4. From Methods to Principles version 23.09 - meta.narr.de · PDF fileChapter 4: From methods...

Teaching English4. From methods to principles

Nancy Grimm – Michael Meyer – Laurenz Volkmann

0. Table of contents

1. Approach – method – technique

2. Teacher-orientation

2.1 Grammar-Translation Method: the knowledge of rules2.2 Direct Method: situated listening and speaking2.3 Audiolingual/Audiovisual Method: habit formation

3. Student-orientation

3.1 Communicative Language Teaching: authentic communication

3.2 Task-based Language Teaching: problem-solving3.3 Collaborative and Participatory Methods: social and

critical agency

4. Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching or Content and Language Integrated Learning

5. Age and stage: early language learning and transition

6. Individual differences and factors

7. Postmethod principles in a nutshell

8. Recommended reading

9. Acknowledgments

Chapter 4: From methods to principles 2

Discuss:

Take a look at the cartoon and spell out the problems of learning and teaching English at the beginner level. Find similarities and differences between the situation in the cartoon and your most enjoyable and successful experience of learning English. Could your experience serve as a model for learning and teaching English?

3Chapter 4: From methods to principles

1. Approach – method – technique

Approach

theory about principles & functions of language, learning, education

Method

roles of teachers & learners, content, material, activities

Technique

smallest step in ordered sequence of procedure

Good teaching needs to arrive at a fit between principles, goals, methods, and content, as well as the context and individuals involved in teaching and learning.

1. Approach – method – technique 4

2.1 Grammar-Translation Method:

the knowledge of rules

17th to 20th centuries

2. Teacher-orientation 5

� Grammar and vocabulary

� explicit and teacher-fronted instruction

� Roles of teacher and student

� teacher = master, student = apprentice

� Comparison and contrast of L1 and L2

� highlighting the particular structures of the L1 and L2

� Declarative knowledge, accuracy

� rules and patterns explicitly taught, memorized

� Translating discrete written samples

� models of good language

� preparing learners to read texts from the target culture

� writing compositions: grasp of the target language and culture

� Canonical literary, philosophical texts

� cultivation of the individual

2.1 Grammar-Translation Method:

the knowledge of rules


Discussing the methodListening &

speaking

neglected

Vocabulary &

grammar first

Ideas of interest

second

Grammatical

rules ≠ correct

language

output

Instruction in

mother

tongue

2.2 Direct Method: situated listening and

speaking

Late 19th century until today


� Training in what learners actually need

� oral communication skills

� More ‘natural’

� ‘direct’ use of target language as medium of instruction

� Objects, pictures, demonstrations

� directly connecting words with meaning

� Vocabulary

� chunks and sentences

� Grammar

� not central

� inductive: from examples to rule

� Oral skills

� imitation, immediate correction of errors

� embedded in everyday situations


speaking

Example


Teacher (T) to students (S): ‘Let’s suppose we are in New York City and have heard about delicious Southern food at Sylvia’s Soul Food in Harlem. Let’s have a look at what’s on the menu and make a reservation for the weekend.’

� S google the restaurant, read the online menu; S ask T to help them out with the kind of food on offer

� S talk about which dishes they might like or dislike

� S simulate a phone call

� place a reservation

� get online directions about the location

� discuss the best way of getting there

� role play

� ordering meals

� practicing conventional expressions: ‘I will have …,’ ‘I think I will go for …,’ ‘I would like to order …’


speaking

3. Student-orientation 9

Discussing the methodNeglects

reading &

writing

Everyday

language

Conceptual

schemata

Ignores

different

cultural frames

L1 – L2

Complex

grammatical

concepts?

2.3 Audiolingual / Audiovisual Method:

habit formation

1950s-1960s


� Language as formal system of sounds, words, sentences (Structural Linguistics) and habit formation (Behaviorism)

� imitating / practicing sounds, words, and syntactic patterns

� habitualization

� Listening, speaking in dialogs preferred to reading, writing

� Instruction

� monolingual teaching: L1 should not interfere with habit formation in L2

� stimulus – response – reinforcement

� correct usage: positive feedback

� mistake: immediate correction

� Input

� teacher, audio files: language model

� language laboratory: repeating, practicing dialogs

� Practicing

� rote learning, repetition drills, transformation exercises, substitution drills


habit formation

� Repetition drill

� Chain drill

� Transformation drill

� Single-slot substitution drills


Identify the kind of drills and explain their functions in this lesson for early beginners:

�After an introduction to animals on a farm, the teacher (T) plays the song “The Farmer Takes a Wife” to the students (S).

