7-1 Learning and Conditioning Chapter 7. 7-2 Chapter Outline Classical ConditioningClassical...

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Learning and ConditioningLearning and Conditioning

Chapter 7Chapter 7

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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life

• Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning in Real LifeOperant Conditioning in Real Life

Basics of LearningBasics of Learning

• Behaviourism:Behaviourism:– Approach that emphasizes the study of observable Approach that emphasizes the study of observable

behaviour and the role of the environment as a behaviour and the role of the environment as a determinant of behaviourdeterminant of behaviour

• Conditioning: Conditioning: – Basic kind of learning that involves associations between Basic kind of learning that involves associations between

environmental stimuli and the organism’s responsesenvironmental stimuli and the organism’s responses

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Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning:Classical conditioning:– process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires

the capacity to elicit a response through association with a the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related responsestimulus that already elicits a similar or related response

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• Unconditioned stimulus (US)Unconditioned stimulus (US)

– A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning (e.g., food)absence of learning (e.g., food)

• Unconditioned response (UR)Unconditioned response (UR)

– Reflexive response elicited by a Reflexive response elicited by a

stimulus in the absence of stimulus in the absence of

learning (e.g., salivation)learning (e.g., salivation)

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• Neutral stimulus Neutral stimulus

– Stimulus that does not yet produce a responseStimulus that does not yet produce a response

– Regularly paired with Regularly paired with unconditioned stimulusunconditioned stimulus

– Neutral stimulus becomes Neutral stimulus becomes “conditioned” to elicit a “conditioned” to elicit a

responseresponse

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• Conditioned stimulus (CS)Conditioned stimulus (CS)

– An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell)an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., bell)

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• Conditioned response Conditioned response (CR)(CR)

– A response that is elicited by A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the CS is associated with after the CS is associated with the US (e.g., salivation)the US (e.g., salivation)

Copyright © 2013 Pearson Canada


• Beyond salivating, many automatic and Beyond salivating, many automatic and involuntary responses have been classically involuntary responses have been classically conditionedconditioned• Heart beat, blood pressure, reflexive movements, Heart beat, blood pressure, reflexive movements,

blinking…blinking…

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What is Actually Learned?What is Actually Learned?

• Classical conditioning is effective when stimulus to be conditioned is presented before the unconditioned stimulus

• Conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for the unconditioned stimulus

• To become a CS, a neutral stimulus must reliably predict the US

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Classical Conditioning in Real Classical Conditioning in Real LifeLife

• Learning to Like:Learning to Like:

– Classical conditioning involved in our positive emotional Classical conditioning involved in our positive emotional responses to objects, people, symbols, events, & placesresponses to objects, people, symbols, events, & places

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Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life

• Consumer Psychology Consumer Psychology • associating an item with something pleasant associating an item with something pleasant

induces people to like the item itselfinduces people to like the item itself

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• Advertising Advertising • Industries and corporations pair their products with Industries and corporations pair their products with

music, celebrities etc. music, celebrities etc. • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Cowww.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Co

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RU_J8YzN4Co

Classical Conditioning in Real LifeClassical Conditioning in Real Life

• Learning to Fear:Learning to Fear:

– May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with May learn to fear any stimulus that is paired with something that elicits pain, surprise, or something that elicits pain, surprise, or embarrassmentembarrassment

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvCI-gNK_y4https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZvCI-gNK_y4

– Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain Humans come biologically “prepared” to learn certain fears faster than others (evolutionary basis)fears faster than others (evolutionary basis)

• E.g., snakes, spiders, heightsE.g., snakes, spiders, heights

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The Case of Little AlbertThe Case of Little Albert

•Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing Conditioned “Little Albert” to be afraid of white rats by pairing the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus the neutral stimulus (rats) with an unconditioned stimulus (loud noises)(loud noises)

•Days later, fear had also generalized to other white and furry Days later, fear had also generalized to other white and furry objectsobjects

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• Learning to Fear:Learning to Fear:

– Phobias: Phobias: an exaggerated unrealistic fear of a specific an exaggerated unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or objectsituation, activity, or object

– TurophobiaTurophobia- fear of cheese- fear of cheese– OmphalophobiaOmphalophobia- fear of belly buttons (being touched - fear of belly buttons (being touched

and touching one) and touching one)

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• Accounting for Taste:Accounting for Taste:

– Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to Classical conditioning can explain how we learn to like & dislike many foods and odourslike & dislike many foods and odours

