88082109 Hydrogen Vehicle (1)

Honda FCX Clarity, a hydrogen fuel celldemonstration vehicle introduced in 2008

Hydrogen vehicleFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A hydrogen vehicle is avehicle that useshydrogen as its onboard fuelfor motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include hydrogen fueled spacerockets, as well as automobilesand other transportation vehicles. Thepower plants of such vehicles convert the chemical energy ofhydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in aninternal combustion engine, or by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in afuel cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen forfueling transportation is a key element of a proposed hydrogeneconomy.

Hydrogen fuel does not occur naturally on Earth and thus is not anenergy source, but is an energy carrier. Currently it is most frequently made from methane or other fossil fuels.However, it can be produced from a wide range of sources (such as wind, solar, or nuclear) that are intermittent,too diffuse or too cumbersome to directly propel vehicles. Integrated wind-to-hydrogen plants, using electrolysisof water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete withtraditional energy sources.[1]

Many companies are working to develop technologies that might efficiently exploit the potential of hydrogenenergy for mobile uses. The attraction of using hydrogen as an energy currency is that, if hydrogen is preparedwithout using fossil fuel inputs, vehicle propulsion would not contribute to carbon dioxideemissions. Thedrawbacks of hydrogen use are low energy content per unit volume, high tankage weights, very high storage vesselpressures, the storage, transportation and filling of gaseous or liquid hydrogen in vehicles, the large investment ininfrastructure that would be required to fuel vehicles, and the inefficiency of production processes.

Contents■ 1 Vehicles

■ 1.1 Automobiles■ 1.2 Buses■ 1.3 Bicycles■ 1.4 Motorcycles and scooters■ 1.5 Quads and tractors■ 1.6 Airplanes■ 1.7 Fork trucks■ 1.8 Rockets

■ 2 Internal combustion vehicle■ 3 Fuel cell

■ 3.1 Fuel cell cost■ 3.2 Freezing conditions■ 3.3 Service life

■ 4 Hydrogen■ 4.1 Production■ 4.2 Storage■ 4.3 Infrastructure■ 4.4 Codes and standards

■ 5 Criticism■ 6 Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle

■ 6.1 Plug-in hybrids■ 6.2 Natural gas■ 6.3 Battery electric vehicles

■ 7 See also■ 8 References

of 14Hydrogen vehicle - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

01-10-2011http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle

Sequel, a fuel cell-powered vehiclefrom General Motors

Ford Edge hydrogen-electric plug-in hybrid concept

■ 9 External links

VehiclesFurther information: Fuel cell vehicle

Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes,submarines, and rocketscan already run on hydrogen, in various forms. NASA uses hydrogen to launch SpaceShuttles into space. There is even a working toy model car that runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cellto store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release thesolar energy.[2]

The current land speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle is 286.476 mph (461.038 km/h) set by Ohio StateUniversity's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of 280.007 mph (450.628 km/h) at theBonneville Salt Flats in August 2008. For production-style vehicles, the current record for a hydrogen-poweredvehicle is 333.38 km/h (207.2 mph) set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car atBonneville Salt Flats in Wendover, Utah in August 2007. It was accompanied by a large compressed oxygen tankto increase power. Hondahas also created a concept called theFC Sport that it hopes will challenge that record.[3]

Automobiles

Main articles: List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles

Many companies are currently researching the feasibility of buildinghydrogen cars, and some automobile manufacturers havebegun developinghydrogen cars (see list of fuel cell vehicles). Funding has come from bothprivate and government sources. However, the Ford Motor Company hasdropped its plans to develop hydrogen cars, stating that "The next majorstep in Ford’s plan is to increase over time the volume of electrifiedvehicles".[4] Similarly, French Renault-Nissan announced in 2009 that it iscancelling its hydrogen car R&D efforts.[5] As of October 2009, GeneralMotors CEO Fritz Henderson noted that GM had reduced its hydrogenprogram because the cost of building hydrogen cars was too high. "It's stilla ways away from commercialization", he said. The "Volt will likely costaround $40,000 while ahydrogen vehicle would cost around $400,000.[6]

Most hydrogen cars are currently only available as demonstration modelsfor lease in limited numbers and are not yet ready for general public use. Theestimated number of hydrogen-powered cars in the United States was 200 asof October 2009, mostly in California.[7]