�T sings the song line by line and all the S repeat the lines.

�T sings the song line by line and individual S repeat the line one-by-one.

�T sings the song line by line but leaves out the object of the first line and later the subject of the following line and has the class fill in the words: ‘The farmer takes a […]. The […] takes a […].’

�T says: ‘I like horses. I don’t like rats.’ T asks an individual S which animals he/she likes and dislikes. S responds and asks the same question of the S beside her. This continues until all S have had the opportunity both to respond and to ask their neighbor the question.


habit formation


Discussing the methodLittle room for

flexibility &

cultural

knowledge

Time for

practicing

Quick results for

beginners

Ignores learners’

cognitive &

emotional

needs

Neglects

development of

Interlanguage and

language

awareness


habit formation

Audiovisual method (1960s)


� Adding visualization and contextualization of dialog through visual media

� Procedure:

� presentation of sequence of pictures before corresponding utterances are played

� explanation, aiming at global understanding of dialog through

� pointing, imitation, paraphrasing

� imitation of recorded utterances

� practice pronunciation and phrases

� exploitation of input

� questions and answers, role play

� learners’ transposition of dialog to a new topic or situation

Reinfried 2004: 61-64


habit formation


Discussing the methodListening &

speaking before

reading &

writing

Uses more

visualized and

situated dialogs

Ignores

motivational &

practical needs

Rigid

proceeding

Disregards

language

awareness

3.1 Communicative Language Teaching:

authentic communication

Focus on

� meaningful & appropriate communication

� flexibility

� language awareness

� fluency & comprehensibility before accuracy


� Communicative competence: the ability

� to interact in meaningful ways

� to express one’s intentions in a socially appropriate form in specific situations and within a framework of cultural norms

� Basic principles

� Communication is the means to and the purpose of language learning.

� Conveying meaning is the aim of communication.

� Meaning should be negotiated among learners with little intervention by teachers.



based on Canale & Swain 1980, Canale 2013


Strong CLT

� Uses communication as the means of learning how to communicate

� covering shopping as a topic, then performing a role play

Weak CLT

� Teaches the linguistic means of communication in order to facilitate communication

� offering learners notions and

functions to express intentions

� ‘May I borrow your pen, please?’

� politeness




Proceeding


� From simplified, comprehensible input (with focus on a particular new structure) to more authentic input

� Time

� for practicing authentic communication

� negotiating meaning in interaction

� Address learners’ needs

� interest in talking or writing about a relevant topic



Proceeding in textbooks


� Presentation

� introduction of a topic with pictures and texts (specific forms and speech functions)

� Practice

� exercises that focus on language form

� Production

� tasks addressing specific skills

� aiming at using specific functions in situated

communication

� Metacognitive reflection

� on communicative or learning strategies

� Further practice and differentiation

� additional material or tasks

Compare and evaluate the units on a topic of your choice, such as pets, friends, or sports, in two textbooks for grade 5 from different publishers:

1. How do they address the learners’ interests? 2. Is the input appropriate or inappropriate, didactic or authentic?3. Which vocabulary, speech functions, and communicative competences would you need to express yourself in the situated tasks? 4. Do the tasks promote both the practice of relevant speech functions and authentic communication at the same time? 5. Which of the material and activities would you select if you were to teach the unit? Would you adapt material and tasks or add others?





