75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D.

Trespass Summary I. General Principles A. Definition and Nature Research References 1. Definition 2. Nature of cause of action 3. Relationship to condemnation B. Generally Applicable Elements Research References 4. Affirmative act interfering with possessory rights 5. Intent 6. --Intent to cause injury 7. --Effect of mistake of law or fact 8. --Reckless, negligent, or ultrahazardous conduct 9. Force 10. Injury or harm II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Research References

11. Definition and nature 12. Distinction from conversion 13. Requisites of liability 14. Proper possessor's actual or constructive possession 15. Intentional dispossession 16. Intent to use or intermeddle with chattel 17. Extent of harm or deprivation B. Trespass to Real Property Research References 1. In General 18. Nature of tort 19. Continuing trespass to real property 2. Elements a. General Requisites 20. Generally 21. Intent to enter 22. --Casual or unintended entry 23. Place of intrusion or invasion b. Nature of Intrusion 24. Generally 25. Indirect force 26. Substantiality of intrusion 27. Physical and tangible intrusion c. Plaintiff's Possession (1). In General 28. Generally 29. Time of possession

(2). Actual Possession 30. Acts constituting 31. Significance of title 32. Possession without right (3). Constructive Possession 33. Generally 34. Significance of title, generally 35. Equitable title 3. Particular Acts or Omissions a. Entry by Persons or Failure to Leave 36. Failure to relinquish possession 37. For purpose of transacting business 38. For recreational purpose b. Failure to Remove Object 39. Generally 40. Effect of tortious placement c. Invasion of Matter Onto Property 41. Generally 42. Particulate and polluting matter 43. Floods 44. Structures 45. Noise or vibrations 46. Shooting 47. Other types of objects C. Trespass Ab Initio Research References 48. Generally

49. Requisites of liability 50. Liability for tortious conduct after entry on land 51. Liability for tortious conduct after privileged dealing with chattel III. Persons Liable A. In General Research References 52. Definition of trespasser 53. Particular persons 54. For continuing trespass B. Multiple Persons Liable as Trespassers Research References 55. Generally 56. Joint tortfeasors 57. Ratification of trespass C. Vicarious Liability Based on Relationship to Trespasser Research References 58. Employer and employee 59. Business entities and associated persons 60. Principal and agent IV. Defenses A. Overview Research References 61. Generally 62. Title and right to possession 63. Possession under easement 64. Plaintiff's fault or assumption of risk 65. Infancy

66. Laches or limitations 67. Estoppel B. Privilege Research References 1. In General 68. Generally 69. Necessity 70. To abate nuisance 2. Consent or License 71. Generally 72. Who may consent 73. Implied consent 74. Scope of consent 75. --Conditional or restricted consent 76. Invalidation of consent by mistake, misrepresentation, or duress 77. Termination or revocation of consent 3. Authority of Law 78. Law enforcement officers 79. Other persons 4. To Remove Object from Land a. By Owner of Personal Property 80. Property there with prior consent of possessor of land 81. Property coming on land other than with actor's consent or fault 82. Necessity of demand b. By Possessor of Land 83. Generally 84. Right to enter other land to return item

85. Degree of care V. Remedies; Damages A. In General Research References 1. Common Law and Equitable Remedies, Generally 86. Generally 87. Remedy of assumpsit 2. Remedy for Continuing Trespass 88. Generally; injunctive relief 89. Factors in determining appropriateness of injunction 90. Successive actions B. Damages Research References 1. In General 91. Generally 92. Assessment and review of damages 93. --Effect of finding of trespass without award of damages 94. Mitigation of damages 95. Effect of mistaken belief in authority 2. Measure of Damages a. In General 96. Injury to property and persons, generally 97. Significance of injury as permanent or temporary 98. --Measure of permanent injury 99. --Measure of temporary damages b. Damage to Real Property (1). In General

100. Generally 101. Determination of applicable measure 102. --Plaintiff's election (2). Diminution in Value 103. Generally 104. Factors in determining diminished value 105. --Loss of rental or usable value 106. --Destruction of trees or shrubbery (3). Cost of Restoration or Repair 107. Generally 108. Significance of uniqueness of land c. Damage to, Loss of Use of, or Destruction of Chattel 109. Generally; diminution in value 110. Loss of use; time 3. Particular Types or Elements of Damages for Trespass a. Actual and Nominal Damages 111. Generally 112. Nominal damages b. Consequential Damages 113. Generally 114. Injuries to persons 115. --Physical injury 116. --Mental and emotional injury 117. Interest 118. --Incidental expenses; litigation fees and costs c. Punitive or Exemplary Damages 119. Generally

120. Prerequisite of actual damages 121. Elements of conduct warranting punitive damages 122. --Conduct attributable to human failing distinguished 123. Assessment of damages d. Statutory Provision for Multiple Damages or Penalties 124. Generally; purpose 125. Applicability of statutes 126. --As affected by willfulness or intent 127. Limitations on award 4. Proof of Damages 128. Generally; sufficiency of proof 129. Proof of actual pecuniary loss 130. Proof of nonpecuniary loss 131. --Proof of punitive or exemplary damages VI. Criminal Liability A. In General Research References 132. Common law and statutory offense distinguished 133. Municipal authority to penalize trespassers; ordinances, generally 134. Degrees of trespass; lesser-included offenses 135. Purpose of statutes 136. --Substitute for civil remedy B. Application of Statutes Research References 1. Construction of Terms a. In General 137. Generally

138. Exemptions from statute b. Constitutionality (1). In General 139. Generally 140. First Amendment rights 141. --Exercise on private property 142. --Exercise on public property (2). Vagueness of Terms 143. Generally 144. Remain 145. Lawful order 146. Knowing, license, and other particular terms 2. Requirement of Notice or Warning 147. Generally 148. Manner of giving notice or warning 149. --Time of notice or warning 150. --Who may give notice or warning 3. Requirement of Knowledge or Intent 151. Knowledge 152. Intent 153. --Requirement as to general or specific intent 154. --Effect of claim of right, license, or privilege to be on property; mistaken claims 4. Defense of Necessity or Justification a. In General 155. Generally 156. Elements of necessity

157. Choice of evils and competing harms b. Harms Encompassed 158. Generally 159. Protest of political or moral issue 5. Conduct Prohibited a. In General 160. Generally 161. Breach of peace b. Unauthorized Entry 162. Generally 163. Structure or building; dwelling place c. Unlawful Remaining 164. Generally 165. Public or quasi-public property 6. Statutory Prohibitions As to Particular Property and Premises a. Trespass on Federal Lands and Federally Regulated Facilities 166. Federal lands; nuclear power facility 167. Military installation b. Trespass on School Premises (1). In General 168. Generally 169. Particular conduct (2). Constitutionality 170. Generally; police power 171. Equal protection 172. Due process; notice and hearing 173. First Amendment rights

VII. Practice and Procedure A. In General Research References 1. Limitation of Actions 174. Generally 175. Continuing trespasses 176. --Effect of permanency of offending structures 177. --Applications of particular statutory time periods 2. Jurisdiction and Venue 178. Jurisdiction 179. Venue B. Pleadings Research References 1. Declaration, Petition, or Complaint 180. Generally 181. Pleading statutory and punitive damages 182. Criminal complaint; indictment or information 2. Plea or Answer 183. Generally 184. Pleading affirmative defenses 185. Pleading counterclaims; setoff C. Evidence Research References 1. In General 186. Generally; presumptions 187. Sufficiency; circumstantial evidence 2. Burden of Proof

188. Generally 189. Damages 190. Statutory elements of criminal trespass 191. --Showing of trespass on public property 3. Admissibility 192. Generally; parol evidence 193. Character of parties 194. Attendant circumstances 195. Testimony of party Correlation Tables Correlation Table

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass Summary American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. Correlation Table Summary

Scope: This article discusses the law of trespass in its broad aspects, including elements of, and particular conduct constituting, trespass. Also discussed are particular types of trespass, persons liable for trespass, defenses, remedies, damages, criminal liability, and matters of practice and procedure with regard to actions for trespass. Federal Aspects:

Discussed in this article are federal statutes prohibiting trespassing upon military installations. Federal statutes forbidding trespass upon national forest, park, and other public lands, Indian lands, and nuclear power installations are also briefly mentioned. (See the statutory references below for U.S.C.A. citations, and the treated elsewhere note for related matters, such as federal court jurisdiction and venue in trespass cases.) Treated Elsewhere: Abatement of action in trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Abatement, Survival, and Revival 77 Abortion clinic, trespass against, see Am. Jur. 2d, Abortion and Birth Control 110 Adjoining landowners, trespass by landowner or trees and bushes, see Am. Jur. 2d, Adjoining Landowners 10, 19, 26 Admiralty jurisdiction over trespass claims, see Am. Jur. 2d, Admiralty 58, 79 Adverse possession, availability of owner's remedy in trespass as requisite to, see Am. Jur. 2d, Adverse Possession 15; notice to owner that trespass is occurring, see Am. Jur. 2d, Adverse Possession 65; stranger's trespass as affecting continuous adverse possession, see Am. Jur. 2d, Adverse Possession 93 Animals, trespass by, see Am. Jur. 2d, Animals 48 to 70, 123 to 133, 151 to 155 Arson not established if only a trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Arson and Related Offenses 7 Assignee for benefit of creditors' right to bring action in trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Assignments for Benefit of Creditors 96 Assignment of cause of action for trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Assignments 72 Bailments, trespass actions in cases involving, see Am. Jur. 2d, Bailments 206 to 211 Blasting, trespass by, see Am. Jur. 2d, Explosions and Explosives 168 Boundaries, judicial determination in trespass action, see Am. Jur. 2d, Boundaries 96 Breach of peace, criminal trespass by, see Am. Jur. 2d, Breach of Peace 10 Cemeteries, right of to maintain trespass action, see Am. Jur. 2d, Cemeteries 47 to 50 Civil rights provisions on public accommodations, effect on trespass charges, see Am. Jur. 2d, Civil Rights 223 Computer system, trespass against, see Am. Jur. 2d, New Topic Service, Computers and the Internet 70 to 73, 91 Cotenants, trespass as remedy between, see Am. Jur. 2d, Cotenancy and Joint Ownership 87; joint action in trespass against third person, see Am. Jur. 2d, Cotenancy and Joint Ownership 109 Cutting of timber as trespass on private lands, see Am. Jur. 2d, Logs and Timber 95 Dead bodies, trespass with respect to, see Am. Jur. 2d, Dead Bodies 74 Easements, trespass on, see Am. Jur. 2d, Easements and Licenses 107 Effect of First Amendment on trespassing statutes, see Am. Jur. 2d, Constitutional Law 521, 534 Ejectment being in the nature of trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Ejectment 1; as including an action of trespass for mesne profits, see Am. Jur. 2d, Ejectment 50 Eminent domain, award's effect on prior trespass claims, see Am. Jur. 2d, Eminent Domain 628; choice of remedies, see Am. Jur. 2d, Eminent Domain 720; trespass as remedy for wrongful taking, see Am. Jur. 2d, Eminent Domain 756 Energy, company's liability to injured trespassers, see Am. Jur. 2d, Energy and Power Sources 251, 252, 309, 310 Equity, repeated or continuing trespass as ground for invoking, see Am. Jur. 2d, Equity 26, 27, 53 Federal courts, jurisdictional amount in trespass case, see Am. Jur. 2d, Federal Courts 1189; venue in trespass case, see Am. Jur. 2d, Federal Courts 1364 Ferries, trespass consisting of unauthorized use of land for ferry landing, see Am. Jur. 2d, Ferries 26 Gas and oil interests, trespass on, see Am. Jur. 2d, Gas and Oil 15, 317, 319, 328, 329, 338 Highways, trespass on abutting owners' land, see Am. Jur. 2d, Highways, Streets, and Bridges 214; trespass by removing trees or shrubs, see Am. Jur. 2d, Highways, Streets, and Bridges 216; right to travel on adjoining land without committing trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Highways, Streets, and Bridges 224 Homicide not justified by defense against trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Homicide 118, 177 Injunctive relief against trespass, generally, see Am. Jur. 2d, Injunctions 100 to 117 Labor laws, effect on trespass laws, see Am. Jur. 2d, Labor and Labor Relations 556