Honda introduced its first fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called theFCX and hassince then introduced the second generation FCX Clarity. In 2007 at theGreater Los Angeles Auto Show, Honda unveiled the first production modelof the FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity began in June 2008in the United States, and it was introduced in Japan in November 2008.[8] TheFCX Clarity is available in the U.S. only in Los Angeles Area, where 16hydrogen filling stations are available, and as of July 2009, ten drivers hadleased the Clarity for US$600 a month.[9] Honda stated that it could start mass producing vehicles based on theFCX concept by the year 2020[9] and reaffirmed, in 2009, that it continues to put resources into hydrogen fuel celldevelopment, which it saw as "a better long term bet than batteries and plug-in vehicles".[10] In December 2010,however, it introduced a BEV version of the HondaFit, using elements of its hydrogen engine design, stating thatthe "industry trend seems to be focused on the battery electric vehicle".[11]



Hydrogen bicycle

In 2008, Hyundai announced its intention to produce 500 FC vehicles by 2010 and to start mass production of itsFC vehicles in 2012.[12] In early 2009, Daimler announced plans to begin its FC vehicle production in 2009 withthe aim of 100,000 vehicles in 2012–2013.[13][14] In 2009, Nissan started testing a new FC vehicle in Japan.[15] InSeptember 2009, Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, Kia, Renault, Nissan and Toyota issued a jointstatement about their undertaking to further develop and launch fuel-cell electric vehicles as early as 2015.[16]

In February 2010 Lotus Cars announced that it was developing a fleet of hydrogen taxis in London. London'sdeputy mayor, Kit Malthouse, said he hoped six filling stations would be available and that around 20 to 50 taxiswould be in operation by the time of the 2012 Olympic Games, as well as 150 hydrogen-powered buses.[17] InMarch 2010, General Motors said it had not abandoned fuel-cell technology and is still targeted to introducehydrogen vehicles to retail customers by 2015. Charles Freese, GM’s executive director of global powertrainengineering, stated that the company believes that both fuel-cell vehicles and battery electric vehicles are neededfor reduction of greenhouse gases and reliance on oil, and the U.S. should follow Germany and Japan in adopting amore uniform strategy on advanced technology options. Both countries have announced plans to open 1,000hydrogen fuel stations.[18]

Buses

Main article: fuel cell bus

Fuel cell buses (as opposed to hydrogen fueled buses) are being trialed by several manufacturers in differentlocations. TheFuel Cell Bus Club is a global fuel cell bus testing collaboration.

Hydrogen was first stored in roof mounted tanks, although models are now incorporating onboard tanks. Somedouble deck models use between floor tanks.

Bicycles

Main article: PHB (bicycle)

Pearl Hydrogen Power Sources of Shanghai, China, unveiled a hydrogenbicycle at the 9th China International Exhibition on GasTechnology,Equipment and Applications in 2007.

Motorcycles and scooters

ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell,including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix areworking on hydrogen scooters.[19] Finally, hydrogen fuel cell-electric hybrid scooters are being made such as theSuzuki Burgman Fuel cell scooter[20] and theFHybrid.[21]

Quads and tractors

Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due[22] is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for ahydrogen powered tractor has been proposed.[23]

Airplanes

For more details on this topic, seeHydrogen planes.

Companies such asBoeing, Lange Aviation, and theGerman AerospaceCenter pursue hydrogen as fuel for manned and unmanned airplanes. InFebruary 2008 Boeing tested a manned flight of a small aircraft poweredby a hydrogen fuel cell. Unmanned hydrogen planes have also been tested.[24] For large passenger airplanes however, The Times reported that "Boeingsaid that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of largepassenger jet airplanes but could be used asbackup or auxiliary powerunits onboard."[25]



The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstratorpowered by a hydrogen fuel cell

In July 2010 Boeing unveiled its hydrogen powered Phantom EyeUAV,powered by two Ford internal combustion engines that have beenconverted to run on hydrogen.[26]

In Europe, the Reaction Engines A2 has been proposed to use thethermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen to achieve very high speed,long distance (antipodal) flight by burning it in a precooled jet engine.

Fork trucks

A HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internalcombustion enginepowered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first productionHICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008.It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of acompressor and direct injection.[27][28] The hydrogen tank is filled with 26 liters of hydrogen at 350 bar pressure.