Discussing the method

Effective verbal

& non-verbal

commu-

nication

Language

awareness

Often TTT

& IRE prevail

Meaning &

sociocultural

appropriate-

ness

Functions

&

notions

3.2 Task-based Language Teaching:

problem-solving

Focus on

� communicative tasks


� Often considered a strong version of CLT

� authentic and ‘natural’ language learning

� learner-driven interaction

� But TBLT avoids practice of specific forms

� more comprehensive and holistic tasks

� Tasks focus on

� meaningful and appropriate interaction

� how to travel to New York, where to stay, what to do there

� process- and product-oriented performance

� Learner as social agent


problem-solving

Task as a work plan vs. task as a process


adapted from Ellis 2003: 244, 257-58, 276-78; Ellis 2012: 200-02; Keller 2013: 77


problem-solving

TBLT and errors


� Focus on meaning risks fossilization of errors

� Prevent fossilization by

� proactive focus on form

� anticipating learners’ errors

� providing input that creates awareness of problems before output

� reactive focus on form after output

� intermittent

� retrospective

� Assessment

� measured in relation to subject content

� multidimensional (reliability, validity)

� complement by discrete-item tests


problem-solving


Discussing the methodAuthentic

learner-driven

interaction

Practical

problem-

solving

Holistic &

comprehensive

learning

Time?

Accuracy?

3.3 Collaborative and Participatory Methods: social and critical agency

What are the benefits and problems of group work? Consider the potential effects on cognitive, social, and language learning. What is your preferred role in groups (e. g., leader, questioner, or mediator)? How do you support others, and what do you learn from them? What is necessary to improve the cognitive, social, and linguistic effects of group work?


3.3 Collaborative and Participatory Methods:

social and critical agency

Collaborative Method

focuses on cooperation


� Interaction, controversy, cooperation

� Cooperation before competition

� reasoned judgments

� higher-level reasoning

� critical thinking processes

� Structured controversy

� negotiating pros and cons

� respectful but challenging controversy

� involving learners

� stimulating cognitive processing, social skills

� facilitating greater mastery and retention of subject matter

� facilitating greater ability to generalize the principles learned to a wider variety of situations




Positive

inter-

dependence

Face-to-face

promotive

interaction

Individual

accountability

Social

skills

Principles of teamwork

Group processing




Discussing the method Sociopolitical &

educational:

citizen

Social skills:

cooperation vs.

competition

Heterogeneous

learners vs.

groups

Cognitive

Processing &

critical

thinking

Language

learning?



Participatory or Critical Method – focus on

� participation

� critical agency


� Insights into politics of power, language, and knowledge

� Learner participation

� topics of education

� relevance for life � motivation

� improving their living conditions and society

� Raising awareness

� social injustice

� economic discrepancies

� Empowering learners

� change inequality and discrimination

� Critical discourse analysis

� bias often implied in language use

� manipulation & domination

� ‘human capital’, ‘problem of migrants’




Discussing the method

Focus on

learner issues:

motivation

Participation &

empowerment

Critical

incidents &

touchy issues:

trust?

Progressive

political

agendaGraded

input &

learning?


324. Subject-orientation

Short-term

intensive

exposure

Long-term

immersion

programs

Bilingual Teaching or CLIL

4. Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching or

Content and Language Integrated Learning

‘Two for the price of one’?

4. Subject-orientation 33

� Bilingual speaker

� BICS

� CALP

� Teaching academic subjects in L2

� but: concepts & subject-specific discourse need to be learned in both L1 & L2

� problem of interference � raise awareness of different conceptual mappings in different Ls: ‘bird’, ‘friend’

� CLIL in Europe

� political interest: advancing intercultural understanding

� economic interest: applied knowledge in FLs

� educational interest: boosting language skills

4. Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching or Content and Language Integrated Learning – Implementation in Germany

Bilingualer Zug

� More intensive language classes in grades 5 & 6

� Continuous teaching of several subjects in the L2 from grade 7 until end of school

Bilinguale Module

� Primary school: topics of interest � ‘animals and pets,’ ‘the seasons,’ ‘my home and town’

� Secondary school: teaching topics in L1 or L2 in one subject � ‘the British Empire’ in English and ‘Fascism’ in German

4. Subject-orientation 34

4. Subject-orientation: Bilingual Teaching or Content and Language Integrated Learning – principles


Principles

Double focus

Cross-curricular

Language across

curriculumActive, co-operative,

task-based, holistic

Scaffol-ding

Concepts and skills

Principles

Compre-hensible input & output

Authen-ticity

Message before

accuracy

Media literacy

Learner strategies

Raising language

awareness

cf. Mehisto et al. 2008: 29, 69, 138-71


Research British online newspapers, British and German historical sources on the Great War (ErsterWeltkrieg), and watch the episode Blackadder Goes Forth from the British satire in order to come up with arguments for and against the British celebrations of the beginning (!) of the Great War in 2014. Select and critically reflect on material that highlights different perspectives within Great Britain and between British and German views of the Great War. Reflect on the difference between this comparative approach and the idea of a modular concept that teaches one topic in one language and from ‘one’ cultural point of view. With regard to the principles mentioned above, suggest tasks and materials for working on the topic in grades 11 or 12.