Landlord's option to treat holdover as trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Landlord and Tenant 274; landlord's right to enter and unauthorized entry as trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Landlord and Tenant 385, 386; tenant's remedy in case of landlord's unauthorized entry, see Am. Jur. 2d, Landlord and Tenant 437; trespass as constituting an eviction, see Am. Jur. 2d, Landlord and Tenant 521 Liability for trespass associated with repossession of property subject to security interest, see Am. Jur. 2d, Secured Transactions 578, 679 Liability in trespass for encroaching fence, see Am. Jur. 2d, Fences 5 Liability of employer for independent contractor's work involving trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Independent Contractors 47 Meaning of trespass in venue statute, see Am. Jur. 2d, Venue 26 Mineral claims and rights, trespass to, see Am. Jur. 2d, Mines and Minerals 357 to 359 Mortgages, trespass actions by parties to, see Am. Jur. 2d, Mortgages 188, 189 Municipal tort liability for trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Municipal, County, School, and State Tort Liability 321, 335, 368 Negligence distinguished from trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Negligence 15 Nuisance distinguished from trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Nuisances 5 to 7 Police officers, conviction of trespass as violation of oath, see Am. Jur. 2d, Municipal Corporations, Counties, and Other Political Subdivisions 276 Pollution cases, recovery based on trespass theory, see Am. Jur. 2d, Pollution Control 1988, 2029 Possession obtained by trespass as constituting forcible entry, see Am. Jur. 2d, Forcible Entry and Detainer 21 Premises liability, duty and liability to trespasser, see Am. Jur. 2d, Premises Liability 121 to 124, 205 to 225, 271 to 282 Public lands and forests, trespass on, see Am. Jur. 2d, Public Lands 85, 97 Quiet title actions premised on trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Quieting Title 28 Railroads, duty to trespasser, see Am. Jur. 2d, Railroads 294 Receivers, power to bring action for trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Receivers 386 Recovery of commingled property in specie without committing trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Accession and Confusion 18 Remaindermen and reversioners, availability of remedy in trespass to, see Am. Jur. 2d, Life Tenants and Remaindermen 24, 282 Replevin distinguished from trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Replevin 5 Restitution of benefits of trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Restitution and Implied Contracts 22 Right to recover damages for emotional distress caused by trespass to real estate, see Am. Jur. 2d, Fright, Shock, and Mental Disturbance 17, 18 Sheriff's commission of trespass when executing process, see Am. Jur. 2d, Sheriffs, Police, and Constables 47 Trespass as local action, see Am. Jur. 2d, Courts 82 Trespass as remedy for improper search, see Am. Jur. 2d, Searches and Seizures 309 Trespass as remedy for injury to crops, landowners, or tenant farmers, see Am. Jur. 2d, Crops 77, 82 to 87 Trespass as remedy for intrusion into fishing and hunting rights, see Am. Jur. 2d, Fish and Game 32 Trespass by utility after expiration of franchise, see Am. Jur. 2d, Franchises from Public Entities 54 Trespass claims as coming within homestead exemption, see Am. Jur. 2d, Homestead 104 Trespass on the case, see Am. Jur. 2d, Actions 18 to 20 Trespasses involving water and water rights, see Am. Jur. 2d, Waters 179, 238, 259, 284, 365 Use of airspace by airplane, trespass by, see Am. Jur. 2d, Aviation 4; unauthorized landing as trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Aviation 8 Use of force to eject trespasser, see Am. Jur. 2d, Assault and Battery 141 Uses of party wall constituting trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Party Walls 64 Waste distinguished from trespass, see Am. Jur. 2d, Waste 4 Zoning, use commenced by trespasser as prior nonconforming use, see Am. Jur. 2d, Zoning and Planning 561 Research References:

Westlaw Databases American Law Reports (ALR) West's A.L.R. Digest (ALRDIGEST) American Jurisprudence 2d (AMJUR) American Jurisprudence Legal Forms 2d (AMJUR-LF) American Jurisprudence Proof of Facts (AMJUR-POF) American Jurisprudence Pleading and Practice Forms Annotated (AMJUR-PP) American Jurisprudence Trials (AMJUR-TRIALS) Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Federal Procedure (FEDPROC) Federal Procedural Forms (FEDPROF) Uniform Laws Annotated (ULA) United States Code Annotated (USCA)

Primary Authority 8 U.S.C.A. 1382, 1385 16 U.S.C.A. 21 to 23, 41, 43, 61, 78, 91, 92, 122, 161, 201 (trespass provisions respecting specific national parks) 18 U.S.C.A. 1382 (military installations) 18 U.S.C.A. 1863 (national forest lands) 28 U.S.C.A. 2415, 2416 (limitations for action to recover damages for trespass on federal lands) 42 U.S.C.A. 2278a (nuclear power installations)

A.L.R. Library A.L.R. Index, Consequential Damages A.L.R. Index, Criminal Law

A.L.R. Index, Damages A.L.R. Index, Defenses A.L.R. Index, Injunctions A.L.R. Index, Intentional, Wilful, and Wanton Acts A.L.R. Index, Joint Tortfeasors A.L.R. Index, Loss of Enjoyment or Use A.L.R. Index, Multiple Damages A.L.R. Index, Nominal Damages A.L.R. Index, Notice and Knowledge A.L.R. Index, Property Damage A.L.R. Index, Punitive Damages A.L.R. Index, Respondeat Superior A.L.R. Index, Restatement of Torts A.L.R. Index, Trespass A.L.R. Index, Vicarious Liability

Trial Strategy Recovery of Damages for Injury to Landowner's Property from Environmental Condition on Neighboring Land, 37 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 3d 439 Diminished Property Value Due to Environmental Contamination, 33 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 3d 163 Damages for Unauthorized Geophysical Exploration, 48 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 2d 153 Damages for Injury to Real Property, 42 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 2d 247

Forms Am. Jur. Legal Forms 2d 249:1 et seq. Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Easements and Licenses 1 et seq. Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 1 et seq.

Model Codes and Restatements Restatement Second, Agency 343 Restatement Second, Torts 1 et seq.

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass I A Refs. American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles A. Definition and Nature Topic Summary Correlation Table Research References

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1, 16

A.L.R. Library A.L.R. Index, Trespass West's A.L.R. Digest, Trespass 1, 166

Model Codes and Restatements Restatement Second, Torts 158

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 1 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles A. Definition and Nature Topic Summary Correlation Table References 1. Definition West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1

Trespass is an injury to possession.[FN1] It is tort against possession committed when one, without permission, interferes with or invades another's exclusive right to possession of property.[FN2] It involves an intrusion that invades a possessor's protected interest in exclusive possession.[FN3] The term "intrusion" denotes that a possessor's interest in the exclusive possession of his or her land has been invaded by the presence of a person or thing upon it without the possessor's consent[FN4] Historically, a trespass was an invasion into tangible property that interfered with the right of exclusive possession.[FN5] The term has both a narrow and a broad meaning: the narrow meaning refers to an unlawful entry upon the land of another, while the broad meaning encompasses any unlawful interference with one's person, property, or rights.[FN6] In the latter sense, "trespass" is an injury to the freehold by a stranger to the land.[FN7]

[FN1] Boyce v. Cassese, 941 So. 2d 932 (Ala. 2006); County of Santa Clara v. Atlantic Richfield Co., 137 Cal. App. 4th 292, 40 Cal. Rptr. 3d 313 (6th Dist. 2006), review denied, (June 21, 2006); Munsey v. Hanly, 102 Me.

