7.Tools and Data Collection Procedure[1]

8/13/2019 7.Tools and Data Collection Procedure[1]

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Research toolsand

Data collection procedure

Dr.RamachandraAssociate ProfessorPrincipalCollege of NursingNIMHANSBangalore.



1. RESEARCH TOOLS

The written device that a researcher uses tocollect data e.g questionnaires, tests,observation schedules.

- Denise F. Polit,2008.

Contd….



The construction of a research instrument or toolfor data collection is the most important part of aresearch project because anything you say by

way of findings or conclusions is based upon thetype of information you collect, and the data youcollect is entirely dependent upon the questionsthat you ask of your respondents.



1.1 GUIDELINES TO CONSTRUCT A

RESEARCH TOOL :

Step I: Concept development

Clearly define and individually list all the specificobjectives or research questions for the study.

Contd…



Step II: Specification of concept dimensions For each objective or research questions, list allthe associated questions that as to be answeredwant to answer through your study.

Step III: S el ec t i o n o f i n d i c a t o r s Take each research question listed in Step II and

list the information required to answer it.



Step IV: Fo r m at i o n o f i n d ex

Formulate question(s) to obtain information.

Tools And Questionnaires A questionnaire or tool consists of a set ofquestions presented to a respondent foranswers.

Contd……



Types of tools/ questions

1. Contingency questions • A question that is answered only if the

respondent gives a particular response to a

previous question.

• This avoids asking questions of people that do

not apply to them (for example, asking men ifthey have ever been pregnant)

Contd……



2. Matrix questions • Identical response categories are assigned to

multiple questions.• The questions are placed one under the other,

forming a matrix with response categories alongthe top and a list of questions down the side.• This is an efficient use of page space and

respondents‟ time.

Contd…



3. Closed ended questions

Respondents‟ answers are limited to a fixed setof responses. Most scales are closed ended.

Other types of closed ended questions include: – Yes/no questions - The respondent answerswith a “yes” or a “no”.

– Multiple choice - The respondent hasseveral options from which to choose.

Contd……



- Scaled questions - Responses are grade on acontinuum (example : rate the appearance of theproduct on a scale from 1 to 10, with 10 beingthe most preferred appearance). Examples oftypes of scales include the Likert scale,semantic differential scale, and rank-order scale.

Contd……



4. Open ended questions

• No options or predefined categories aresuggested.

• The respondent supplies their own answerwithout being constrained by a fixed set ofpossible responses.

• Examples of types of open ended questionsinclude:

– Completely unstructured - For example,“What is your opinion on questionnaires?”

Contd……



– Word association - Words are presented and

the respondent mentions the first word thatcomes to mind.

– Sentence completion - Respondentscomplete an incomplete sentence. Forexample, “The most important considerationin my decision to buy a new house is . . .”

Contd….



– Story completion - Respondents complete

an incomplete story.

– Picture completion - Respondents fill in anempty conversation balloon.

– Thematic apperception test - Respondentsexplain a picture or make up a story about

what they think is happening in the picture.

Contd……



5. Paper-pencil-questionnaires

• It can be sent to a large number of people andsaves the researcher time and money.

• People are more truthful while responding to thequestionnaires regarding controversial issues inparticular due to the fact that their responses areanonymous. But they also have drawbacks.

Contd…..



6. Web based questionnaires :

• A new and inevitably growing methodology isthe use of Internet based research.

• This would mean receiving an e-mail on whichyou would click on an address that would takeyou to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire.

Contd…..



1.2 How To Construct Tools / Questionnaires:

• Deciding which questionnaire to use

• Wording and structure of the questions- Questions should be kept short and simple- Avoid negative questions- Question should not contain Prestige Bias- Use indirect questions for sensitive issues- Using closed- ended questions.- Avoiding Leading Question

Contd….



• Length and ordering of the Questions

- Keep the questionnaire as short as possible-Ask easy questions, which respondents will enjoyanswering

- If combined questionnaire, keep open endedquestion for the end.-Make questions as interesting as possible andeasy to follow by varying type and length ofquestion.

Contd….



- Group the questions into specific topic as this itmakes it easier to understand and follow.

- Layout and spacing is important as clutteredquestionnaire is less likely to be answered.



• Piloting the Questionnaire

- The questionnaire must be tested out to see if it isobtaining the result which is required.

- This is done by asking experts to read it throughand see if there are any ambiguities which havenot been noticed.

- They should also be asked to comment about thelength, structure and wording of the questionnaireand alter the questions accordingly.



2. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE:

• Collecting data through any of the methods mayinvolve some ethical issues in relation to theparticipants and the researcher:

- Those from whom information is collected orthose who are studied by a researcher becomeparticipants of the study.