Rockets

Many large rockets use liquified cryogenic hydrogen as a propellant. In addition they use liquified cryogenicoxygen, and liquified cryogenic hydrogen in the space shuttle, to charge the fuel cells that power theelectricalsystems.[citation needed] The biproduct of the fuel cell is water, and is used for drinking, and any other application thatrequires water in space. The oxygen is also used to provide the rocket engines with oxygen for better thrust inspace, due to the lack of oxygen in space.[citation needed] Just prior to a launch, the rocket fuel tanks are filled andchilled. The hydrogen fuel used in the rocket engine is directly ignited. The main advantage of hydrogen is that thevelocity change of a stage employing it is little different from a stage using denser fuel, while the lift-off weight ofthe stage is less. Particularly when used for upper stages this permits a lighter rocket for any given payload.[citation needed] The main disadvantage of hydrogen in thisapplication is the low density and deeply cryogenic nature,requiring insulation; this makes the hydrogen tanks relatively heavy, which offsets theadvantages for thisapplication, but these disadvantages could be overcomethrough the advent of better on board hydrogenrefrigeration, and liquifier technology to produce fuel needed for long distance space travel to adestination wheresalt water is available, such as possibly comets, moons, and planets.[citation needed] But another advantage of usingcryogenic fuel is that the fuel system is able to be routed in specific paths to act as a cooling system for the rocket,which is crucial for temperature regulation in extended use of rocket propulsion.[29]

Internal combustion vehicleMain articles: Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicleand List of hydrogen internal combustion enginevehicles

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. Thehydrogen internalcombustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. Thesehydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline enginesdo.

Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed in 1807 the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine.[30] Paul Diegespatented in 1970 a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed agasoline-powered engine to runon hydrogen US 3844262 (http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3844262) .

Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen. The advantage of using ICE (internal combustionengine) like Wankel and piston engines is the cost of retooling for production is much lower. Existing-technologyICE can still be applied for solving those problems where fuel cells are not a viable solution insofar, for examplein cold-weather applications.

HICE forklift trucks have been demonstrated[31] based on converted diesel internal combustion engines with directinjection.[28]



Fuel cellWhile fuel cells themselves are potentially highly energy efficient, and working prototypes were made by FrancisThomas Bacon in 1959[32] and Roger E. Billings in the 1960s, at least four technical obstacles and other politicalconsiderations exist regarding thedevelopment and use of a fuel cell-powered hydrogen car: the cost, reliabilityand durability of the fuel cells; storage of hydrogen for use in fuel cells; production of hydrogen; and delivery ofhydrogen to vehicles.[33]

Fuel cell cost

Currently, hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce and someare fragile. As of October 2009,Fortunemagazine estimated the cost of producing the Honda Clarity at $300,000 per car.[34] Also, many designsrequire rare substances such asplatinum as a catalyst in order to work properly. Occasionally, a catalyst canbecome contaminated by impurities in the hydrogen supply, rendering the fuel cell inoperable. In 2010, researchand design advances developed a new nickel-tin nanometal catalyst which lowers the cost of cells.[35]

Fuel cells are generally priced in USD/kW. The U.S. Department of Energy estimated that the cost of a fuel cellfor an automobile in 2002 was approximately $275/kw, which translated into each vehicle costing more than 1million dollars. However, by 2010, the Department of Energy estimated that the cost had fallen 80% and that suchfuel cells could be manufactured for $51/kW, assuming high-volume manufacturing cost savings.[36] BallardPower Systems also published similar data. Their 2005 figure was $73 USD/kW (based on high volumemanufacturing estimates), which they said was on track to achieve the U.S. Department of Energy's 2012 goal of$30 USD/kW. This would achieve closer parity with internal combustion engines for automotiveapplications,allowing a 100 kW fuel cell to be produced for $3000. 100 kW is about 134 hp.[37]

Freezing conditions

Temperatures below freezing are a concern with fuel cells operations. Operational fuel cells have an internalvaporous water environment that could solidify if the fuel cell and contents are not kept above0° Celsius (32°F).Most fuel cell designs are not as yet robust enough to survive in below-freezing environments. Frozen solid,especially before start up, they would not be able to begin working. Once running though, heat is abyproduct ofthe fuel cell process, which would keep the fuel cell at an adequate operational temperature to function correctly.This makes startup of the fuel cell a concern in cold weather operation. Places such as Alaska where temperaturescan reach −40 °C (−40 °F) at startup would not be able to use early model fuel cells. Ballard announced in 2006that it had already hit the U.S. DoE's 2010 target for cold weather starting which was 50% power achieved in 30seconds at -20 °C.[38]