423, 67 A. 217 (1907); Bittner v. Huth, 162 Md. App. 745, 876 A.2d 157 (2005), cert. denied, 389 Md. 125, 883 A.2d 915 (2005); Jaycox v. E.M. Harris Bldg. Co., 754 S.W.2d 931 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1988); Singleton v. Haywood Elec. Membership Corp., 357 N.C. 623, 588 S.E.2d 871 (2003); Crown Property Dev., Inc. v. Omega Oil Co., 113 Ohio App. 3d 647, 681 N.E.2d 1343 (12th Dist. Fayette County 1996); Lane v. Mims, 221 S.C. 236, 70 S.E.2d 244 (1952); Austin v. Hallstrom, 117 Vt. 161, 86 A.2d 549 (1952); Belcher v. Greer, 181 W. Va. 196, 382 S.E.2d 33 (1989). [FN2] Bishop Eddie Long Ministries, Inc. v. Dillard, 272 Ga. App. 894, 613 S.E.2d 673 (2005), cert. denied, (Oct. 11, 2005); Walter E. Wilhite Revocable Living Trust v. Northwest Yearly Meeting Pension Fund, 128 Idaho 539, 916 P.2d 1264 (1996); Sellers v. St. Charles Parish, 900 So. 2d 1121 (La. Ct. App. 5th Cir. 2005), writ denied, 920 So. 2d 239 (La. 2006); Hawkins v. City of Greenville, 358 S.C. 280, 594 S.E.2d 557 (Ct. App. 2004); Kitsap County v. Allstate Ins. Co., 136 Wash. 2d 567, 964 P.2d 1173 (1998). - Every act that unlawfully interferes with a private property owner's absolute right to enjoy one's property is a tort for which an action lies. Pope v. Pulte Home Corp., 246 Ga. App. 120, 539 S.E.2d 842 (2000). [FN3] Borland v. Sanders Lead Co., Inc., 369 So. 2d 523, 2 A.L.R.4th 1042 (Ala. 1979) (even if it only consists of invisible matter or energy); Mitchell v. Baltimore Sun Co., 164 Md. App. 497, 883 A.2d 1008 (2005), cert. denied, 390 Md. 501, 889 A.2d 418 (2006). [FN4] Restatement Second, Torts 158, comment c. [FN5] State v. Olson, 47 Wash. App. 514, 735 P.2d 1362 (Div. 1 1987). [FN6] Fernandes v. Portwine, 56 P.3d 1 (Alaska 2002). [FN7] Keesecker v. Bird, 200 W. Va. 667, 490 S.E.2d 754 (1997). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 1 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 2 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles A. Definition and Nature

Topic Summary Correlation Table References 2. Nature of cause of action West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1, 16

A trespass action is an action at law,[FN1] based in tort.[FN2] The essence of the action is a violation of possession, not a challenge to title.[FN3]

[FN1] MacWillie v. Southeast Alabama Gas Dist., 539 So. 2d 245 (Ala. 1989); Butler v. Lindsey, 293 S.C. 466, 361 S.E.2d 621 (Ct. App. 1987). [FN2] Sprayberry Crossing Partnership v. Phenix Supply Co., 274 Ga. App. 364, 617 S.E.2d 622 (2005); Bennett v. Louisiana Pacific Corp., 693 So. 2d 1319 (La. Ct. App. 2d Cir. 1997), writ denied, 701 So. 2d 199 (La. 1997) (and not a real action); Tibert v. Slominski, 2005 ND 34, 692 N.W.2d 133 (N.D. 2005) (common law tort); Gakin v. City of Rapid City, 2005 SD 68, 698 N.W.2d 493 (S.D. 2005). [FN3] AmSouth Bank, N.A. v. City of Mobile, 500 So. 2d 1072 (Ala. 1986); Hostler v. Green Park Development Co., 986 S.W.2d 500 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1999). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 2 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 3 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles A. Definition and Nature Topic Summary Correlation Table References 3. Relationship to condemnation

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1

Inverse condemnation, rather than trespass, is the appropriate remedy for granting damages to an injured landowner where the trespasser is cloaked with the power of eminent domain.[FN1] Conversely, a landowner is restricted to a trespass action where the deprivation results from the negligent act of a party who is not clothed with the power of eminent domain.[FN2] Observation: It has been noted that an entry cannot be both a trespass and a taking, because a condemnor acquires ownership.[FN3]

[FN1] Clempner v. Town of Southold, 154 A.D.2d 421, 546 N.Y.S.2d 101 (2d Dep't 1989). - For a discussion of inverse condemnation, see Am. Jur. 2d, Eminent Domain 742. [FN2] Wagner v. Borough of Rainsburg, 714 A.2d 1164 (Pa. Commw. Ct. 1998). - As to whether trespass is a remedy for a wrongful taking, see Am. Jur. 2d, Eminent Domain 756. [FN3] Feder v. Village of Monroe, 283 A.D.2d 548, 725 N.Y.S.2d 75 (2d Dep't 2001). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 3 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass I B Refs. American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table Research References

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1 to 3

A.L.R. Library A.L.R. Index, Trespass West's A.L.R. Digest, Trespass 1 to 3

Model Codes and Restatements Restatement Second, Torts 7, 158, 164, 165,

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 4 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 4. Affirmative act interfering with possessory rights West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1

Trespass is a direct physical interference with,[FN1] or an unlawful or unauthorized physical invasion of,[FN2] another's property. The character of the defendant's act in causing an intrusion upon the plaintiff's interest in the exclusive possession of the premises is an element.[FN3] The plaintiff must allege a wrongful interference with his or her actual possessory rights in the property.[FN4] Trespass is not based on a mere nonfeasance or an omission to perform a duty; there must be an affirmative act, or a misfeasance,[FN5] such as where the invasions have occurred with such frequency and over such a long period, without an attempt to remedy the situation, as to amount to willfulness.[FN6] Unless accompanied by some positive act, language alone, however offensive, does not constitute a trespass.[FN7] Comment: Tort liability is never imposed upon one who has neither done an act nor failed to perform a duty, and thus, one whose presence on the land is not caused by any act of one's own or a failure to perform a duty is not a trespasser.[FN8] In cases of criminal trespass on school grounds, affirmative acts of disturbance are not required to constitute conduct that interferes with the peaceful conduct of the school activities; it is sufficient if the defendant's presence on school grounds interfered with the peaceful conduct of or disturbed school activities.[FN9] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: A cause of action for trespass requires more than just a showing of interference by noise and sound. Goerlitz v. City of Maryville, 333 S.W.3d 450 (Mo. 2011). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Doyle v. Fluor Corp., 199 S.W.3d 784 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 2006), reh'g and/or transfer denied, (Aug. 9, 2006) and transfer denied, (Sept. 26, 2006). [FN2] Sullivan v. Wallace, 766 So. 2d 654 (La. Ct. App. 2d Cir. 2000), writ denied, 774 So. 2d 978 (La. 2000); Cain v. Rust Indus. Cleaning Services, Inc., 969 S.W.2d 464 (Tex. App. Texarkana 1998). - As to the requirement that the invasion be physical and tangible, see 27. [FN3] Ford v. Baltimore City Sheriff's Office, 149 Md. App. 107, 814 A.2d 127 (2002); Martin v. Reynolds Metals Co., 221 Or. 86, 342 P.2d 790 (1959); Wallace v. Lewis County, 134 Wash. App. 1, 137 P.3d 101 (Div. 2 2006), as corrected, (Aug. 15, 2006). - The elements of trespass to a chattel are discussed, generally, in 13 to 17. - The elements of trespass to real property are discussed, generally, in 20 to 35. [FN4] Loftus v. Mingo, 158 Ill. App. 3d 733, 110 Ill. Dec. 368, 511 N.E.2d 203 (4th Dist. 1987). - As to the complaint in an action for trespass, generally, see 180. [FN5] Alabama Power Co. v. Thompson, 278 Ala. 367, 178 So. 2d 525 (1965); Congregation B'nai Jehuda v. Hiyee Realty Corp., 35 A.D.3d 311, 827 N.Y.S.2d 42 (1st Dep't 2006); Knutson v. City of Fargo, 2006 ND 97, 714 N.W.2d 44 (N.D. 2006); Hawkins v. City of Greenville, 358 S.C. 280, 594 S.E.2d 557 (Ct. App. 2004); Meredith v. McClendon, 130 Tex. 527, 111 S.W.2d 1062 (1938). -

[FN6] Gellman v. Seawane Golf & Country Club, Inc., 24 A.D.3d 415, 805 N.Y.S.2d 411 (2d Dep't 2005) (golf driving range not preventing balls from invading neighboring property). [FN7] Alabama Power Co. v. Thompson, 278 Ala. 367, 178 So. 2d 525 (1965). - Landowners allegedly sending anonymous threatening letters and shouting at an adjacent landowner, who was claiming adverse ownership of some property, did not constitute "trespass." Trask v. Nozisko, 134 P.3d 544 (Colo. Ct. App. 2006). [FN8] Restatement Second, Torts 158, comment f. [FN9] In re Jimi A., 209 Cal. App. 3d 482, 257 Cal. Rptr. 147, 52 Ed. Law Rep. 670 (4th Dist. 1989). - As to school trespass statutes, generally, see 168. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 4 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 5 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 5. Intent West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 2

Liability for trespass may be imposed only if the trespass is intentional, reckless, negligent, or the result of ultrahazardous activity.[FN1] Generally, trespass consists of an intentional invasion of the property of another.[FN2] The trespass must be intentional,[FN3] in the sense of an act voluntarily done[FN4] or that the person intended the intrusion,[FN5] except where the intrusion results from reckless or negligent conduct or abnormally dangerous activities.[FN6] The controlling issue is the intent to complete the physical act,[FN7]

regardless if, in so acting, the actor did not intend to commit a trespass and acted in good faith.[FN8] Although it is not necessary that the trespasser intend to invade the property,[FN9] commit a trespass,[FN10] or even know that the act will constitute one,[FN11] it is required that there be an intent to do the act that results in the trespass.[FN12] Intent may accordingly be shown by proof that while the actor did not know that his or her conduct would result in a trespass, those actions were practically certain to have that effect.[FN13] Since trespass is an intentional tort, an initial determination must be made whether a child trespasser formed the intent to do the physical act that released a harmful force, and it cannot be said as a matter of law that a child of any age is incapable of intending to do a physical act; instead, the child's age, experience, and knowledge must be taken into consideration.[FN14]