- Anyone who collects information for a specificpurpose, adhering to the accepted code ofconduct, is a researcher.

Contd…..



2.A Ethical issues concerning researchparticipants

1. Collecting information:• Request for information may put pressure or

create anxiety on a respondent. Is it ethical?• Research is required to improve conditions.

Provided any piece of research is likely to helpsociety directly or indirectly, it is acceptable toask questions, if the respondents’ informedconsent obtained.



If, justification relating to relevance of the researchthat has to be conducted has not been given then

it means it is wasting the respondents‟ time, whichis unethical.

2. Seeking consent: In every discipline it is considered unethical tocollect information without the knowledge of theparticipant, and their expressed willingness andinformed consent.

Contd…..



• Informed consent implies that subjects are madeadequately aware of the type of information thatis required from them, why the information isbeing sought, what purpose it will be put to, how

they are expected to participate in the study, andhow it will directly or indirectly affect them.

• It is important that the consent should bevoluntary and without pressure of any kind.



3. Providing incentives:

• Most people do not participate in a studybecause of incentives, but because they realizethe importance of the study.

• Is it ethical to provide incentives to respondentsto share information with the researcherbecause they are giving their time?

• Giving a present before data collection isunethical.



4. Seeking sensitive information: • Certain types of information can be regarded as

sensitive or confidential by some people and thusan invasion to their privacy, asking for suchinformation may upset or embarrass arespondent.

• While collecting data the researcher need to becareful about the sensitivities of the respondents.

Most people, questions on drug use, pilferage,income, age, marital status etc are intrusive.

Contd….



• It is not unethical to ask such questions,

provided that the researcher tells theirrespondents that the type of information required

must be clear and frank, and give them sufficienttime to decide if they want to participate, withoutany major inducement.



5. The possibility of causing harm to participant:

• Harm include, research that might includehazardous experiments, discomfort, anxiety,harassment, invasion of privacy, or demeaning ordehumanizing procedures.

• If it is likely to, researcher must make sure thatthe risk is minimal i.e. the extent of harm ordiscomfort is not greater than that of ordinarily

encountered in daily life.• If the way information is sought creates anxiety or

harassment, researcher need to take steps toprevent this.



6. Maintaining confidentiality:

• Sharing information about a respondent withothers for purposes other than research isunethical.

• Sometimes researcher need to identify the studypopulation to put the findings into context.

• In such a situation researcher need to makesure that at least the information provided byrespondents is kept anonymous.

Contd…



• It is unethical to identify an individual‟s responses.Therefore it has to be ensured that after theinformation has been collected, the source cannotbe known.

2.B Ethical issues relating to the researcher

1. Avoiding bias Bias on the part of the researcher is unethical.

Bias is a deliberate attempt to either to hide whatis found in the study, or highlight something

disproportionately to its true existence.

Contd……



2. Provision or deprivation of a treatment:

• Both the provision and deprivation of atreatment/ intervention may pose an ethicaldilemma.

• Is it ethical to provide a study population with anintervention/ treatment that has not yet beenconclusively proven effective or beneficial?

• But if it is not tested, how can it be proved ordisproved its effectiveness or benefits?

Contd……



3. Using inappropriate research methodology:

• It is unethical to use a method or procedure thatthe researcher thinks he/she is acquainted to beinappropriate.

• E.g. selecting a highly biased sample, using aninvalid instrument or drawing wrong conclusions.

Contd…



4. Incorrect reporting: • To report the findings in a way that changes or

slants them to serve your own or someoneelse‟s interest is unethical.

5. Inappropriate use of the information: • The use of information in a way that directly or

indirectly adversely affects the respondents isunethical. If so, the study population needs to beprotected.

Contd…



• An example would be a study to examine thefeasibility of restructuring an organization.Restructuring may be beneficial to theorganization as a whole but may be harmful to

some individuals.

• Should the researcher ask the respondents forinformation that is likely to be used againstthem?

Contd…….



3. Data Collection Procedure In QuantitativeAnd Qualitative Research

3.1 Data Collection Procedure In QuantitativeResearch

• The Quantitative data collection methods rely on

random sampling and structured data collectioninstruments that fit diverse experiences intopredetermined response categories.

• They produce results that are easy to summarize,compare, and generalize.

Contd….



Typical quantitative data gathering strategiesinclude:

1. Surveys• Questionnaires and schedules• Interview Primary

• Standardised scales /Instruments

• Experimental treatments

• Participant observer secondary • Case study

Contd…



1. Surveys - This method captures information through the

input of responses to a research instrumentcontaining questions (i.e., such as aquestionnaire).

- It is also known as primary data collectiontechnique.- Information can be input either by the

respondents themselves (e.g., complete online

survey) or the researcher can input the data(e.g. phone survey, mall intercept).

