[701-0662-00 L] Environmental Impacts, Threshold Levels...
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D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 1
[701-0662-00 L]
Environmental Impacts, Threshold Levels and
Health Effects
Lecture 10: Noise Part 4 (06.05.2020)
Mark Brink
ETH Zürich
D-USYS
Homepage:
http://www.noise.ethz.ch/ei/
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 2
• Health effects of noise (overview)
• Types of health effects (auditory vs. non-auditory)
• DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Years) lost due to noise
• Exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology
• Exposure-response relationships
• Noise annoyance
• Moderator variables
• Setting of noise exposure limits based on annoyance
Topics covered in the previous lecture
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 3
Lecture overview for today
► Noise annoyance (cont'd)
► SiRENE study
► Example: aircraft noise annoyance
► Noise contours
► Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day
► Physiological activations due to noise
► Stress model of noise, Pathogenetic pathways
► Noise induced sleep disturbances
► What is sleep?
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 4
%HA as a function of Lden (SiRENE study, 2014-2015)
Source: Brink et al. (2019),
Environment International, 125, 277-290
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 5
▪ Environmental impacts may be the fundamental constraint on air
transportation growth in the 21st century (aside from fuel shortage in
the future)
▪ Among the environmental impacts, noise, air pollution, and air
transport induced climate change are the top issues to address
▪ The current situation is that aircraft noise is the single most
significant local objection to airport expansion and operation
London Frankfurt Zurich
Aircraft noise annoyance
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 6
Noise
Water Quality
Air Quality
Number of airportsMost serious problem currently
Most serious problem in the future
Compatibility with
nearby land uses
None applicable
Wetlands
United States General Accounting Office. (2000). Aviation and the environment. Airport Operations and Future
Growth Present Environmental Challenges, from http://transource.org/shared_files/GAO9-8-00.pdf
How relevant is the noise problem for Airports?
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 7
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
50 53 56 59 62 65 68
Leq, 6-22 Uhr in dB(A)
%H
A
1991
2001
Aircraft noise annoyance over the years
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 8
▪ Growing number of flights
▪ Decreasing sound pressure level per single
flight
▪ Fewer breaks across the day, more flights
within shoulder hours
▪ Noise contours around airports are actually
shrinking!
Development of aircraft operations in Europe
in the last decades
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 9
1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro Tag
1 zus. Aufwachreaktion pro 2 Tage
N
Source: http://www.fluglaerm-frankfurt.de/349.0.html
Leq=57 dB(A) during day (06-22h)
Leq=60 dB(A) during day (06-22h)
Leq=65 dB(A) during day (06-22h)
What is a noise contour?Zurich Airport
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 10
179'163
193'909
204'309
214'470
216'313
227'615
228'994
236'977
238'232
251'209
271'147
281'808
296'379
314'714
299'344
275'999
262'586
259'091
258'790
252'892
259'473
265'735
253'477
1987:1988:1989:1990:1991:1992:1993:1994:1995:1996:1997:1998:1999:2000:2001:2002:2003:2004:2005:2006:2007:2008:2009:
150‘000 # of Flights 350‘000
Source: Flughafen Zürich AG, 2010
Development of the 60 dB-contour (Leq 06-22h)...
...caused by aircraft operations since 1987 at Zurich Airport
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 11
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year of study
Le
ve
l L
dn [
dB
(A)]
Zürich (2001/2003)
Frankfurt (2005)
Exposure level to get 25% highly annoyed (HA)
Aircraft noise annoyance increased over the past decades!
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 12
LAE, single plane = 108 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB
LAE, single plane = 98 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB
LAE, single plane = 88 dB → LAeq,16h = 60 dB
1 Event
10 Events
100 Events
1970 technology
1990 technology
todays technology
Blessings and burdens of quieter aircraft...