[FN1] Parks Hiway Enterprises, LLC v. CEM Leasing, Inc., 995 P.2d 657, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 678 (Alaska 2000); Armitage v. Decker, 218 Cal. App. 3d 887, 267 Cal. Rptr. 399 (1st Dist. 1990); Lofland v. Sedgwick County, 26 Kan. App. 2d 697, 996 P.2d 334 (1999); Rockwell Intern. Corp. v. Wilhite, 143 S.W.3d 604 (Ky. Ct. App. 2003). - As to criminal intent, see 152. [FN2] Moulton v. Groveton Papers Co., 112 N.H. 50, 289 A.2d 68, 51 A.L.R.3d 957 (1972); Congregation B'nai Jehuda v. Hiyee Realty Corp., 35 A.D.3d 311, 827 N.Y.S.2d 42 (1st Dep't 2006); Hawkins v. City of Greenville, 358 S.C. 280, 594 S.E.2d 557 (Ct. App. 2004). - As to the requisite intent to commit a trespass to chattel, see 15, 16, and to real property, see 21, 22. [FN3] Russell Corp. v. Sullivan, 790 So. 2d 940 (Ala. 2001); Armitage v. Decker, 218 Cal. App. 3d 887, 267 Cal. Rptr. 399 (1st Dist. 1990); Publix Cab Co. v. Colorado Nat. Bank of Denver, 139 Colo. 205, 338 P.2d 702, 78 A.L.R.2d 198 (1959); Tyler v. Lincoln, 272 Ga. 118, 527 S.E.2d 180 (2000); Williamson v. City of Hays, 275 Kan. 300, 64 P.3d 364 (2003); Terre Aux Boeufs Land Co., Inc. v. J.R. Gray Barge Co., 803 So. 2d 86 (La. Ct. App. 4th Cir. 2001), writ denied, 811 So. 2d 887 (La. 2002); Edgarton v. H.P. Welch Co., 321 Mass. 603, 74 N.E.2d 674, 174 A.L.R. 462 (1947); Knutson v. City of Fargo, 2006 ND 97, 714 N.W.2d 44 (N.D. 2006); Kite v. Hamblen, 192 Tenn. 643, 241 S.W.2d 601 (1951); General Tel. Co. of Southwest v. Bi-Co Pavers, Inc., 514 S.W.2d 168, 73 A.L.R.3d 978 (Tex. Civ. App. Dallas 1974); Wallace v. Lewis County, 134 Wash. App. 1, 137 P.3d 101 (Div. 2 2006), as corrected, (Aug. 15, 2006). [FN4] Shevlin-Carpenter Co. v. State of Minn., 218 U.S. 57, 30 S. Ct. 663, 54 L. Ed. 930 (1910); Publix Cab Co. v. Colorado Nat. Bank of Denver, 139 Colo. 205, 338 P.2d 702, 78 A.L.R.2d 198 (1959); Lanier v. Burnette, 245 Ga. App. 566, 538 S.E.2d 476 (2000); Garner v. Kovalak, 817 N.E.2d 311 (Ind. Ct. App. 2004); Baltimore Gas and Elec. Co. v. Flippo, 112 Md. App. 75, 684 A.2d 456 (1996), judgment aff'd, 348 Md. 680, 705 A.2d 1144 (1998); McDermott v. Sway, 78 N.D. 521, 50 N.W.2d 235 (1951); Kite v. Hamblen, 192 Tenn. 643, 241 S.W.2d 601 (1951); Feiges v. Racine Dry Goods Co., 231 Wis. 270, 285 N.W. 799, 122 A.L.R. 272 (1939). [FN5] Brown v. Arcady Realty Corp., 1 A.D.3d 753, 769 N.Y.S.2d 606 (3d Dep't 2003). [FN6] 8. [FN7] Cleveland Park Club v. Perry, 165 A.2d 485 (Mun. Ct. App. D.C. 1960). [FN8] Mishler v. State, 660 N.E.2d 343 (Ind. Ct. App. 1996); Cockrell v. Pleasant Valley Baptist Church, 762 S.W.2d 879 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1989). -

[FN9] Thomas v. City of Kansas City, 92 S.W.3d 92 (Mo. Ct. App. W.D. 2002). [FN10] Peasley Transfer & Storage Co. v. Smith, 132 Idaho 732, 979 P.2d 605 (1999); Garner v. Kovalak, 817 N.E.2d 311 (Ind. Ct. App. 2004). [FN11] Garner v. Kovalak, 817 N.E.2d 311 (Ind. Ct. App. 2004); Harris County v. Cypress Forest Public Utility Dist. of Harris County, 50 S.W.3d 551 (Tex. App. Houston 14th Dist. 2001). [FN12] Garner v. Kovalak, 817 N.E.2d 311 (Ind. Ct. App. 2004); Mitchell v. Baltimore Sun Co., 164 Md. App. 497, 883 A.2d 1008 (2005), cert. denied, 390 Md. 501, 889 A.2d 418 (2006). [FN13] Nugent v. Pilgrim's Pride Corp., 30 S.W.3d 562 (Tex. App. Texarkana 2000). [FN14] Cleveland Park Club v. Perry, 165 A.2d 485 (Mun. Ct. App. D.C. 1960). - As to a child's liability for trespass, see 65. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 5 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 6 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 6. IntentIntent to cause injury West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 2

While reasonable foreseeability that an act would disturb the plaintiff's possessory interest may be an element of trespass,[FN1] a trespasser need not foresee the specific injury,[FN2] but need only intend the act

that amounts to an unlawful interference with the property rights of another.[FN3] Since the intent to complete the physical act is all that is required, the lack of intent to produce its serious consequences is irrelevant.[FN4] However, it also has been stated that the word "intent," as used in conjunction with an action for trespass, denotes that the actor desires to cause certain consequences or believes that the consequences are substantially certain to result from it.[FN5] An actor is liable if an act causes injury as its immediate consequence, whether intentional or unintentional.[FN6] It is not essential that the defendant act with a design, if the injury is the immediate result of the force applied and the plaintiff is damaged as a result.[FN7]

[FN1] Wallace v. Lewis County, 134 Wash. App. 1, 137 P.3d 101 (Div. 2 2006), as corrected, (Aug. 15, 2006). [FN2] State v. Fermenta ASC Corp., 238 A.D.2d 400, 656 N.Y.S.2d 342 (2d Dep't 1997). [FN3] New York State Nat. Organization for Women v. Terry, 886 F.2d 1339, 14 Fed. R. Serv. 3d 922 (2d Cir. 1989). [FN4] Cleveland Park Club v. Perry, 165 A.2d 485 (Mun. Ct. App. D.C. 1960). [FN5] Branstetter v. Beaumont Supper Club, Inc., 224 Mont. 20, 727 P.2d 933 (1986). [FN6] Lightner Mining Co. v. Lane, 161 Cal. 689, 120 P. 771 (1911). [FN7] Letterman v. English Mica Co., 249 N.C. 769, 107 S.E.2d 753 (1959). - As to whether force is an element of trespass, see 9. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 6 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 7 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements

Topic Summary Correlation Table References 7. IntentEffect of mistake of law or fact West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 2

A party is liable in trespass even though one acts under a mistaken belief of law[FN1] or fact,[FN2] however reasonable,[FN3] unless the trespass was induced by the possessor's conduct.[FN4] A trespass is an intentional tort in the sense that it involves an intent to commit an act that violates a property right, or would be practically certain to have that effect, although the actor may not know that the act would have that effect.[FN5] Thus, a defendant is liable for an intentional entry although that person has acted in good faith[FN6] under the reasonable but mistaken belief that he or she is committing no wrong,[FN7] or where the defendant had a bona fide belief regarding the right to enter,[FN8] such as where a trespasser may honestly believe that, under the known facts, he or she has a good title.[FN9] Alleged reliance on the advice of counsel in mistakenly concluding that one is entitled to enter the property does not avoid liability for trespass.[FN10] Ignorance does not excuse an entry upon the land of another.[FN11] However, some jurisdictions recognize the doctrine of the "innocent trespasser," which protects individuals who enter the land of another under the mistaken belief that it is permissible to do so,[FN12] and either relieves such a person of liability for an unintentional and nonnegligent entry, even though the entry causes harm,[FN13] or affects the measure of damages.[FN14]

[FN1] Miller v. National Broadcasting Co., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1463, 232 Cal. Rptr. 668, 69 A.L.R.4th 1027 (2d Dist. 1986); Hostler v. Green Park Development Co., 986 S.W.2d 500 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1999); Gordon Creek Tree Farms, Inc. v. Layne, 230 Or. 204, 368 P.2d 737 (1962); Pittsburgh & West Virginia Gas Co. v. Pentress Gas Co., 84 W. Va. 449, 100 S.E. 296, 7 A.L.R. 901 (1919). [FN2] Checkley v. Illinois Cent. R. Co., 257 Ill. 491, 100 N.E. 942 (1913); Hostler v. Green Park Development Co., 986 S.W.2d 500 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1999); Moore v. Camden & T. Ry. Co., 74 N.J.L. 498, 65 A. 1021 (N.J. Ct. Err. & App. 1907); Gordon Creek Tree Farms, Inc. v. Layne, 230 Or. 204, 368 P.2d 737 (1962). - As to consent based on a substantial mistake of fact invalidating it as a defense to trespass, see 76. [FN3] Miller v. National Broadcasting Co., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1463, 232 Cal. Rptr. 668, 69 A.L.R.4th 1027 (2d Dist. 1986); Cockrell v. Pleasant Valley Baptist Church, 762 S.W.2d 879 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1989). [FN4] Restatement Second, Torts 164. [FN5] General Tel. Co. of Southwest v. Bi-Co Pavers, Inc., 514 S.W.2d 168, 73 A.L.R.3d 978 (Tex. Civ. App. Dallas 1974). [FN6] Miller v. National Broadcasting Co., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1463, 232 Cal. Rptr. 668, 69 A.L.R.4th 1027 (2d Dist. 1986); Hostler v. Green Park Development Co., 986 S.W.2d 500 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1999). [FN7] Miller v. National Broadcasting Co., 187 Cal. App. 3d 1463, 232 Cal. Rptr. 668, 69 A.L.R.4th 1027 (2d Dist. 1986). -

[FN8] Miller v. Brooks, 123 N.C. App. 20, 472 S.E.2d 350 (1996). [FN9] Brown Jug, Inc. v. International Broth. of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen & Helpers of America, Local 959, 688 P.2d 932 (Alaska 1984); Pittsburgh & West Virginia Gas Co. v. Pentress Gas Co., 84 W. Va. 449, 100 S.E. 296, 7 A.L.R. 901 (1919). - Restatement Second, Torts 164, comment a. [FN10] Miller v. Brooks, 123 N.C. App. 20, 472 S.E.2d 350 (1996). [FN11] Little Pittsburg Consol. Min. Co. v. Little Chief Consol. Min. Co., 11 Colo. 223, 17 P. 760 (1888); Boulton v. Telfer, 52 Idaho 185, 12 P.2d 767, 83 A.L.R. 1341 (1932); J.F. Ball & Bro. Lumber Co. v. Simms Lumber Co., 121 La. 627, 46 So. 674 (1908). [FN12] Bullard v. Bouler, 272 Ga. App. 397, 612 S.E.2d 513 (2005); Bryan v. Big Two Mile Gas Co., 213 W. Va. 110, 577 S.E.2d 258 (2001). [FN13] Bullard v. Bouler, 272 Ga. App. 397, 612 S.E.2d 513 (2005). [FN14] Bryan v. Big Two Mile Gas Co., 213 W. Va. 110, 577 S.E.2d 258 (2001). - As to the measure of damages for the removal of minerals, including by a willful trespasser, see Am. Jur. 2d, Mines and Minerals 399, 400. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 7 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 8 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 8. IntentReckless, negligent, or ultrahazardous conduct