Fuel cells have startup and long term reliability problems. Early gasoline engines had thecharacteristic of higherheat dissipation once running, whereas fuels cells emit less heat, making the warm up process somewhat lessquick.[39]

Service life

Although service life is coupled to cost, fuel cells have to be compared to existing machines with a service life inexcess of 5000 hours[40] for stationary and light-duty. Marine PEM fuel cells reached the target in 2004.[41] Currentservice life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.[42] Research is going on especially for heavy duty like in thebus trials which are targeted up to aservice life of 30,000 hours.

For more details on this topic, seeFuel cell.

HydrogenHydrogen does not come as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but is first produced and then stored asa carrier, much like abattery. Hydrogen for vehicle uses needs to be produced using either renewable or non-renewable energy sources. A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could leadto decreased emissions of greenhousegases and ozone precursors.[43]



Compressed hydrogenstorage mark

According to theUnited States Department of Energy "Producing hydrogen from natural gas does result in somegreenhouse gas emissions. When compared to ICE vehicles using gasoline, however, fuel cell vehicles usinghydrogen produced from natural gas reducegreenhouse gas emissions by 60%.[44] While methods of hydrogenproduction that do not use fossil fuel would be moresustainable,[45] currently renewable energy represents only asmall percentage of energy generated, and power produced from renewable sources can be used in electric vehiclesand for non-vehicle applications.[46]

The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include production, storage, transport and distribution.Because of all these challenges, the well-to-wheel efficiency for hydrogen is less than 25%.[47][48][49]

Production

For more details on this topic, seeHydrogen production.

The molecular hydrogen needed as an on-board fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through manythermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleumgas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product calledbiohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas,[50] and 85% ofhydrogen produced is used to remove sulfur from gasoline. Hydrogen can also be produced from water byelectrolysis or by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.[51] Current technologies formanufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of thehigher heatingvalue of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.[52]

Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission ofgreenhouse gases, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen.[47] Studies comparing the environmental consequences of hydrogen production and use in fuel-cell vehicles to therefining of petroleum and combustion in conventional automobile engines find a net reduction of ozone andgreenhouse gases in favor of hydrogen.[43] Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would notcreate such emissions or, in the case of biomass, would create near-zero net emissions assuming new biomass isgrown in place of that converted to hydrogen. However the same land could be used to createBiodiesel, usablewith (at most) minor alterations to existing well developed and relatively efficient diesel engines. In either case,the scale of renewableenergy production today is small and would need to be greatly expanded to beused inproducing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.[53] As of December 2008, less than 3 percent ofU.S. electricity was produced from renewablesources, not including dams.[54] In a few countries, renewablesources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermalpower to produce hydrogen,[55] and Denmark is using wind.[56]

Storage

For more details on this topic, seeHydrogen storage.

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, equal toabout one-third that of methane. Even when the fuel is stored as liquid hydrogen ina cryogenic tank or in a compressed hydrogen storage tank, the volumetric energydensity (megajoules per liter) is small relative to that of gasoline. Hydrogen has athree times higher energy density by masscompared to gasoline (143 MJ/kg versus46.9 MJ/kg). Some research has been done into using special crystallinematerialsto store hydrogen at greater densities and at lower pressures. A recent study byDutch researcher Robin Gremaud has shown that metal hydride hydrogen tanks areactually 40 to 60-percent lighter than an equivalent energy battery pack on anelectric vehiclepermitting greater range for H2 cars.[57] In 2011, scientists at LosAlamos National Laboratory and University of Alabama, working with theU.S.Department of Energy, found anew single-stage method for recharging ammoniaborane, a hydrogen storagecompound.[58][59]



Hydrogen car fueling

Hydrogen fueling

Infrastructure

For more details on this topic, seeHydrogen infrastructure.

For moredetails on this topic, seeHydrogen highway.

The hydrogen infrastructureconsists mainly of industrial hydrogen pipelinetransport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on ahydrogen highway. Hydrogen stations which are not situated near a hydrogenpipeline can obtain supply viahydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tubetrailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.

