.

Among the most famous Dutch animalier painters we find Melchior‘d Hondecoeter (c. 1636-1695) and

Jan Weenix (1640/41-1719).The former was famous for his works with exotic birds in park landscape

and even depicted the hoopoe in one of his works (Figure 7). In his composition we notice the different

hues and blends due to the use of oil paint. There also seems to be a lot of interaction between the

birds. Some birds truly seem to come to life. Such as the hen, who appears to show concern for her

offspring or the parrot who give us a marvelled and curious look. Possibly these lively expressions are

a result of the search for expressiveness and natural gestures that occurred from the early

(Netherlandish) Renaissance onwards18

.

Fig. 6: Engraving by the Flemish artist Adriaen Collaert ( c. 1560 - 1618)

Source: http://www.harvardartmuseums.org

Album of 16th-century Netherlandish Prints and Drawings

Furthermore, we notice that in Pisanello’s, Collaert’s and d’Hondecoeter’s work the bird has no clear

didactic value anymore, it is being displayed as a bird of splendour instead of a bird of filth or parental

devotion. D’Hondecouter would inspire subsequent Dutch animal painters, such as the Dutch 18th

century painter Aart Schouman, who also included a hoopoe in one of his works.

Another significant advancement during the 17th century was the publication of the first major system

of bird classification, Ornithologia libri tres by Francis Willughby and John Ray in 167619

. This system

was based on function and morphology instead of behaviour. Therefore, anatomical correctness

should have become more important if one ought to properly study birds.

6. The 18th and 19th century

There was a growing interest in science and nature. The emergence of ornithology as a scientific

discipline began in the 18th century. During the 18th century we see a rise of ornithological

publications. Several landmark works were published, such as Ornithologie in 1760, Histoire naturelle

des oiseaux (1770–1785) and Nederlansche vogelen (1770-1829). Besides, Systema Naturae (1758)

was published by Carolus Linnaes, a work that revolutionized taxonomy.

The hoopoe as shown in Nederlandsche vogelen by Nozeman en Sepp is a coloured engraving

(Figure 8). In 1796 the technique of lithography was invented20

. Lithography was a quick and cheap

process and soon found a broad range of applications, especially when printing technologies improved

and colouring lithographs became possible. Therefore, we also find zoological lithographs of birds

during the 19th century (Figure 9). Artists appreciated the shift of tones that could be achieved with

lithography20

. If we compare the engraving with the lithograph (Figure 8 and Figure 9), the shifting of

tones is clearly visible and even reminds of the different blends and hues of oil painting.

By the mid-19th-century, a taste for animal subjects was very widespread among all sections of the

middle-classes. The first birding clubs came into existence, such as the Deutsche Ornithologen-

Gesellschaft (1853) and the British Ornithologists' Union (1855). The hoopoe became a bird that was

appreciated, and still is, because of its marvellous and rare appearance.

Fig. 7: Birds on a Balustrade, Melchior d' Hondecoeter, c. 1680 - c. 1690

Source: https://www.rijksmuseum.nl/en/collection/SK-A-695

Fig. 7: Depiction of a hoopoe out of a Dutch natural history compendium (1786)

Source: Nozeman, C., Houttuyn, M. & Sepp, C. (1786). Nederlandsche vogelen dl. II. Amsterdam: J.C Sepp.

Fig. 8: Lithograph of a hoopoe out of a British ornithological work (1862-1873)

Source: The Birds of Great Britain, J. Gould & H.C. Richter

Conclusion

I tried to get hold of major cultural shifts, as well as the most important artistic changes and technical

advancements that affected art from the Ancient era roughly up until the Modern era. First of all, I want

to state that we should be careful not to oversimplify the trends and developments of arts throughout

the course of time, or to think of developments as solid boundaries between art movements or eras.

Secondly, only several works of art are shown in this essay, often belonging to different regions or

times, which will not allow us to compare works properly and to get the hang of the progression of art.

Besides, all of these works have been, to a certain extent, subject to an artist’s personal taste, style

and life. Therefore, a sole work can never provide us with a stereotypical depiction of the hoopoe of

that time period, which frankly was beyond the scope of this essay. In order to get a better

understanding of art history I once again refer to Gombrich’s book The story of art4.

Although the hoopoe was used to illustrate these changes, I do believe that the described drivers of

change often can be held responsible, not only for the transformation of depictions of the hoopoe –or

zoological art, but for the changing of illustrations in general. I will try to summarize the major drivers

that were discussed and hypothesized to affect zoological illustrations of the hoopoe throughout the

course of time.