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 2

Recklessness, negligence, or engaging in an ultrahazardous activity may result in a trespass,[FN1] regardless of whether the trespass was unintentional.[FN2] One who recklessly or negligently, or as a result of an abnormally dangerous activity, enters land in the possession of another or causes a thing or third person so to enter, is subject to liability if the presence of the thing upon the land causes harm to the land or to the possessor.[FN3] However, some courts do not recognize a claim of trespass based on negligence.[FN4] Observation: Trespass is not an appropriate theory of liability with regard to a defendant's abnormally dangerous generation of hazardous waste[FN5] or the deliberate burning of an open field.[FN6] Negligent trespass requires proof of a duty, breach of that duty, injury, and proximate cause.[FN7] Trespass is not a strict liability tort, unless it involves an ultrahazardous activity.[FN8] Conversely, there is authority that where a trespass results in damage, the trespasser is liable without reference to negligence or due care.[FN9]

[FN1] Parks Hiway Enterprises, LLC v. CEM Leasing, Inc., 995 P.2d 657, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 678 (Alaska 2000); Gallin v. Poulou, 140 Cal. App. 2d 638, 295 P.2d 958 (1st Dist. 1956); Lyons v. State Farm Fire and Cas. Co., 349 Ill. App. 3d 404, 285 Ill. Dec. 231, 811 N.E.2d 718 (5th Dist. 2004); Lofland v. Sedgwick County, 26 Kan. App. 2d 697, 996 P.2d 334 (1999); Rockwell Intern. Corp. v. Wilhite, 143 S.W.3d 604 (Ky. Ct. App. 2003); Mitchell v. Baltimore Sun Co., 164 Md. App. 497, 883 A.2d 1008 (2005), cert. denied, 390 Md. 501, 889 A.2d 418 (2006); Hughes v. King County, 42 Wash. App. 776, 714 P.2d 316 (Div. 1 1986). [FN2] Hudson v. Peavey Oil Co., 279 Or. 3, 566 P.2d 175 (1977). [FN3] Hudson v. Peavey Oil Co., 279 Or. 3, 566 P.2d 175 (1977). - Restatement Second, Torts 165. - As to what constitutes abnormally dangerous activity, see Am. Jur. 2d, Negligence 377 to 408. [FN4] Lawrence v. Buena Vista Sanitation Dist., 989 P.2d 254 (Colo. Ct. App. 1999). [FN5] Jersey City Redevelopment Authority v. PPG Industries, 655 F. Supp. 1257 (D.N.J. 1987) (absolute liability is the preferred theory of liability). [FN6] Koos v. Roth, 55 Or. App. 12, 637 P.2d 167 (1981), decision aff'd, 293 Or. 670, 652 P.2d 1255 (1982). [FN7] Pruitt v. Douglas County, 116 Wash. App. 547, 66 P.3d 1111 (Div. 3 2003). [FN8] Carvalho v. Wolfe, 207 Or. App. 175, 140 P.3d 1161 (2006); General Tel. Co. of Southwest v. Bi-Co Pavers, Inc., 514 S.W.2d 168, 73 A.L.R.3d 978 (Tex. Civ. App. Dallas 1974) (strict liability theory was not applicable where the plaintiff had notice and an adequate opportunity to avoid harm). [FN9] Nugent v. Pilgrim's Pride Corp., 30 S.W.3d 562 (Tex. App. Texarkana 2000). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved.

AMJUR TRESPASS 8 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 9 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 9. Force West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 3

Trespass traditionally involves the idea of force.[FN1] The trespass must be the immediate result of force originally applied by the defendant.[FN2] However, that force is not confined to actual violent force.[FN3] Any entry on land in the peaceable possession of another is deemed a trespass, without regard to the amount of force used.[FN4] Furthermore, a trespass may result from indirect force.[FN5] One who sets in motion a force that, in the usual course of events, will damage another's property is liable for trespass.[FN6]

[FN1] Frye v. Baskin, 241 Mo. App. 319, 231 S.W.2d 630 (1950). [FN2] Alabama Power Co. v. Thompson, 278 Ala. 367, 178 So. 2d 525 (1965); Mitchell v. Baltimore Sun Co., 164 Md. App. 497, 883 A.2d 1008 (2005), cert. denied, 390 Md. 501, 889 A.2d 418 (2006); Frye v. Baskin, 241 Mo. App. 319, 231 S.W.2d 630 (1950); Pearl v. Pic Walsh Freight Co., 112 Ohio App. 11, 15 Ohio Op. 2d 338, 168 N.E.2d 571 (1st Dist. Hamilton County 1960). [FN3] Checkley v. Illinois Cent. R. Co., 257 Ill. 491, 100 N.E. 942 (1913). [FN4] 18. [FN5] AmSouth Bank, N.A. v. City of Mobile, 500 So. 2d 1072 (Ala. 1986) (recognizing rule). - As to indirect force as an element of trespass to real property, see 25. -

[FN6] Hoery v. U.S., 64 P.3d 214 (Colo. 2003). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 9 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 10 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. I. General Principles B. Generally Applicable Elements Topic Summary Correlation Table References 10. Injury or harm West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1

The character and extent of the harm visited on the plaintiff in the interference with that person's interest in the exclusive possession of the premises are among the components of the tort of trespass.[FN1] However, there may be an injury even though no harm is done, in the sense that an unauthorized intrusion upon land in the possession of another is an injury, even though the intrusion is beneficial, or so transitory that it does not constitute an interference.[FN2] Thus, while actual harm is not one of the requisite elements of a claim for civil trespass, actual interference with another's property is.[FN3] It has also been said that because a legal right is involved, the law recognizes that actual harm occurs in every trespass, and thus, an action for intentional trespass is directed at vindicating a legal right,[FN4] irrespective of any appreciable injury,[FN5] and thus, it is not necessary that damage result.[FN6] Observation: However, it is generally held that actual injury must have occurred to the chattel or the plaintiff's rights in it for a trespass to chattels to be actionable,[FN7] and there is some authority that an intrusion on land must be substantial and result in harm.[FN8] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases:

A party need not establish actual harm or damages in a traditional trespass action. Tally Bissell Neighbors, Inc. v. Eyrie Shotgun Ranch, LLC, 2010 MT 63, 355 Mont. 387, 228 P.3d 1134 (2010). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Martin v. Reynolds Metals Co., 221 Or. 86, 342 P.2d 790 (1959). - For discussion of continuing harm, resulting from a single trespass as distinct from a continuing trespass, see 19. [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 7, comment a. [FN3] Tibert v. Slominski, 2005 ND 34, 692 N.W.2d 133 (N.D. 2005). [FN4] Jacque v. Steenberg Homes, Inc., 209 Wis. 2d 605, 563 N.W.2d 154 (1997). [FN5] Pinkowski v. Township of Montclair, 299 N.J. Super. 557, 691 A.2d 837 (App. Div. 1997). [FN6] Ridgway v. TTnT Development Corp., 126 S.W.3d 807 (Mo. Ct. App. S.D. 2004). - Every unauthorized entry is a trespass, even if no damage is done. Aguilar v. Morales, 162 S.W.3d 825 (Tex. App. El Paso 2005), reh'g overruled, (May 25, 2005) and review denied, (Sept. 9, 2005). [FN7] 17. [FN8] 26. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 10 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass II A Refs. American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D.

II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table Research References

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6 to 8

A.L.R. Library A.L.R. Index, Trespass West's A.L.R. Digest, Trespass 6 to 8

Forms Am. Jur. Legal Forms 2d 249:8 Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 51 to 54

Model Codes and Restatements Restatement Second, Torts 216, 217, 218, 221, 222, 222A

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 11 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011

Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 11. Definition and nature West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6

Forms Am. Jur. Legal Forms 2d 249:8 (Notice to trespasser to personaltyDamage due to trespassRequest for reimbursement) A trespass to chattel or personal property is the intentional use of or interference with personal property, which is in the possession of another, without justification.[FN1] Comment: While under early common-law pleading, the form of action for trespass to chattel would lie for any direct and immediate interference with a chattel, whether the trespass was intentional, negligent, or accidental, the word "trespass," as applied to interference with chattels, has become limited to intentional interferences.[FN2] The basis of a trespass to chattel cause of action lies in injury to possession.[FN3] Any unlawful interference, however slight, with another's enjoyment of personal property is a trespass.[FN4]

[FN1] Burshan v. National Union Fire Ins. Co. of Pittsburgh, PA, 805 So. 2d 835 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 4th Dist. 2001); Foremost Ins. Co. v. Public Service Com'n of Missouri, 985 S.W.2d 793 (Mo. Ct. App. W.D. 1998); Texas-New Mexico Pipeline Co. v. Allstate Const., Inc., 70 N.M. 15, 369 P.2d 401 (1962). - "Trespass to personalty" is an injury to, or interference with, possession of the property, unlawfully, with or without the exercise of physical force. Russell v. American Real Estate Corp., 89 S.W.3d 204 (Tex. App. Corpus Christi 2002). [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 217, comment b. [FN3] Fordham v. Eason, 351 N.C. 151, 521 S.E.2d 701, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 653 (1999). [FN4] Pacific Tel. & Tel. Co. v. Slezak, 151 Wash. 457, 276 P. 904 (1929). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 11

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 12 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 12. Distinction from conversion West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6