Hydrogen use would require the alteration of industry and transport on a scalenever seen before in history. For example, according to GM, 70% of theU.S. population lives near a hydrogen-generating facility but has littleaccess to hydrogen, despite its wide availability for commercial use.[60] Thedistribution of hydrogen fuel for vehicles throughout the U.S. wouldrequire new hydrogen stations costing, by some estimates, 20 billiondollars.[61] and 4.6 billion in the EU.[62] Other estimatesplace the cost ashigh as half trillion dollars in the United States alone.[63]

The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative to build a series ofhydrogen refueling stations along that state. These stations are used torefuel hydrogen vehicles such as fuel cell vehiclesand hydrogencombustion vehicles. As of March 2011, the California Fuel CellPartnership showed 20 stations in operation, with eight more planned. These are located mostly in and around LosAngeles, with a few in the Bay area[64][65] South Carolina also has a hydrogen freeway project, and the first twohydrogen fueling stations opened in 2009 in Aiken and Columbia, South Carolina. According to theSouthCarolinaHydrogen & Fuel Cell Alliance, the Columbia station has a current capacity of 120 kg a day, with futureplans to develop on-site hydrogen production from electrolysis and reformation. The Aiken station has a currentcapacity of 80 kg. There are several funding projects for Hydrogen fuel cell research and infrastructure in SouthCarolina. The University of South Carolina, a founding member of theSouth CarolinaHydrogen & Fuel CellAlliance, received 12.5 million dollars from the Department of Energy for its Future Fuels Program.[66]

Codes and standards

Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and thestorage ofhydrogen, have been identified asan institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologiesand developing ahydrogen economy. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standardsmust be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.[67]

CriticismCritics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scaleuse of hydrogen vehicles is likely to last for at least several decades, and hydrogen vehicles may never becomebroadly available.[46][68] They claim that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from morereadily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.[69] In May 2008, Wired News reported that"experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption orglobal warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources frommore immediate solutions."[70]

K. G. Duleep speculates that "a strong case exists for continuing fuel-efficiency improvements from conventionaltechnology at relatively low cost." [71] Critiques of hydrogen vehicles are presented in the 2006 documentary, WhoKilled the Electric Car?. According to former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, "A hydrogen caris one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases." Asked when hydrogen cars will bebroadly available, Romm replied: "Not in our lifetime, and very possibly never."[71] The Los Angeles Timeswrote,in February 2009, "Hydrogen fuel-cell technology won't work in cars. ... Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a



lousy way to movecars." [72] A 2007 article in Technology Review stated, "In the context of the overall energyeconomy, a car like theBMW Hydrogen 7 would probably produce far more carbon dioxide emissions thangasoline-powered cars available today. And changing this calculation would take multiple breakthroughs– whichstudy after study has predicted will take decades, if they arrive at all. In fact, the Hydrogen 7 and its hydrogen-fuel-cell cousins are, in many ways, simply flashy distractions produced by automakers who should be taking strongerimmediateaction to reduce the greenhouse-gas emissions of their cars."[46][73]

The Wall Street Journal reported in 2008 that "Top executives from General Motors Corp. and Toyota MotorCorp. Tuesday expressed doubts about the viability of hydrogen fuel cells for mass-market production in the nearterm and suggested their companies are now betting that electric cars will prove to be a better way to reduce fuelconsumption and cut tailpipe emissions on a large scale."[6][74] The Economist magazine, in September 2008,quoted Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, as saying: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehiclefuel'".[75] The magazine noted the withdrawal of California from earlier goals: "In March [2008] theCalifornia AirResources Board, an agency of California's state government and abellwether for state governments acrossAmerica, changed its requirement for thenumber of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) to be built and sold inCalifornia between 2012 and 2014. The revised mandate allows manufacturers to comply with the rules bybuilding more battery-electric cars instead of fuel-cell vehicles." [75] Themagazine also noted that most hydrogen isproduced through steam reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some oftoday's gasoline cars. On the other hand, if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it wouldsurely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."[75]

The Washington Post asked in November 2009, "But why would you want to storeenergy in the form of hydrogenand then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to besucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"? The paper concluded that commercializinghydrogen cars is "stupendously difficult and probably pointless. That's why, for the foreseeable future, thehydrogen car will remain a tailpipe dream".[50] A December 2009 study at UC Davis, published in theJournal ofPower Sources, found that, over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[76]