Contd…



- Surveys are done via postal mail, phone andwebsite or in person.

- However, newer technologies are creatingadditional delivery options including throughwireless devices, such as smart phones.

• Questionnaires and schedules - A questionnaire is a research instrument

consisting of a series of questions and otherprompts for the purpose of gathering informationfrom respondents.

Contd.……



• Basic rules for questionnaire item construction - Use statements which are interpreted in the same

way by members of different subpopulations of thepopulation of interest.

- Use statements where persons that have different

opinions or traits will give different answers.- Think of having an "open" answer category after a

list of possible answers.

- Use only one aspect of the construct you areinterested in per item.

Contd….



- Use positive statements and avoid negatives or

double negatives.- Do not make assumptions about the respondent.- Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily

understandable for all educational levels- Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.- Avoid items that contain more than one question

per item (e.g. what are you doing and where areyou put up?).



Types of Questionnaires - Structured non disguised questionnaire

Questions are listed in a pre-arranged order andrespondents are told about the purposeof collecting information.

- Structured- disguised questionnaire Questions are listed in a pre-arranged order and

the respondents are not told about the purpose ofconducting survey.

Contd…..



- Non structured non disguised questionnaire Questions are not structured. Researcher is freeto ask questions in any sequence he/she wants.Respondents are told about the purpose ofcollecting information.

- Non structured disguised questionnaireQuestions are not structured. Researcher is free

to ask questions in any sequence he/she wantsand the respondents are not told about thepurpose of conducting survey.



Interviews• Face -to -face interviews have a distinct

advantage of enabling the researcher to establishrapport with potential participants and thereforegain their cooperation.

• These interviews yield highest response rates insurvey research.

• They also allow the researcher to clarifyambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek

follow-up information.• Disadvantages include impractical when large

samples are involved time consuming andexpensive.



• Telephone interviews are less time consumingand less expensive and the researcher has readyaccess to anyone on the planet that has atelephone.

• Disadvantages are that the response rate is not

as high as the face-to- face interview as butconsiderably higher than the mailedquestionnaire.

• The sample may be biased to the extent thatpeople without phones are part of the populationabout whom the researcher wants to drawinferences.

Contd..



• Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing(CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing, but

instead of completing a questionnaire, theinterviewer brings along a laptop or hand-heldcomputer to enter the information directly intothe database.

• This method saves time involved in processingthe data, as well as saving the interviewer fromcarrying around hundreds of questionnaires.

• Schedules are similar to the questionnaireswhich contains a set of questions that are filledby the enumerators who are specially appointedfor this purpose.



Standardized scales /Instruments

• A standardized test is a test that is administeredand scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner.

• Any test in which the same test is given in thesame manner to all test takers is a standardizedtest.eg. BREF scale to assess the quality of life.

• Scales describes the assignment of numbers tovarious degrees of opinion, attitude and otherconcepts.



Scales data can be categorized as follows:

• Nominal - Representing particular categories,e.g. men or women.

• Ordinal - Ranked in some way such as order ofpassing a particular point in a competition.

• Interval - Ranked according to the intervalbetween the data, which remains the same.Most typical of this type of data is temperature.

Contd…..



• Ratio- Where it is possible to measure thedifference between different types of data - forexample applying a measurement.

• Scalar- This type of data has intervals betweenit, which are not quantifiable.



Experimental treatments

- Participant observer

• The researcher himself/herself observes thegroups experience by participating along withthe group is called participant observer.

- Case study• According to H. Odum case study method is a

technique by which individual factor whether itbe an institution or just an episode in the life ofan individual or a group is analysed in itsrelationship to any other group.

Contd…

DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE IN



DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE INQUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• Qualitative research allows the subjects beingstudied to give much „richer‟ answers toquestions put to them by the researcher, and

may give valuable insights which might havebeen missed by any other method• E.g, it‟s impossible to carry out a meaningful

structured questionnaire survey on patientsatisfaction with a service, if the important issuesto the patients surrounding the provision of thatservice are not known.

Contd..



Data collection procedures commonly used in

qualitative methods can be classified in fourbroad categories:

• Focus group • Direct observation methods• In-depth interview• Document review• Other field methods



• Focus group - The researcher brings together a small number

of subjects to discuss the topic of interest.- The group size is kept deliberately small, so that

its members do not feel intimidated but canexpress opinions freely.

- A topic guide to aid discussion is usuallyprepared beforehand and the researcher usually„chairs‟ the group, to ensure that a range of

aspects of the topic are explored.- The discussion is frequently tape-recorded, then

transcribed and analysed.Contd……



- Example: Rutman (1996) explored the policy andpractice implications of caregivers‟ experiences ofpowerfulness and powerlessness. She used groupworkshops and brainstorming techniques toexplore the „ideal‟ care giving situation.