Conversion is similar to trespass to chattel.[FN1] The important distinction between trespass to chattels and conversion lies in the measure of damages; in trespass, the plaintiff may recover for the diminished value of the chattel or one's interest in its possession and use, while in conversion, the measure of damages is the full value of the chattel, at the time and place of the tort.[FN2] Thus, the tort of trespass to chattels allows recovery for interference with possession of personal property not sufficiently important to be classed as conversion, and the plaintiff may recover only the actual damages suffered by reason of the impairment of the property or the loss of its use.[FN3] There is no material difference between conversion and trespass to chattels when one wrongfully takes and carries another's property away.[FN4] A defendant may be liable for trespass to personal property, even though the plaintiff mislabeled the cause of action as one for conversion.[FN5] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: Texas classifies an interference with a chattel that compels the defendants to pay the full value of the thing with which he has interfered as conversion; but, if the interference with chattel does not require the defendant to pay full value, it may constitute trespass to chattels. Ed & F Man Biofuels Ltd. v. MV FASE, 728 F. Supp. 2d 862 (S.D. Tex. 2010). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Ex parte SouthTrust Bank of Alabama, N.A., 523 So. 2d 407 (Ala. 1988). [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 222A, comment c. - For a discussion of damages in actions in trespass, see 86. [FN3] Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). [FN4] Wint v. Alabama Eye & Tissue Bank, 675 So. 2d 383 (Ala. 1996). [FN5] Thrifty-Tel, Inc. v. Bezenek, 46 Cal. App. 4th 1559, 54 Cal. Rptr. 2d 468 (4th Dist. 1996). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 12 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 13 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 13. Requisites of liability West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6 to 8

Forms Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 51 (Complaint, petition or declarationTrespass to property Wrongful taking) Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 52 (Complaint, petition or declarationAllegationInjury to property)

A trespass to a chattel may be committed by the intentional dispossession of another's property, or by the use or intermeddling with an item of personal property in the possession of another.[FN1] It may also consist of a wrongful taking,[FN2] damaging, or destruction[FN3] of the personal property. There must be an unauthorized, unlawful interference with or dispossession of the property,[FN4] which proximately causes an injury to a possessory interest in it.[FN5] A trespass to personal property may be either with or without the exercise of physical force.[FN6] Trespass to chattels must be based on interference with some tangible form of property.[FN7] A garnishee's bank account is not a chattel that could be the subject of a trespass.[FN8] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: Even an electronic trespass to chattels claim must be based on some link to a physical object. Snap-on Business Solutions Inc. v. O'Neil & Associates, Inc., 708 F. Supp. 2d 669 (N.D. Ohio 2010). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988). - Intentional dispossession is further discussed in 15. - Restatement Second, Torts 217. [FN2] Weicht v. Suburban Newspapers of Greater St. Louis, Inc., 32 S.W.3d 592 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 2000). [FN3] Jamison v. National Loan Investors, L.P., 4 S.W.3d 465 (Tex. App. Houston 1st Dist. 1999) (regardless of negligence). [FN4] Fordham v. Eason, 351 N.C. 151, 521 S.E.2d 701, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 653 (1999). [FN5] Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). [FN6] Russell v. American Real Estate Corp., 89 S.W.3d 204 (Tex. App. Corpus Christi 2002). [FN7] Pestco, Inc. v. Associated Products, Inc., 2005 PA Super 276, 880 A.2d 700 (2005) (and thus does not extend to the use of information in a bill of lading). [FN8] Burshan v. National Union Fire Ins. Co. of Pittsburgh, PA, 805 So. 2d 835 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 4th Dist. 2001). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 13

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75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 14 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 14. Proper possessor's actual or constructive possession West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6

Forms Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 53 (Complaint, petition, or declarationAllegationPossession of personal property under claim of ownership) Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 54 (Complaint, petition, or declarationAllegation Constructive possessionProperty in hands of owner's agent or employee) Since an action for trespass to chattel is based on the injury done to the plaintiff's possession of personal property, in order to maintain the action, the plaintiff must have been in either actual or constructive possession at the time of the injury.[FN1] A person in "possession of a chattel" is one who has physical control of the chattel with the intent to exercise such control on one's own behalf, or on behalf of another.[FN2] "Actual possession" consists of exercising dominion over, making ordinary use of, or taking the profits from the property in dispute.[FN3] Constructive possession is a legal fiction, and exists when there is no actual possession, but there is title granting an immediate right to actual possession; the key test is whether there is a right to present possession whenever desired, or a right to immediate actual possession.[FN4]

[FN1] Fordham v. Eason, 351 N.C. 151, 521 S.E.2d 701, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 653 (1999). [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 216. -

[FN3] Fordham v. Eason, 351 N.C. 151, 521 S.E.2d 701, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 653 (1999). [FN4] Fordham v. Eason, 351 N.C. 151, 521 S.E.2d 701, 40 U.C.C. Rep. Serv. 2d 653 (1999). 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 14 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 15 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 15. Intentional dispossession West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6, 8

A dispossession of chattel occurs when someone intentionally assumes physical control over the item and deals with it in a manner that will be destructive of the possessory interest of another person.[FN1] A dispossession may be intentionally committed by taking a chattel from the possession of another without the other's consent, obtaining possession from another by fraud or duress, barring the possessor's access to the property, destroying the item while it is in another's possession, or taking the property into the custody of the law.[FN2] Comment: The intention necessary to subject one who deprives another of possession of a chattel to liability is merely the intention to deal with the chattel in such a way that dispossession results; it is necessary, however, that the act be one the actor knows to be destructive of any possessory right.[FN3] While an intent to intermeddle may be sufficient to establish intent,[FN4] intermeddling with a chattel is not a dispossession unless the actor intends to exercise dominion and control over it inconsistent with possession in any person other than oneself.[FN5] Accordingly, the interference required to establish a claim of trespass to chattel must amount to more than intermeddling.[FN6]

[FN1] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988). [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 221. [FN3] Restatement Second, Torts 222, comment c. [FN4] 16. [FN5] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988). - Restatement Second, Torts 221, comment b. [FN6] Dryden v. Cincinnati Bell Tel. Co., 135 Ohio App. 3d 394, 734 N.E.2d 409 (1st Dist. Hamilton County 1999). - As to the requisite extent of harm, see 17. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 15 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 16 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 16. Intent to use or intermeddle with chattel West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 6

The intention required to make one liable for trespass to a chattel is present when the act is done for the purpose of using or otherwise intermeddling with a chattel or with knowledge that intermeddling will, with

substantial certainty, result from the act.[FN1] Wrongful intent is not necessary, only an intention to interfere physically with the goods themselves,[FN2] such as by intentionally taking an item of personal property from the possession of another without the other's consent, or by barring the possessor's access to it.[FN3] Comment: It is not necessary that the actor should know or have reason to know that the intermeddling is a violation of the possessory rights of another, and thus it is immaterial that the actor intermeddles with the chattel under a mistake of law or fact that has led him or her to believe that one is the possessor of it or that the possessor has consented to the actor dealing with it.[FN4]

[FN1] Foremost Ins. Co. v. Public Service Com'n of Missouri, 985 S.W.2d 793 (Mo. Ct. App. W.D. 1998); Texas-New Mexico Pipeline Co. v. Allstate Const., Inc., 70 N.M. 15, 369 P.2d 401 (1962). - Restatement Second, Torts 217, comment c. [FN2] Mountain States Tel. & Tel. Co. v. Horn Tower Const. Co., 147 Colo. 166, 363 P.2d 175 (1961); TexasNew Mexico Pipeline Co. v. Allstate Const., Inc., 70 N.M. 15, 369 P.2d 401 (1962). [FN3] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988). [FN4] Restatement Second, Torts 217, comment c. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 16 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 17 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass A. Trespass to Chattel Topic Summary Correlation Table References 17. Extent of harm or deprivation West's Key Number Digest

West's Key Number Digest, Trespass

6, 7

A trespass to chattels is a wrongful interference with or injury to property that causes actual damage to the property or deprives the owner of its use for a substantial period.[FN1] There is authority that actual injury must have occurred to the chattel or the plaintiff's rights in it for a trespass to chattels to be actionable.[FN2] The trespasser must dispossess the other person of the chattel, impair the chattel as to its condition, quality, or value, deprive the rightful possessor of the use of the chattel for a substantial time, or cause bodily harm to the possessor, or harm to some person or thing in which the possessor has a legally protected interest.[FN3] Thus, short of dispossession, personal injury, or physical damage, intermeddling is actionable as a trespass to chattels only if the chattel is impaired as to its condition, quality, or value, or the possessor is deprived of the use of the chattel for a substantial time.[FN4] The time of the deprivation must be so substantial that it is possible to estimate a loss caused by it.[FN5] While a harmless use or touching of personal property may be a technical trespass, an interference, not amounting to dispossession, is not actionable, without a showing of harm.[FN6] On the other hand, a claim for trespass to chattel will lie, even if the damage intentionally inflicted on the personal property belonging to another does not result in its complete destruction.[FN7] Comment: There is, however, commentary that a dispossession is always a trespass to the chattel, and subjects the actor to liability, at least for nominal damages for the interference with possession.[FN8]

[FN1] Armstrong v. Benavides, 180 S.W.3d 359 (Tex. App. Dallas 2005). [FN2] Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). [FN3] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988); Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003); Coleman v. Vukovich, 825 N.E.2d 397 (Ind. Ct. App. 2005); J. Doe No. 1 v. CBS Broadcasting Inc., 24 A.D.3d 215, 806 N.Y.S.2d 38 (1st Dep't 2005) (automated dialing did not cause such harm to the chattelthe telephone); Dryden v. Cincinnati Bell Tel. Co., 135 Ohio App. 3d 394, 734 N.E.2d 409 (1st Dist. Hamilton County 1999). - Restatement Second, Torts 218. [FN4] Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). - Coworkers, who momentarily opened a fellow employee's pack to confirm suspicions that the pack contained a handgun, did not commit trespass to chattel, where there was no evidence of damage to the chattel. Dryden v. Cincinnati Bell Tel. Co., 135 Ohio App. 3d 394, 734 N.E.2d 409 (1st Dist. Hamilton County 1999). [FN5] Koepnick v. Sears Roebuck & Co., 158 Ariz. 322, 762 P.2d 609 (Ct. App. Div. 1 1988) (two-minute search of vehicle insufficient); Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). - As to damages for the loss of use of a chattel, generally, see 109. [FN6] Intel Corp. v. Hamidi, 30 Cal. 4th 1342, 1 Cal. Rptr. 3d 32, 71 P.3d 296 (2003). [FN7] Seaphus v. Lilly, 691 F. Supp. 127 (N.D. Ill. 1988). [FN8] Restatement Second, Torts 222, comment a. - As to nominal damages in actions for trespass, generally, see 112. -