– Researchers have taught animals to dislike Researchers have taught animals to dislike foods/odours by pairing them with drugs that cause foods/odours by pairing them with drugs that cause nausea or other unpleasant symptomsnausea or other unpleasant symptoms

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• We have a biological readiness to associate sickness with taste over other senses• food when associated with nausea, even if due to flu

can, become a conditioned association

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Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning

• Operant conditioningOperant conditioning– B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner– The process by which a response becomes more The process by which a response becomes more

likely to occur or less so, depending on its likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequencesconsequences

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Consequences of BehaviourConsequences of Behaviour

• Skinner argued that a response can lead to Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences (neutral, three types of consequences (neutral, reinforcement or punishment):reinforcement or punishment):

1.1. A A neutral neutral consequence neither increases or decreases consequence neither increases or decreases the probability that the response will recurthe probability that the response will recur

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• Skinner argued that a response can lead to Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences:three types of consequences:

2. 2. ReinforcementReinforcement the process by which a stimulus or event the process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it followsfollows

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• Skinner argued that a response can lead to Skinner argued that a response can lead to three types of consequences:three types of consequences:

3.3. PunishmentPunishment the process by which a stimulus or event the process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it followsfollows

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Reinforcement & PunishmentReinforcement & Punishment

• Reinforcement:Reinforcement: • Punishment: Punishment:

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Positive & Positive & Negative ConsequencesNegative Consequences

• Reinforcement:Reinforcement:• Always increases Always increases

the likelihood of a the likelihood of a responseresponse

• Punishment:Punishment:• Always decreases Always decreases

the likelihood of a the likelihood of a response response

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ReinforcementReinforcement

• Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement

– When a response is followed by the presentation When a response is followed by the presentation or or increaseincrease in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; in intensity of a reinforcing stimulus; response becomes response becomes moremore likely to occur likely to occur

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ReinforcementReinforcement

• Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

–When a response is followed by the removal, When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or delay, or decreasedecrease in intensity of an unpleasant in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes stimulus; response becomes moremore likely to occur likely to occur

–Example, nagging or scolding Example, nagging or scolding

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PunishmentPunishment

• Positive punishmentPositive punishment

– When a response is followed by the presentation When a response is followed by the presentation or or increaseincrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; response becomes response becomes less less likely to occurlikely to occur

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PunishmentPunishment

• Negative punishmentNegative punishment

–When a response is followed by the removal, When a response is followed by the removal, delay, or delay, or decreasedecrease in intensity of a pleasant in intensity of a pleasant stimulus; response becomes stimulus; response becomes less less likely to occurlikely to occur

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Positive & Positive & Negative ConsequencesNegative Consequences

• Reinforcement:Reinforcement: • Punishment:Punishment:

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• When behaviours are not likely to occur When behaviours are not likely to occur spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to spontaneously, may use shaping to teach to others (e.g., animals & children)others (e.g., animals & children)

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Operant Conditioning in Real Life: Shaping

• ShapingShaping

– An operant conditioning procedure in which successive An operant conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforcedapproximations of a desired response are reinforced

– Successive approximations: Successive approximations: behaviours that are behaviours that are ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to ordered in terms of increasing similarity or closeness to the desired responsethe desired response

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y10MTi2cL04https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y10MTi2cL04– 1 min 20 sec1 min 20 sec– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRV-SU6ObKEhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRV-SU6ObKE– 1 min 30 seconds 1 min 30 seconds

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Operant Conditioning in Real Life: Shaping

• Behaviour modificationBehaviour modification

– The application of operant conditioning techniques to The application of operant conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behaviourmaladaptive or problematic behaviour

– Also called Also called applied behaviour analysisapplied behaviour analysis

– https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyCx-OLzgJw https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyCx-OLzgJw (3 min 30 seconds) (3 min 30 seconds)

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Operant Conditioning in Real Life

The Pros of PunishmentThe Pros of Punishment

• Punishment can be effective when applied Punishment can be effective when applied correctly:correctly:

– Punishment most effective when it occurs Punishment most effective when it occurs immediatelyimmediately after the undesirable behaviourafter the undesirable behaviour

• E.g., being pulled over versus photo radar ticketsE.g., being pulled over versus photo radar tickets

– The The consistencyconsistency of punishment is more important than of punishment is more important than the severity of punishmentthe severity of punishment