5. Age and stage: early language learning and

transition

5. Age and stage 37

The earlier, the better’?

Great capa-city to

acquire Ls

Little expo-sure,

practice

5. Age and stage: early language learning and

transition

5. Age and stage 38

Goals

Positive attitude

Communi-cation skills

Learning strategies

Confidence & self-

efficacy

5. Age and stage: early language learning and transition – principles

39

Principles

Moti-vation

Compre-hensible

input

Rich input

Qualifying L2

communi-cation only if necessary

Address-ing prior

know-ledge

Metalin-guisticknow-ledge

Principles

Creative Inter-

language

Accurate pronunci-

ation

Tolerating structural

errorsAlterna-

ting procee-

dings

Authentic speech produc-

tion

Positive atmos-phere

5. Age and stage

5. Age and stage: early language learning and transition

40

Tra

nsi

tio

n Primary school teachers

Secondary school teachers

Students

5. Age and stage

“neglect learner-

orientation,

motivation, and the

knowledge acquired so

far”

“have to start all over

again because the

children only play and

do not learn anything

of use”

“exciting, but a change

of school, peer groups,

teachers, methods,

subjects”

5. Age and stage: early language learning and transition - differences

415. Age and stage

5. Age and stage: early language learning and transition – narrowing the gap

425. Age and stage


6. Individual differences and factors 43

Impact factors on academic achievement

Structural conditions

Individual Learner

Achievement

We should focus

on the greatest

source of variance

that can make the

difference – the

teacher. – John Hattie

≠

Postmethod concept

6. Individual differences and factors – pedagogical principles facilitating achievement

44

Setting a personal example and inspiring (life-long) learning

Creating a safe, caring, positive atmosphere and good relationships

Reckoning with heterogeneity in terms of aptitude, skills, and motivation

Diagnosing preconceptions, competences, and needs

Stimulating motivation

Defining specific, proximate, and realistic objectives


cf. Hattie 2009: 33-36, 62-70, 247; Riemer 2010: 168-70


45

Selecting multiple and varied topics, methods, and media

Clearly structuring the process of lessons

Providing comprehensible, contextualized, and salient input

Designing clear, activating, and challenging tasks

Offering choices and helping students

Providing much time on task


cf. Hattie 2009: 33-36, 62-70, 247; Riemer 2010: 168-70


46

Fostering confidence, responsibility, autonomy, and cooperation

Making learners observe peer models of successful learning

Giving feedback that connects progress to effort and builds self-confidence

Providing clear success criteria and developing appropriate tests

Supporting remedial learning


cf. Hattie 2009: 33-36, 62-70, 247; Riemer 2010: 168-70

6. Individual differences and factors – interrelated factors


adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2010: 249; Schlak 2010: 258; Ellis 2012: 308-16


Recall particularly motivating and demotivating learning experiences. Reflect on individual and contextual factors of influence. Establish a list of recommendations of what to do and what to avoid as a learner and a teacher to stimulate and maintain motivation.


6. Individual differences and factors – motivation as dynamic system


adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2004: 429-30; Riemer 2010: 171


Look at every item in the dynamic system of motivation: reflect on your strengths and your weaknesses and mark these. Think about what you can do to improve your own cognition/motivation. Work on your three most important weaknesses and monitor your progress. Discuss with your peers which topics and activities would stimulate your motivation.


Recommended reading

Bach, Gerhard & Johannes-P. Timm, eds. (2013). Englischunterricht:

Grundlagen und Methoden einer handlungsorientierten

Unterrichtspraxis. 5th ed. Tuebingen: Francke.

Hallet, Wolfgang & Frank G. Königs, eds. (2010). Handbuch

Fremdsprachendidaktik. Seelze-Velber: Klett/Kallmeyer.