In 2009 theU.S. Secretary of Energy, Stephen Chu, stated that fuel cell hydrogen vehicles "will not be practicalover the next 10 to 20 years". He cited difficulties in the development of the required infrastructure to distributehydrogen as a justification for cutting research funds.[77] TheNational Hydrogen Association and other hydrogengroups criticized the decision.[78] Secretary Chu told MIT's Technology Review that he is skeptical abouthydrogen's use in transportation because "the way we get hydrogen primarily is from reforming [natural] gas. ...You're giving away some of the energy content of natural gas. ... So that's oneproblem. ... [For] transportation, wedon't have a good storage mechanism yet. ... The fuel cells aren't there yet, and the distribution infrastructure isn'tthere yet. ... In order to get significant deployment, you need four significant technological breakthroughs. ... Ifyou need four miracles, that's unlikely: saints only need three miracles".[33] Congress reversed the funding cuts inits appropriations bill for 2010,[7] but theDepartment of Energy plans to decrease funding for Fuel Cell Vehicledevelopment in its 2012 budget.[79]

In July 2011, the Chairman and CEO of General Motors, Daniel Akerson, stated that while the cost of hydrogenfuel cell cars isdecreasing: "The car is still too expensive and probably won't be practical until the 2020-plusperiod, I don't know."[80][68]

Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicleHydrogen vehicles are one of a number of proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel powered vehicleinfrastructure.

Plug-in hybrids

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, or PHEVs, are hybrid vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid andcontain an electric motor and also an ICE or other engine. TheChevrolet Volt, the first commercially-manufactured PHEV, became commercially available in some U.S. states in 2010 and in more locations in 2011.The PHEV concept augments standard hybrid electric vehicleswith the ability to recharge their batteries from anexternal source while parked, enabling increased use of the vehicle's electric motors while reducing their relianceon internal combustion engines. The infrastructure required to charge PHEVs is already in place,[81] and



transmission of power from grid to car is about 93% efficient.[82] This, however, is not the only energy loss intransferring power from grid to wheels. AC/DC conversion must take place from the grids AC supply to thePHEV's DC. This is roughly 98% efficient.[83] The battery then must be charged. As of 2007, theLithium ironphosphate battery was between 80-90% efficient in charging/discharging.[84] The battery needs to be cooled; theGM Volt's battery has 4 coolers and two radiators.[85] As of 2009, "the total well-to-wheels efficiency with which ahydrogen fuel cell vehicle might utilize renewable electricity is roughly 20% (although that number could rise to25% or a little higher with the kind of multiple technology breakthroughs required to enable a hydrogen economy).The well-to-wheels efficiency of charging an onboard battery and then discharging it to run an electric motor in aPHEV or EV, however, is 80% (and could be higher in the future)—four timesmore efficient than currenthydrogen fuel cell vehicle pathways." [49] A 2006 article in Scientific American argued that PHEVs, rather thanhydrogen vehicles, would becomestandard in the automobile industry.[86][87] A December 2009 study at UC Davisfound that, over their lifetimes, PHEVs will emit less carbon than current vehicles, while hydrogen cars will emitmore carbon than gasoline vehicles.[76]

Natural gas

ICE-based CNG or LNG vehicles (Natural gas vehicles or NGVs) use Natural gas or Biogasas a fuel source.Natural gas has a higher energy density than hydrogen gas. Natural gas powered vehicles have a lower carbondioxide footprint than ICE vehicles. When using Biogas, NGVs become carbon neutral vehicles that run on animalwaste.[88] CNG vehicles have been available for several years, and there is sufficient infrastructure to provide bothcommercial and home refueling stations. In 2008, theACEEE (http://www.aceee.org/) rated the Honda Civic GX,which uses compressed natural gas, as the greenest vehicle available.[89][90][91]

Battery electric vehicles

A 2008 Technology Review article stated, "Electric cars—and plug-in hybrid cars—have an enormous advantageover hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles in utilizing low-carbon electricity. That is because of the inherent inefficiency ofthe entire hydrogen fueling process, from generating thehydrogen with that electricity to transporting this diffusegas long distances, getting the hydrogen in the car, and then running it through a fuel cell—all for the purpose ofconverting the hydrogen back into electricity to drive the sameexact electric motor you'll find in an electriccar."[92] Thermodynamically, each additional step in the conversion process decreases the overall efficiency of theprocess.[93][94] Many BEV designs offer limited driving range. For example, TheNissan Leaf, the firstcommercially-manufactured BEV, which became available in in some U.S. states beginning in 2010, has amaximum range of 100 miles. Mini E users have reported a range of between 100–120 miles (160–190 km).[95]