• Direct observation- Data can be collected by an external observer,

referred to as a non-participant observer or

- The data can be collected by a participantobserver, who can be a member of staffundertaking usual duties while observing theprocesses of care.

Contd…



• Sometimes a list of observations, the researcheris specifically looking for is prepared before-hand,other times the observer makes notes aboutanything they observe for analysis later.

• Eg: Johnson and Webb (1995) used observationto gather evidence about how value judgmentsmade by staff and patients can impact ondecision making. In this study, the researcheracted as a participant observer, working as anurse on the ward while observing situationswhere nurses were faced with difficult moralchoices. Observations were recorded as field

notes and analysed for content.



Techniques for collecting data throughobservation

• Written descriptions. The researcher can record observations of people,

a situation or an environment by making notes ofwhat has been observed.

• Video recording.This frees the observer from the task of makingnotes at the time and allows events to be reviewedtime after time.

Contd…..



• Photographs and artefacts .- Photographs are a good way of collecting

observable data of phenomena which can becaptured in a single shot or series of shots.

- For example, photographs of buildings,neighborhoods, dress and appearance.

- Artefacts are objects which inform us about thephenomenon under study because of theirsignificance to the phenomena.

- For example, memorabilia in historical research.Similarly, they may be instruments or tools usedby members of a sub group whether this is apopulation sub group or a professional or patient

group.



• Documentation.- A wide range of written materials can produce

qualitative information.- They can be particularly useful in trying to

understand the philosophy of an organisation asmay be required in action research and casestudies.

• In-depth interviews

- Interviews use the same principle as a focusgroup, but subjects are interviewed individually,ideally in the patient‟s own environment.

Contd….



• They seldom involve asking a set of

predetermined questions, as would be the casein quantitative surveys. Instead they encouragesubjects to express their views at length.

• One particularly useful technique is the criticalincident study, in which subjects are asked tocomment on real events rather than giving

generalisations.



• Document reviewDiary methods

The researcher or subject keeps a personalaccount of daily events, feelings, discussions,interactions etc.

Role-play and simulationParticipants may be asked to play a role, or maybe asked to observe role-play, after which they are

asked to rate behaviour, report feelings, andpredict further events.



Case-study - This is an in-depth study of just one

person, group or event. This technique is simplya description of individuals.

Historical- Collecting the monumental details ofa particular event or an act.

Literature review- The researcher collects the

needed information from the previous evidencesin the form of journals, books and magazinesetc.



• Other field methods

Nominal group techniqueMore-controlled variant of brainstorming used inproblem solving sessions to encourage creative

thinking, without group interaction at idea-generation stage. Each member of the groupwrites down his or her ideas which are thendiscussed and prioritized one by one by thegroup. Also called nominal group process.



Delphi techniqueDelphi surveys are developed as a tool for shortterm forecasting. It involves a panel of expertswho are asked to complete several rounds of

questionnaires focusing on their judgmentsabout the topics of interest.



Conclusion

In addition, to this several procedures of datacollection. There are triangulated methods ormixed methods of data collection which mayinclude one or more method of primary or a

secondary data collection methods. The other wayround there will qualitative and quantitativemethod of data collection procedures combined ina single study.



REFERENCE

• Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary , s.v. "questionnaire,"http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/questionnaire (accessed May 21, 2008)

• Timothy R. Graeff, 2005. "Response Bias," Encyclopedia of Social Measurement , pp. 411-418.ScienceDirect.• Frauke Kreuter, Stanley Presser, and Roger Tourangeau, 2008. "Social Desirability Bias in CATI,

IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity", Public Opinion Quarterly ,72(5): 847-865 first published online January 26, 2009 doi:10.1093/poq/nfn063

• Allyson L. Holbrook, Melanie C. Green And Jon A. Krosnick, 2003. "Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires: Comparisons of

Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias". Public Opinion Quarterly ,67(1):79-125. doi: 10.1086/346010• Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBSPublishers‟ Distributors, • Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology-Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, Wiley Eastern

Limited.• Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners , (2nd.ed),

Singapore, Pearson Education.

• Frederikson, LG, Chamberlain, K and Long, N. (1996) Unacknowledged casualties of the Vietnamwar; experiences of partners of New Zealand veterans. Qualitative Health

• Johnson, M and Webb, C. (1995) Rediscovering unpopular patients: the concept of social judgement. Journal of Advanced Nursing 21 (3): 466-475

• Rutman, D. (1996) Caregiving as women‟s work: women‟s experiences of powerfulness andpowerlessness as caregivers. Qualitative Health Research 6 (1): 90-111



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7.Tools and Data Collection Procedure[1]

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