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 13
▪ As quieter aircraft have been phased in, the
boundaries of airport noise contours have shrunk
▪ People may move into these areas that were
previously impacted by noise
▪ In the future, as the number of aircraft operations
increases, the areas impacted by noise may expand
again, thus again increasing the number of people
affected
Potential effects of technological advancement(basically: quieter aircraft)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 14
Change effect: "Overshoot" reactions after exposure changes
Residents south of Zurich Airport, 2003, 2004
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 15
Zurich Airport: Change of exposure between 2001 and 2003
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 16
40
45
50
55
60
65
7000-0
101-0
202-0
303-0
404-0
505-0
606-0
707-0
808-0
909-1
010-1
111-1
212-1
313-1
414-1
515-1
616-1
717-1
818-1
919-2
020-2
121-2
222-2
323-2
4
1h
-Le
q in
dB
(A)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
% s
tark
Be
läs
tig
te
Osten (fern)
Communities to the East
The "Change effect"Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2001
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 17
40
45
50
55
60
65
7000-0
101-0
202-0
303-0
404-0
505-0
606-0
707-0
808-0
909-1
010-1
111-1
212-1
313-1
414-1
515-1
616-1
717-1
818-1
919-2
020-2
121-2
222-2
323-2
4
1h
-Le
q in
dB
(A)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
% s
tark
Be
läs
tig
te
Osten (fern)
40
45
50
55
60
65
7000-0
101-0
202-0
303-0
404-0
505-0
606-0
707-0
808-0
909-1
010-1
111-1
212-1
313-1
414-1
515-1
616-1
717-1
818-1
919-2
020-2
121-2
222-2
323-2
4
1h
-Le
q in
dB
(A)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
% s
tark
Be
läs
tig
te
Norden
Gemeinden im OstenCommunities to the North
The "Change effect"Swiss Noise Study 2000, Survey 2003
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 18
Time
Exposure (increase)
Exposure (decrease)
Annoyance
Annoyance
up to 10 years
The "Change effect", principle
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 19
Percent HA (%HA) as a function of changeResidents near Zurich Airport, Surveys 2001 and 2003
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Lden [dB(A)]
Pe
rcen
t
No change
Year 2003, morning model
5 dB decrease
5 dB increase
Average
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 20
-12 dB
-10 dB
-8 dB
-6 dB
-4 dB
-2 dB
0 dB
2 dB
4 dB
6 dB
8 dB
10 dB
12 dB
00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of day
Pen
alt
y [
dB
]
B
on
us
M
alu
s
0 – 24 hrs-Mean = 0dB
Differences in annoyance as a function of time of day(Zurich 2001, Aircraft noise annoyance)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 21
Physiological activations due to noise
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 22
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Adrenal glands
Release of
Catecholamines
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone
Sympathetic nervous system
Changes in the EEG
(Awakenings)
Noise-Stressors
Heart rate increase
Movements
Physiological activations (due to noise)Physiological systems involved
Cortisol release
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 23
Involves higher-level
processes (cognition,
emotion)
- autonomic nervous system
- reaction cascade
- "basic" responses
"direct pathway" "indirect pathway"
Noise exposure
Biochemical / neuronal
stress reactions
Psychological stress
responses
Stress model of non-auditory effects of noise
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 24
Stressorprimary
appraisal
relevant?
threatening?
"instrumental"
• problem-oriented
• modify environment
or change behavior
• seeking advice...
"palliative"
• perception-oriented
• change perceptions
• comforting cognitions
• denial/escapism
secondary
appraisal
Evaluation of possibilities
to cope with stressor
Perceived control
coping
Stress and copingTransactional model of stress and coping (Lazarus & Folkman 1984)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 25
• wealthy people buying themselves out of noisy neighborhoods
• when the bedroom faces a busy road, people sleep with closed
windows / change bedroom
• people may take drugs and medication in order to sleep
• people may change their (sleeping) habits
• people may use earplugs
• people may seek (medical) advice
• ...
► Coping can be 'adaptive' or 'maladaptive'
► Unresolved question: What is the relationship between certain
coping behaviors and long-term outcomes?