2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 17 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass II B Refs. American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass B. Trespass to Real Property Topic Summary Correlation Table Research References

West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1, 2, 10 to 15

A.L.R. Library A.L.R. Index, Trespass West's A.L.R. Digest, Trespass 1, 2, 100 to 155

Forms Am. Jur. Legal Forms 2d 249:3, 249:7 Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 5, 6, 14 to 17, 23, 25, 26

Model Codes and Restatements

Restatement Second, Torts 157 to 163, 166

2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS II B REF END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 18 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass B. Trespass to Real Property 1. In General Topic Summary Correlation Table References 18. Nature of tort West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 1, 10

Forms Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 5, 6 (Complaint, petition, or declarationTrespass to real propertyGeneral forms) A trespass occurs when there is an actionable interference with possession of land.[FN1] The essence of a trespass to real property is the injury to the right of possession.[FN2] At common law, every person's land is deemed to be enclosed,[FN3] and landowners have the right to exclude persons from trespassing on private property.[FN4] Accordingly, every unauthorized, and therefore unlawful, entry into the close, or private property, of another is a trespass at common law,[FN5] which necessarily carries with it some damage for which the trespasser is liable.[FN6] The modern action for trespass to land stemmed from the common-law action of trespass.[FN7] The essence of the modern cause of action is an unauthorized entry onto the land of another,[FN8] but a trespass to real property may consist of an injury to,[FN9] a use of,[FN10] or an entry upon the real estate of another, without

the consent,[FN11] invitation, or permission of the person lawfully entitled to possession of the real estate,[FN12] or a privilege to enter or remain.[FN13] Trespass also has been defined as an invasion of the exclusive possession of land,[FN14] or an interference with possession,[FN15] either by an unlawful act or by a lawful act performed in an unlawful manner.[FN16] A trespass on land includes entries on land resulting directly or indirectly from one's act,[FN17] and also from the presence on the land of a thing that is the actor's duty to remove.[FN18] Observation: The common-law writ of trespass quare clausum fregit sought redress for the intrusion, directly or indirectly, upon the real property of another.[FN19] "Trespass on the land" generally is now used in the broader sense than the trespass that was addressed by the common-law action, since it includes not only entries on land, but also the presence on the land of a thing that the actor has a duty to remove.[FN20] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: On a claim for indirect trespass, Alabama law requires a showing of substantial damage to plaintiffs' property. Abrams v. Ciba Specialty Chemicals Corp., 663 F. Supp. 2d 1243 (S.D. Ala. 2009). Unauthorized entry onto real property is a "trespass." Archbishop Coleman F. Carroll High School, Inc. v. Maynoldi, 30 So. 3d 533 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 3d Dist. 2010). "Trespass" is the unauthorized use of or entry onto another's property. Jaynes v. Com., 276 Va. 443, 666 S.E.2d 303 (2008), petition for cert. filed, 77 U.S.L.W. 3366 (U.S. Dec. 11, 2008). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Phillips v. Rathbone, 194 Or. App. 90, 93 P.3d 835 (2004). [FN2] Poff v. Hayes, 763 So. 2d 234 (Ala. 2000); Munsey v. Hanly, 102 Me. 423, 67 A. 217 (1907); Lane v. Mims, 221 S.C. 236, 70 S.E.2d 244 (1952); Austin v. Hallstrom, 117 Vt. 161, 86 A.2d 549 (1952). [FN3] Hanson v. Carroll, 133 Conn. 505, 52 A.2d 700 (1947); Letterman v. English Mica Co., 249 N.C. 769, 107 S.E.2d 753 (1959). [FN4] Church of Christ in Hollywood v. Superior Court, 99 Cal. App. 4th 1244, 121 Cal. Rptr. 2d 810 (2d Dist. 2002); Adams v. Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Co., 237 Mich. App. 51, 602 N.W.2d 215 (1999). [FN5] Difronzo v. Village of Port Sanilac, 166 Mich. App. 148, 419 N.W.2d 756 (1988); Morrison v. Smith, 757 S.W.2d 678 (Tenn. Ct. App. 1988). - The common-law tort in trespass upon real property occurs when a person, without authority or privilege, physically invades or unlawfully enters the private premises of another, with directly ensuing damages. Apel v. Katz, 83 Ohio St. 3d 11, 1998-Ohio-420, 697 N.E.2d 600 (1998). [FN6] Hanson v. Carroll, 133 Conn. 505, 52 A.2d 700 (1947); Letterman v. English Mica Co., 249 N.C. 769, 107 S.E.2d 753 (1959). - As to damages for trespass to real property, see 100. [FN7] Borland v. Sanders Lead Co., Inc., 369 So. 2d 523, 2 A.L.R.4th 1042 (Ala. 1979). -

[FN8] Mapco Exp., Inc. v. Faulk, 24 P.3d 531 (Alaska 2001); Huntingdon Life Sciences, Inc. v. Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty USA, Inc., 129 Cal. App. 4th 1228, 29 Cal. Rptr. 3d 521 (4th Dist. 2005); Mallon Oil Co. v. Bowen/Edwards Associates, Inc., 940 P.2d 1055 (Colo. Ct. App. 1996), judgment aff'd, 965 P.2d 105 (Colo. 1998); Checkley v. Illinois Cent. R. Co., 257 Ill. 491, 100 N.E. 942 (1913); Shapiro Bros., Inc. v. JonesFestus Properties, L.L.C, 205 S.W.3d 270 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 2006), reh'g and/or transfer denied, (Nov. 9, 2006); Mitchell v. Broadway, 628 S.E.2d 847 (N.C. Ct. App. 2006); Nugent v. Pilgrim's Pride Corp., 30 S.W.3d 562 (Tex. App. Texarkana 2000). [FN9] Winselmann v. Reynolds, 690 So. 2d 1325 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 3d Dist. 1997); Wendinger v. Forst Farms, Inc., 662 N.W.2d 546 (Minn. Ct. App. 2003); Jordan v. Foust Oil Co., Inc., 116 N.C. App. 155, 447 S.E.2d 491 (1994) (delivering gasoline when the defendant knew or should have known that the tanks were leaking, resulting in gasoline leaking into the plaintiff's well). [FN10] Merrill Stevens Dry Dock Co. v. G & J Investments Corp., Inc., 506 So. 2d 30 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 3d Dist. 1987). [FN11] Special Force Ministries v. WCCO Television, 584 N.W.2d 789 (Minn. Ct. App. 1998); Williams v. City of Dallas, 53 S.W.3d 780 (Tex. App. Dallas 2001). [FN12] Hoery v. U.S., 64 P.3d 214 (Colo. 2003). - Trespassing, both at common law and by statute, is the entry onto another's property without the owner's permission. State v. Tower, 133 N.M. 32, 2002-NMCA-109, 59 P.3d 1264 (Ct. App. 2002). [FN13] Geyso v. Daly, 278 Wis. 2d 475, 2005 WI App 18, 691 N.W.2d 915 (Ct. App. 2004). - The defense of privilege is discussed in 68. [FN14] Kapner v. Meadowlark Ranch Ass'n, 116 Cal. App. 4th 1182, 11 Cal. Rptr. 3d 138 (2d Dist. 2004); Luce v. Marble, 142 Idaho 264, 127 P.3d 167 (2005); National Fire and Indem. Exchange v. Ali & Sons, Co., 346 Ill. App. 3d 107, 281 Ill. Dec. 232, 803 N.E.2d 636 (1st Dist. 2004); Amaral v. Cuppels, 64 Mass. App. Ct. 85, 831 N.E.2d 915 (2005), review denied, 445 Mass. 1102, 834 N.E.2d 256 (2005); Ward v. City of New York, 15 A.D.3d 392, 789 N.Y.S.2d 539 (2d Dep't 2005). [FN15] New York State Nat. Organization for Women v. Terry, 886 F.2d 1339, 14 Fed. R. Serv. 3d 922 (2d Cir. 1989); AmSouth Bank, N.A. v. City of Mobile, 500 So. 2d 1072 (Ala. 1986); St. Louis County v. Stone, 776 S.W.2d 885 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 1989). - As to the requirement, in an action for trespass to real property, of possession, see 28 to 35. [FN16] New York State Nat. Organization for Women v. Terry, 886 F.2d 1339, 14 Fed. R. Serv. 3d 922 (2d Cir. 1989); Kurzner v. Sutton Owners Corp., 245 A.D.2d 101, 666 N.Y.S.2d 135 (1st Dep't 1997). [FN17] 25. [FN18] 39. [FN19] Restatement Second, Torts, Chapter 7, Topic 1, Scope Note. -

[FN20] Restatement Second, Torts, Chapter 7, Topic 1, Scope Note. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 18 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 19 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass B. Trespass to Real Property 1. In General Topic Summary Correlation Table References 19. Continuing trespass to real property West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 10

Forms Am. Jur. Legal Forms 2d 249:7 (Agreement between property ownersTo hire attorney and bring suit for continuing trespasses) Am. Jur. Pleading and Practice Forms, Trespass 14 (Complaint, petition, or declarationContinuing trespass Maintenance of junction box for electrical equipmentInvasion of privacyEntry into area of junction box without permission)

Law Reviews and Other Periodicals Eismeier, Continuing Trespass and Nuisance for Toxic Chemicals. 32 Colo. Law. 107 (2003)