First of all we noticed a strong effect of religion and folklore on arts. In Ancient times, the hoopoe was

a sacred bird and its display was affected by the strictness of artistic laws. Also, the bible labelled the

bird as being filthy, which together with the folklore evoked by Physiologus would dominated the bird’s

identity throughout the Middle Ages. The moral meaning of the bird was superior to the realism of its

depictions, which was also negatively affected by the bird’s rarity. Personally I would say that the

Middle Ages brought a lot of confusion and falsehoods about the appearance of bird species. During

the early Renaissance, society would (partly) secularize and the bird’s identity would slowly turn into a

bird of splendour instead of morals and meaning. New techniques were developed, which enhanced

quality as well as the spread of ideas and arts. Besides, artists started to strive for realism and artists

carefully observed nature. Later, the Reformation gave an impulse to genre works, such as still-lifes

and landscapes. Animalier painters started to portray the hoopoe and other exotic birds. Furthermore,

science advanced and the first taxonomic systems became available, which were based on function

and morphology instead of behaviour. For this reason, a careful anatomical observation was

necessary. In the 18th century the first major zoological works were published. By the mid-19

th-century,

a taste for animal subjects was very widespread among all sections of the middle-classes and the first

birding clubs came into existence.

Nowadays, I believe all birders admire the beauty of the hoopoe, and although the bird will be mostly

photographed, some artists will still choose the hoopoe as a subject to portray (Figure 9).

Fig. 9: African hoopoe (2007) by Peter Blackwell.

Source: http://www.natureartists.com/

5. Bibliography

1. Kunstmann, J.G. (1938). The Hoopoe: a study in European folklore. Chicago: University of Chicago libraries.

2. David, A. (2014). Hoopoes and Acacias, Decoding an Ancient Egyptian Funerary Scene. JNES 73(2), p. 235-252.

3. Egyptian bird atlas (2015). Eurasian hoopoe

Retrieved from: http://egypt.observation.org/soort/info/38

4. Gombrich, E.H. (2013). The story of art (16th ed.). London: Phaidon Press Limited.

5. Arnott, W.G. (2007). Birds in the Ancient World from A to Z. New York/Oxon: Routledge.

6. Dawson, W. E. (1925) The Lore of the Hoopoe (Upupa epops L.). Ibis, 67, p. 31–39.

7. Evans, A.J. (1928). The Palace of Minos: a comparative account of the successive stages of the early Cretan civilization as illustrated

by the discoveries at Knossos. London: MacMillan & Co.

Retrieved from: http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/evans1928/0140

8. Shaw, M.C. (2005). The painted pavilion of the 'Caravanserai' at Knossos. British School at Athens Studies 13, p. 91-111.

9. Ancient literature (2015). The birds

Retrieved from: http://www.ancient-literature.com/greece_aristophanes_birds.html

10. Frankel, E. (1993). The Classic Tales: 4,000 Years of Jewish Lore. New Jersey: Jason Aronson.

11. Perseus digital library (2015). Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, chapter 44.

Retrieved from:

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D44

12. Payne, M. (2010). The Animal Part: Human and Other Animals in the Poetic Imagination. Chicago/London: The university of Chicago

press.

13. White, T.H. (1960). The bestiary: The book of beasts. Londen/New York: Capricorn Books / G.P. Putnam's Sons.

14. The Medieval bestiary (2015). Hoopoe.

Retrieved from: http://bestiary.ca/beasts/beast243.htm

15. Clark, W.B. (1992). The Medieval book of birds: Hugh of Fouilloy’s Aviarum. Binghamton: State University of New York.

16. Encyclopedia of art education (2015). Naturalism.

Retrieved from: http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art/naturalism.htm

17. Campbell, S.J. & Cole, M.W. (2012). A new history of Italian Renaissance art. London: Thames & Hudson.

18. European Paintings: From Leonardo to Rembrandt to Goya (2015).

Retrieved from: https://www.edx.org/course/european-paintings-leonardo-rembrandt-uc3mx-ceh-1-enx

19. Whipple library (University of Camebridge)(2015). Francis Willughby, Ornithology (London, 1676).

Retrieved from: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/library/willughby/

20. Heilbrunn timeline of art history (The Metropolitan museum of art)(2015). Lithography in the Nineteenth Century.

Retrieved from: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lith/hd_lith.htm