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The Cons of PunishmentThe Cons of Punishment

1.1. People often administer punishment inappropriatelyPeople often administer punishment inappropriately

2.2. The recipient of punishment often responds with The recipient of punishment often responds with anxiety, fear, or rageanxiety, fear, or rage• These negative emotions can create more problems These negative emotions can create more problems

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3.3. The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and The effectiveness of punishment is often temporary and depends on the presence of the punisherdepends on the presence of the punisher

4.4. Most misbehaviour is hard to punish immediatelyMost misbehaviour is hard to punish immediately

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5. Punishment conveys little 5. Punishment conveys little informationinformation

6. An action intended to punish may 6. An action intended to punish may instead be reinforcing because it instead be reinforcing because it bring attentionbring attention

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If punishment MUST be applied, psychologists recommend If punishment MUST be applied, psychologists recommend the following guidelines:the following guidelines:•It should not involve physical abuse; instead, parents can It should not involve physical abuse; instead, parents can use time-outs and loss of privileges (negative punishers)use time-outs and loss of privileges (negative punishers)•It should be accompanied by information about what kind It should be accompanied by information about what kind of behaviour would be appropriateof behaviour would be appropriate•It should be followed, whenever possible, by the It should be followed, whenever possible, by the reinforcement of desirable behaviourreinforcement of desirable behaviour

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Observational LearningObservational Learning

• Observational learningObservational learning

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– Process in which an individual learns new responses by Process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through experiencethan through experience

– E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll experimentsexperiments

– https://www.youtube.com/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjTxQy_U3acwatch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac

– Stop at 2 minutesStop at 2 minutes

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– Process in which an individual learns new responses by Process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather observing the behaviour of another (a model) rather than through experiencethan through experience

– E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll E.g., Bandura’s bobo doll experimentsexperiments

– https://www.youtube.com/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjTxQy_U3acwatch?v=NjTxQy_U3ac

– Stop at 2 minutesStop at 2 minutes

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The Case of Media ViolenceThe Case of Media Violence

• Does media violence make people behave more Does media violence make people behave more aggressively?aggressively?

– Meta-analyses show that the Meta-analyses show that the greatergreater the exposure to the exposure to violence in movies/TV, the stronger the likelihood of violence in movies/TV, the stronger the likelihood of behaving aggressivebehaving aggressive

– Violent media increases the likelihood of aggressive and Violent media increases the likelihood of aggressive and violent behaviour violent behaviour

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• Does media violence make people behave more Does media violence make people behave more aggressively?aggressively?

• When grade-school children cut back on watching TV or playing video games, aggression also decreases

• This is all correlational research

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– But some researchers argue that most But some researchers argue that most people who view violence don’t become people who view violence don’t become aggressive aggressive

– May lead to desensitization May lead to desensitization

– Children & adults who are Children & adults who are already already aggressive aggressive are more drawn to violent media are more drawn to violent media & more affected by them& more affected by them

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Social-Cognitive View Social-Cognitive View on Aggressionon Aggression

• Social-cognitive theorists would say that Social-cognitive theorists would say that there is a relationship between media there is a relationship between media violence & aggression violence & aggression

– Repeated acts of aggression model Repeated acts of aggression model behaviour; provide people with scripts; behaviour; provide people with scripts; promote permissive beliefs about promote permissive beliefs about aggression; desensitizationaggression; desensitization

– BUT ... BUT ... perceptions, interpretations, and perceptions, interpretations, and personality dispositions intervene in personality dispositions intervene in determining our responsesdetermining our responses

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• Worldwide video game sales are now at $20 Worldwide video game sales are now at $20 billionbillion

• Almost 90% have violent content Almost 90% have violent content • Meta-analysis by Anderson and Bushman Meta-analysis by Anderson and Bushman

(2001) :(2001) :• 54 studies54 studies• 4262 participants4262 participants• Playing violent video games led to an increase in Playing violent video games led to an increase in

aggressive behaviour, increase in aggressive aggressive behaviour, increase in aggressive thoughts, increase in aggressive emotions, thoughts, increase in aggressive emotions, physiological arousal and a decrease in prosocial physiological arousal and a decrease in prosocial behaviour. Robust findings at a statistical level and behaviour. Robust findings at a statistical level and were found in children, adults, males, females, were found in children, adults, males, females, experimental and non-experimental studies. experimental and non-experimental studies.

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Meta-analysis on video game violence and aggression

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