Hattie, John (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact

on Learning. London et al.: Routledge.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane & Marti Anderson (2011). Techniques & Principles in Language Teaching. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 4: From methods to principles 51

Acknowledgments

Canale, Michael (2013). From Communicative Competence to Communicative Language Pedagogy. In: Jack C. Richards & Richard W. Schmidt, eds. Language and Communication. 7th ed. London et al: Routledge, 2-27.

Canale, Michael & Merrill Swain (1980). Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing. In: Applied Linguistics 1.1, 1-47.

Dörnyei, Zoltán (2004). Motivation. In Michael Byram, ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge, 425-32.

Dörnyei, Zoltán (2010). The Relationship between Language Aptitude and Language Learning Motivation: Individual Differences from a Dynamic Systems Perspective. In: Ernesto Macaro, ed. Continuum Companion to Second Language Acquisition. London: Continuum, 247-67.

Dörnyei, Zoltán & Peter Skehan (2003). Individual Differences in Second Language Learning. In: Catherine J. Doughty & Michael H. Long, eds. The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 589-630.

Ellis, Rod (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford et al.: Oxford University Press.

Ellis, Rod (2012). Language Teaching Research and Language Pedagogy. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hattie, John (2009). Visible Learning: A Synthesis of over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement. London et al.: Routledge.

Keller, Stefan D. (2013). Kompetenzorientierter Englischunterricht. Berlin: Cornelsen Scriptor.

Mehisto, Peeter; David Marsh & María Jesús Frigols (2008). Uncovering CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Oxford: Macmillan.

Reinfried, Marcus (2004). Audio-visual Language Teaching. In: Michael Byram, ed. Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London et al.: Routledge, 61-64.

Riemer, Claudia (2010). Motivation. In: Wolfang Hallet & Frank G. Königs, eds. Handbuch Fremdsprachendidaktik. Seelze-Velber: Klett/Kallmeyer, 168-73.

Schlak, Torsten (2010). Sprachlerneignung. In: Wolfang Hallet & Frank G. Königs, eds. Handbuch Fremdsprachendidaktik. Seelze-Velber: Klett/Kallmeyer, 257-61.


Acknowledgments

The cartoons at the beginning of each ppt were designed by Frollein Motte, 2014. If not otherwise indicated, the copyright of the figures lies with the authors. The complete titles of the sources can be found in the references to the units unless given below. All of the websites were checked on 10 September 2014.

� Slides 6, 9, 12, 14, 22, 25, 29, 31: Open Clipart Vectors, https://pixabay.com/en/comments-discussion-esperanto-151907/

� Slide 10: The New Language Laboratory, 1970, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_New_Language_Laboratory,_1970.jpg

� Slide 16: Model of communicative competence, based on Canale & Swain 1980, Canale 2013

� Slide 23: Methodology and principles of the task as work plan, adapted from Ellis 2003: 244, 257-58, 276-78; Ellis 2012: 200-02; Keller 2013: 77

� Slide 28: Working together teamwork puzzle concept, https://www.flickr.com/photos/lumaxart/2137737248

� Slide 36: Left to right – Tim McInnerny, Stephen Fry, Hugh Laurie (back), Rowan Atkinson, Tony Robinson (front) in Blackadder Goes Forth, (original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackadder_Goes_Forth#/media/File:Ba4.jpg (original source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/content/images/2007/02/22/trench_1600_1600x1200.jpg)

� Slide 37, 38, 40 (adapted): Students in line with teacher, http://teachingintheprimarygrades.blogspot.de/2013/09/hallway-procedures.html

� Slide 40: Sign of different school types on a school complex in Germany, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Germany#/media/File:Schulen_Wegweiser.jpg; teacher, https://pixabay.com/en/teacher-bookworm-glasses-professor-359311

� Slide 42: http://www.hsslive.in/2014/08/higher-secondary-general-transfer-2014.html

� Slide 47: Individual learner differences, adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2010: 249; Schlak 2010: 258; Ellis 2012: 308-16

� Slide 49: Dynamic system of motivation, adapted from Dörnyei & Skehan 2003: 619; Dörnyei 2004: 429-30; Riemer 2010: 171


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