However, most commutes are 30–40 miles (48–64 km) miles per day round trip. Ed Begley, Jr., an electric caradvocate, noted wryly, "The detractors of electric vehicles are right. Given their limited range, they can only meetthe needs of 90 percent of the population."[49] In addition, new Nickel-metal hydride and lithium batteries are non-toxic and can be recycled, and "the supposed 'lithium shortage' doesn’ t exist".[49]

See also

■ Alternative fuel car■ Bivalent engine■ Electric vehicle■ Future of the car

■ Hell and High Water■ The Hype about Hydrogen■ Tribrid vehicle■ World Green Car

References1. ^ "Wind-to-Hydrogen Project" (http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html) . Hydrogen and Fuel Cells

Research. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009.http://www.nrel.gov/hydrogen/proj_wind_hydrogen.html. Retrieved 7 January 2010.

2. ^ Thames & Kosmos kit (http://www.thamesandkosmos.com/products/fc/fc2.html) , Other educational materials(http://www.bpa.gov/Energy/N/projects/fuel_cell/education/fuelcellcar/index.cfm) , and many more demonstration carkits (http://www.fuelcellstore.com/cgi-bin/fuelweb/view=NavPage/cat=14) .



3. ^ "New Hydrogen-Powered Land Speed Record fromFord" (http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/) . Motorsportsjournal.com.http://www.motorsportsjournal.com/archives/fuel_saving_vehicles_hybrids/. Retrieved 2010-12-12.

4. ^ "Ford Motor Company BusinessPlan" (http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/Ford_Motor_Company_Business_Plan122008.pdf) , December2, 2008

5. ^ Dennis, Lyle. "Nissan Swears Off Hydrogen and Will Only Build ElectricCars" (http://www.allcarselectric.com/blog/1019079_nissan-swears-off-hydrogen-and-will-only-build-electric-cars) , AllCars Electric, February 26, 2009

6. ^ a bBlanco, Sebastian. "GM CEO: electric cars require teamwork; hydrogen cars 10x more expensive thanVolt" (http://green.autoblog.com/2009/10/30/gm-ceo-electric-cars-require-teamwork-hydrogen-cars-10x-more-e/) ,green.autoblog.com, October 30, 2009

7. ^ a bWhoriskey, Peter. "The Hydrogen Car Gets Its Fuel Back", (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/16/AR2009101601002.html) Washington Post, October 17, 2009

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9. ^ a bBloomberg News (24 August 2009). "Hydrogen-powered vehicles onhorizon" (http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/?page=2) .Washington Times. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/aug/24/hydrogen-powered-vehicles-on-horizon/?page=2. Retrieved 5 September 2009.

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External links■ California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage (http://www.fuelcellpartnership.net/)■ Clean Energy Partnership (http://www.cleanenergypartnership.de/index.php?id=13&L=1)■ C-Net – Hydrogen: More Polluting than Petroleum? (http://news.com.com/8301-10784_3-6172950-

7.html) Cnet news 2007■ U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/)■ Toronto Star article on hydrogen trains dated October 21, 2007

(http://www.thestar.com/columnists/article/268851)■ NOVA – Video on Fuel Cell Cars (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3210/01.html) (aired on

PBS, July 26, 2005)



■ Sandia Corporation – Hydrogen internal combustion enginedescription(http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/research/combustionEngines/PFI.php)

■ UK Low Carbon and Fuel Cell Knowledge Transfer Network (http://www.low-carbon-fuel-cell-ktn.org.uk/)

■ Inside world's first hydrogen-powered production car (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-11297410)BBC News, 14 September 2010

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle"Categories: Hydrogen vehicles | technologiesAutomotive | technologiesSustainable | Green vehicles | Hydrogentechnologies | Hydrogen economy | technologiesEmerging

■ This page was last modified on 26 September 2011 at 20:17.■ Text is available under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may

apply. See Termsof use for details.Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.



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