Examples of noise coping behaviors
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 26
► Noise sensitivity
• Evidence of a strong link between noise sensitivity and annoyance
• (Self reported) noise sensitivity does not well predict differences in
physiological reactions to sound
► Individual differences & genetic predispositions
• e.g. Differences in „Locus of control“
• Genetic component of noise sensitivity
• Evidence of genetic predispositions playing a role in inter-individual
differences in sleep regulation and sleep depth
► Coping behavior
• Coping is a natural (i.e. normal) response to stressors
• Coping strategies may be beneficial or detrimental to health
Important moderating and mediating factors(List is incomplete...)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 27
coping behavior (examples)
Noise exposure
Psychological stress responsesBiochemical/neuronal stress reactions
seeking relief
through drug
consumption
changing
sleeping
habits
closing
bedroom
windows
Reduced
indoor air
quality (temp.
CO2 level...)
Reduced sleep
amount
Addictive
diseases &
aftereffects
movingHypertensionDiabetes
mellitus
Dislipo-
proteinemia
Appraisal
Long term
effects on
immune
system
HPA-axisSympatico-
adrenal axis
Arteriosclerosis
Depression?
Glucocorticoid
secretion
Myocardial
infarction
Stroke
... relaed
Health
problems
Catecholamine
secretion
Susceptibility
for cancer?
chronic
chronic
Changes in sleep structure
(Awakenings
Arousals
Delayed sleep onset etc.)
Macro-
structural
effects on
sleep
Impaired well-being
Reduction of performance
Increased Sleepiness
Increased accident risk
etc.
Noise sensitivity
Genetic factors
2ndary effects
Obesity
long termshort term
Pathogenetic
pathways
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 28
► 'Direct' physiologic explanations
• development of cardiovascular diseases as a consequence of
repeated noise-induced autonomic responses (especially
cardiovascular arousals)
• → Dysregulation of / difficulty in keeping homeostasis
• Prevention of blood pressure dipping in the night
• Elevation of critical "body fluids" that are characteristic for stress
responses: e.g. coagulation factors, glucose, cholesterol,
triglycerides etc. (and of course "stress" hormones)
Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 1)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 29
► Chronic noise-induced partial sleep loss
Sleep loss plays a role in the epidemics of:
- Obesity (negative association between BMI and sleep duration)
- Diabetes (suppression of deep sleep leads to impaired glucose
tolerance)
- Cardiovascular diseases
- Mortality (U-shaped relationship)
Possible initial reasons for sleep loss:
- reduction of total sleep time or sleep depth due to noise intrusions
- side-effect of certain coping styles (e.g. going to bed late)
► Open question: Do noise exposures in ecological settings truly have the
potential to induce amounts of sleep loss in a way, that these dramatic
effects unfold?
Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 2)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 30
► Psychological explanations I: Effects of coping strategies
• Emergence of poor health practices / escapism:
e.g. increased alcohol consumption, sleep medication, drug use,
smoking etc...
• Changing sleeping habits: - close bedroom window → air quality?
- reduce time in bed → sleep
deprivation?
Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 3)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 31
► Psychological explanations II: other effects
Development of certain expectancies or beliefs
- expectancies may foster selective attention → vicious circles
- "nocebo" effect/response (lat. "It will harm")
Negative appraisal effects ("there is nothing I can do about the noise")
- may foster development of depressive symptoms
- "learned helplessness"
- Typical accompaniment: activation of HPA axis with increased cortisol
release
Noise exposure reduces the frequency and quality of social interactions
→ "social support" is an important health modifier
Potential pathogenetic pathways (Part 4)
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 32
Sleep disturbances
Annoyance
Sleep disturbances
Cardiovascular diseases
Other long term outcomes
Performance & Behavior
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 33
▪ What is sleep?
▪ Effects of noise on sleep
▪ What happens if sleep is disturbed?