A continuing trespass requires an ongoing invasion of possession of property,[FN1] and exists for the entire time during which one wrongfully remains on the property.[FN2] A trespass may be committed by the continued presence on the land of a structure, chattel, or other thing that the actor or a predecessor in legal interest has placed on the land and failed to remove.[FN3] Acts constituting a continuing trespass also include the placement of new poles and electric lines on property without obtaining proper easements, since these alterations are permanent in nature,[FN4] and a realty company's personnel entering rental properties on a weekly basis to distribute to tenants a free publication that contained advertisements for sales of new homes.[FN5] A continuing trespass must be distinguished from a trespass that permanently changes the physical condition of the land, since the removal of a structure or the removal of trees does not subject the actor to liability for a continuing trespass; instead, since the actor's conduct has produced a permanent injury to the land, the possessor's right is to full redress in a single action for trespass, and a subsequent transferee acquires no cause of action for the alteration of the condition of the land.[FN6] Accordingly, a continuing trespass occurs when there is some continuing or ongoing tortious activity attributable to the defendant, while a permanent trespass occurs when the defendant's tortious act has been fully accomplished.[FN7] For instance, a cause of action for a continuing intentional trespass, as opposed to a permanent trespass, arises when an intrusive substance remains on land, causes actual and substantial harm to the property, and is abatable.[FN8] In this situation, the injury is a continuous one, each injury gives rise to a new cause of action,[FN9] and successive lawsuits may be maintained.[FN10] Because the continuous trespass may be removed or abated at any time, future damages are inherently speculative and may not be awarded.[FN11] A continuing trespass is also distinguished from a series of separate trespasses on land, in that a continuing trespass is actionable by the possessor even if the intrusion or entry was originally made on the land pursuant to consent or a privilege, and the rule of continuing trespass is applicable after the transfer of ownership or possession, a matter of importance where a trespass action for the original entry is barred by the statute of limitations.[FN12] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: A trespass can be continuous or it can terminate. Hogg v. Chevron USA, Inc., 45 So. 3d 991 (La. 2010). A continuing trespass occurs when there is some continuing or ongoing allegedly tortious activity attributable to the defendant; a permanent trespass occurs when the defendant's allegedly tortious act has been fully accomplished. Sexton v. Mason, 117 Ohio St. 3d 275, 2008-Ohio-858, 883 N.E.2d 1013 (2008). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Will v. Frontier Contractors, Inc., 121 Wash. App. 119, 89 P.3d 242 (Div. 2 2004), review denied, 153 Wash. 2d 1008, 111 P.3d 856 (2005). [FN2] Restatement Second, Torts 158, comment m. [FN3] 39. [FN4] Singleton v. Haywood Elec. Membership Corp., 357 N.C. 623, 588 S.E.2d 871 (2003). [FN5] Aberdeen Apartments v. Cary Campbell Realty Alliance, Inc., 820 N.E.2d 158 (Ind. Ct. App. 2005), transfer denied, 841 N.E.2d 178 (Ind. 2005). -

[FN6] Restatement Second, Torts 162, comment e. - As to a subsequent transferee's right to recover for injury cased by a continuing trespass, see 29. [FN7] Abraham v. BP Exploration & Oil, Inc., 149 Ohio App. 3d 471, 2002-Ohio-4392, 778 N.E.2d 48 (10th Dist. Franklin County 2002). [FN8] Wallace v. Lewis County, 134 Wash. App. 1, 137 P.3d 101 (Div. 2 2006), as corrected, (Aug. 15, 2006). [FN9] Knight v. Waggoner, 359 S.C. 492, 597 S.E.2d 894 (Ct. App. 2004). [FN10] Woldson v. Woodhead, 149 P.3d 361 (Wash. 2006). [FN11] Woldson v. Woodhead, 149 P.3d 361 (Wash. 2006). [FN12] Restatement Second, Torts 160, comments f, h. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 19 END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 20 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass B. Trespass to Real Property 2. Elements a. General Requisites Topic Summary Correlation Table References 20. Generally West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 10

The elements of trespass to real property are possession of the property by the plaintiff when the alleged trespass was committed, an unauthorized entry by the defendant, and damage to the plaintiff from the trespass.[FN1] One is subject to liability for trespass to real property for intentionally entering another's land or causing a thing or third person to do so,[FN2] and remaining on the land, or failing to remove from the land a thing one has a duty to remove.[FN3] CUMULATIVE SUPPLEMENT Cases: The essentials of an action for trespass are: (1) ownership or possessory interest in land by the plaintiff; (2) invasion, intrusion, or entry by the defendant affecting the plaintiff's exclusive possessory interest; (3) done intentionally; and (4) causing direct injury. Boyne v. Town of Glastonbury, 110 Conn. App. 591, 955 A.2d 645 (2008), certification denied, 289 Conn. 947, 959 A.2d 1011 (2008). A "trespasser" is one who, though peacefully or by mistake, wrongfully enters upon property owned or occupied by another. Jones v. Barrow, 304 Ga. App. 337, 696 S.E.2d 363 (2010). Under state law, a trespasser is one who, though peacefully or by mistake, wrongfully enters upon property owned or occupied by another. Lee v. Southern Telecom Co., 303 Ga. App. 642, 694 S.E.2d 125 (2010). An alleged trespasser removes trees or boundary markers from a parcel "without permission of the owner," in violation of the trespass statute, if he knows about the existence of a dispute regarding the ownership of the parcel. 14 M.R.S.A. 7552(2)(A). Dupuis v. Soucy, 2011 ME 2, 11 A.3d 318 (Me. 2011). [END OF SUPPLEMENT]

[FN1] Woodring v. Swieter, 637 S.E.2d 269 (N.C. Ct. App. 2006). - The requirement of plaintiff's possession is further discussed in 28. [FN2] Born v. Exxon Corp., 388 So. 2d 933 (Ala. 1980); Miller v. Carnation Co., 33 Colo. App. 62, 516 P.2d 661 (1973); Millers Mut. Ins. Ass'n of Illinois v. Graham Oil Co., 282 Ill. App. 3d 129, 218 Ill. Dec. 60, 668 N.E.2d 223 (2d Dist. 1996); Knutson v. City of Fargo, 2006 ND 97, 714 N.W.2d 44 (N.D. 2006); Abraham v. BP Exploration & Oil, Inc., 149 Ohio App. 3d 471, 2002-Ohio-4392, 778 N.E.2d 48 (10th Dist. Franklin County 2002); State v. Rumpca, 2002 SD 124, 652 N.W.2d 795 (S.D. 2002); Canton v. Graniteville Fire Dist. No. 4, 171 Vt. 551, 762 A.2d 808 (2000); Peters v. Vinatieri, 102 Wash. App. 641, 9 P.3d 909 (Div. 2 2000). - Restatement Second, Torts 158. [FN3] Branstetter v. Beaumont Supper Club, Inc., 224 Mont. 20, 727 P.2d 933 (1986); Benson v. State, 2006 SD 8, 710 N.W.2d 131 (S.D. 2006), cert. denied, 126 S. Ct. 2971, 165 L. Ed. 2d 953 (U.S. 2006); Harris v. Carbonneau, 165 Vt. 433, 685 A.2d 296 (1996); Kaech v. Lewis County Public Utility Dist. No. 1, 106 Wash. App. 260, 23 P.3d 529, 91 A.L.R.5th 727 (Div. 2 2001). - As to failure to remove something from the land, see 39. - Restatement Second, Torts 158. 2011 Thomson Reuters. 33-34B 2011 Thomson Reuters/RIA. No Claim to Orig. U.S. Govt. Works. All rights reserved. AMJUR TRESPASS 20

END OF DOCUMENT

75 Am. Jur. 2d Trespass 21 American Jurisprudence, Second Edition Database updated August 2011 Trespass Jack K. Levin, J.D. and Lucas Martin, J.D. II. Particular Types of Trespass B. Trespass to Real Property 2. Elements a. General Requisites Topic Summary Correlation Table References 21. Intent to enter West's Key Number Digest West's Key Number Digest, Trespass 2, 10, 12

A trespass to real property requires the intentional entry onto the land of another.[FN1] A trespass to real property is characterized as an intentional tort,[FN2] regardless of the actor's motivation.[FN3] Liability for a trespass upon real property produced by a voluntary act need not be grounded in negligence, so long as the act causing the trespass was intended.[FN4] While a trespass clearly occurs when the actor knowingly and without authority enters the land of another,[FN5] the requisite intention is to enter upon the particular land in question, irrespective of whether the actor knows or should know that he or she is not entitled to enter.[FN6] The only relevant intent is to enter the real property or to aid, assist, advise, or encourage another to enter; the actor's subjective intent or awareness of the property's ownership is irrelevant.[FN7] It is not necessary that one act for the purpose of entering; it is enough that the actor knows that the conduct will result in such an entry, inevitably or to a substantial certainty.[FN8] It is only necessary that the actor intentionally be upon any part of the land in question.[FN9] It is not necessary that one intend to invade the possessor's interest in the exclusive possession of the land or take possession[FN10] and, therefore, know that the entry is an intrusion.[FN11] Thus, an attempt to be at the place where the trespass allegedly occurred is sufficient to show an intentional entry,[FN12] even though the defendant acted in good faith, and under the mistaken belief, however reasonable, that he or she is not committing a wrong.[FN13] Thus, a person entering upon the land of another without permission, whether innocently or by mistake, is a trespasser.[FN14] The defendant need not have contemplated any damage to the plaintiff resulting from the intentional entry.[FN15] It is also immaterial whether that person honestly and reasonably believes that the land is one's own, or that he or she has the consent of the possessor or of a third person having the power to give consent, or a mistaken belief that one has some privilege to enter,[FN16] or right to be on the land.[FN17] One also may be liable in trespass for intentional acts that cause or permit a thing to cross a property's boundary.[FN18]

An attempt to base a trespass judgment on a finding of "constructive intent," is merely an unacceptable device to impose absolute liability.[FN19] Thus, absent a purpose to enter or a substantial certainty that entry will result, mere knowledge that an entry has occurred is not enough to establish claim for trespass under some theory of constructive intent.[FN20]

[FN1] Brown Jug, Inc. v. International Broth. of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen & Helpers of America, Local 959, 688 P.2d 932 (Alaska 1984); Armitage v. Decker, 218 Cal. App. 3d 887, 267 Cal. Rptr. 399 (1st Dist. 1990); Cook v. DeSoto Fuels, Inc., 169 S.W.3d 94 (Mo. Ct. App. E.D. 2005); CDC Pineville, LLC v. UDRT of North Carolina, LLC, 174 N.C. App. 644, 622 S.E.2d 512 (2005), review denied, 360 N.C. 478, 630 S.E.2d 925 (2006) (in the absence of negligence); Hawkins v. City of Greenville, 358 S.C. 280, 594 S.E.2d 557 (Ct. App. 2004); Patel v. City Of Everman, 179 S.W.3d 1 (Tex. App. Tyler 2004), review denied, (Oct. 14, 2005); Hughes v. King County, 42 Wash. App. 776, 714 P.2d 316 (Div. 1 1986). - The mere fact that a landowner allowed a tree