▪ Classification of noise effects on sleep
▪ Types of studies to investigate noise effects on sleep
▪ Research methods
▪ Polysomnography (PSG)
▪ Actimetry (recording of body movements)
▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)
▪ Brief overview over recent studies and important findings
▪ Swiss noise study 2000
▪ Effect of slope of rise of noise events; effects of noise at different times of day
▪ Awakening probability for different noise sources - empirical findings
▪ Practical applications
▪ Countermeasures
Sleep disturbances due to noiseOverview
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 34
S4
S3
S2
S1
wake
REM
Sleep profile
The three "cardinal states of
consciousness":
non-REMsleep
wake
REM-sleep
Biologicalocillator
Sleep ≠ Rest
no
n-R
EM
What is sleep?
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 35
Undisturbed
normal sleep →
Sleep Profiles
Disturbed sleep →
Source: Muzet, A. (2007). Environmental
noise, sleep and health. Sleep Medicine
Reviews, 11(2), 135-142.
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 36
Obesity
Concentration decreased
Increased mortality
Increased morbidity
Emotional instability
Drowsiness
Driving ability reduced
Memory functions impaired
Increased risk behavior
etc...
What happens if sleep is reduced or disturbed?
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 37
Interruption of sleep process
internal
sensorial
neuronal
psychophysiological
external
- acoustic stimuli
- thermal stimuli
- bright light
- ...
Sleep disturbances: many reasons, one effect...
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 38
Autonomic Arousal
Sleep Stage Change
or short EEG-Arousal
Short EEG Awakening (> 15s)
Long Awakening (> 1 min) with
Regaining of Consciousness
Simplified scheme of the body's reaction to external stimuli- Questionnaire in
the morning
- Push button
- Actimetry
- PSG
- PSG
- (Actimetry)
- PSG
- ECG (RR
measurements,
Heart rate)
- Actimetry
Thalamo-cortical gating
~ 1-3 / night
~ 20-30 / night
~ 100 / nightstimulation of
ARAS
by internal or
external stimuli
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 39
Sleep disturbances
Reactions to the noise
SituationalIndividual Acoustic characteristics
• Age, Gender
• Noise sensitivity...
• Sound pressure level
• Duration, Slope of rise etc.
• Current sleep stage
• Time since sleep onset etc.
• Awakenings, Arousals
• Body movements
• Blood pressure increases, etc...
• Quantitative: Reduction of sleeping time, Increased awakenings
• Qualitative: Reduction of slow wave sleep, Reduction of REM-Sleep...
Sleep disturbances due to noise: General framework
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 40
Tertiary effectsLong term effects (e.g. hypertension)
Primary effectsAcute effects of noise (arousals, awakenings)
Secondary effectsSubsequent effects during next day (e.g. fatigue)
PSG recordings
Cognitve performance tests, e.g.
Serial reaction time task (SRT)
Epidemiologcial studies
Measurement of effects
(examples):
NOISE
?
Classification of environmental noise effects on sleep
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 41
Immediate effects related
to one single event
Single eventcharacterizable by e.g.
LA,max
‘Noise’ during nighttime
characterizable by e.g.
- LA,eq 8h
- Number of events
- etc.
Effects as a function of
total exposure per night
•Cortical arousals, awakenings
•Body movements
•Cardiovascular arousals
•Sleep stage changes
Event-related: global:
• Total sleep time
• Number of awakenings
• Self-assessed sleep quality
• Sleepiness, etc...
• Secreted stress hormones...
Event-related vs global analysis of sleep disturbances
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 42
• Controlled laboratory experiments
• Field studies / Field experiments
Acute reactionsIndividual noise
events
‘Subjective’ methods:
▪ Questionnaires (« how many
times did you wake up? »)
▪ Signaled awakenings (e.g. press a
marker button)
Physiological ‘objective’
methods:
▪ Polysomnography (PSG)
▪ Actimetry (Recording of
body movements)
▪ Seismosomnography (SSG)
Study types and methods
D-USYS • M. Brink • Environmental Impacts - Noise Part 4 Slide 43
Actimetry, Field study
PSG, Field study
PSG, laboratory experiment
Instrumentation (Field study)