3. Unesco Apartheid.pdf

8/11/2019 3. Unesco Apartheid.pdf

1/49

p a r t V

its effects on

e d u c a t i o n

sc ie nc e

c u l t u r e

an d i n f o r m a t i o n

u n e s c o


2/49

Contents

Introduction

13

I

Education

1

A i m s

and

objec ts

27

2

Primary

and

s e c o n d a r yschools. Administration

30

3

Primary

and

s e c o n d a r yschools. Finance

34

4 School f e e s and textboo k supplies 43

5

Enrolments

an d syllabuses 46

6 Content of textboo ks 58

7

Mo the r tongueinstruct ion

66

8

Teachers

in

primary

and

secondary schools

69

9 School libraries 72

10

Technical

and

vocational

75

11 Adult edu cation 80

12

University education 83

II Science

1 Definit ionofscope 99

2 Patternsof tec hnical

em ploym ent

an dproblem so f

m a n po w e r

supply 100

3 E f fe c t s o f apartheid o n

scientific

organization in South

Africa

109

4 The

inf luence

of

apartheid

on soc ia l

field

research

114

5

E f f e c ts

o f

apartheid

o n

national

defence

an d

scientific

research 117

6

E f f e c ts

o f

apartheid

o n South African

international

scientif ic

and

technical co-operation

119

7 E f fe c t s o f

apartheid

on the

emigration

of

scientists

f r o m an d

the recruitment of scientists to work in South

Africa

120


3/49

III

Culture

1 Definition of scope 127

2 The peoples o f South Afr ic a 128

3

Religion

141

4 Literature 149

5 Public libraries 160

6 Entertainment 166

7 Sport 173

8 Assumpt ions an d

reality

179

IV

Information

1 Thelegal f r a m e w o r k 185

2 Theapplication of the law 191

3 Thepress 192

4 Radio an d c i n e m a 198

5 International n e w s 201

Conclusion 204


4/49

Introduct ion

South

Africa, a

society

in which Afr icans, Asians an d

E u r o p e a n s

co-exist

in the

s a m e territory,

has

b e e n

the

resul t

of a

longhistory

going back to the

first

European settlement in the Cape o f

Good

Hope

in

1652.

It is a

history

not

only

of

prolonged contact (some

of it

friendly) b e t w e e n

these

groups

o f

people,

but

also

a

history

o f

confl ic t

overland

an d

cattle

at

first, then overindustrial opportuni t ies when

t o w n s

grew

up.

There

were

also

confl ic ts

b e t w e e n

the Boers, descen-

dants of the

first

Dutch sett lers, and the

English-speaking

South

Afr ican conf l i c t s

which

terminated in theBoerWar and thed e f e a t o f

the

Dutch-speaking Afr ikane r

by the English colonizers.

A b o u t

the

mid-twentieth

century

then, the ingredients of the present alarming

South

Afr ican

situation

were

all

presentthe rivalry

be tween the

Afrikaner

and the English-speaking

South Africans

which split the

White population

into

tw o

main

groups, the suspic ion and f e a r

which

m o st

of the

White

group

fel t

fo r

Africans

w ho

we re

num erical ly

stronger,

against

whom

they had

fought

a ser i es of wars and whom

they

had

traditionally treated

as a

source

of

cheaplabour.There

was

also the Coloured group

f o rm e d

f r o m a m i x t u r e o fWhite,Hottentot

and Malay

e l e m e n t s

a n d a nAsian group brought to South Africa in

the

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

as

labour

f o r t h e n e w s u g a r

plantations

in

Natal.

At the end of the Second World War

there

wasanother f a c t o r on

the

South African

s c e n e . White

supremacy, threatened

occasionally

over

the 300

years

of

White se t t lement,

was

challenged

by the

e m e r -

gence o findependent states in

Africa

an d Asia. On thepolitical

f r o n t

the s t ruggle for independence was a s t ruggle for'onem a n -o n evote',

and had di rec t c o n s e qu e n c e s f o r S o u thAfr i can Whites,who, in f ra m -

ing the Const i tu t ion of 1910,had resisted any effect ive participation

13


5/49

Apartheid

o fnon-Whitesin thepoliticalprocess. There was another challenge;

in all

countries there

arose a new

demand

for the implementationof

'Human Rights',ademand

encouraged

by the

United

NationsUniver-

sal

Declaration

of

Human Rights

of

1948.

In

South

Africa

thismeant

a dem and for equality of o pportunityin the sociala n d e c o n o m icf r o n t

and

was

thus

a

direct

threat toWhite

privileges.

The NationalParty came to power in 1948 on an appeal which

rested

almost

entirely on itspromiseto

safeguard

and,if necessary,

strengthen 'White

supremacy'. In its

public

statements the Govern-

ment ident i f ied this

political,

economic and social policy with the

ideology of'Apartheid', which was described in the 1947 Election

Mani fes to

of the

National

Party as

f o l l o w s :

In general terms our

policy envisages

segregating the

m o s t important e thnic groups

an d

sub-groups

intheirown areas

where every

group willbeenabled to

develop

intoa self-sufficient unit. We endorse the general

principle

of

territorial

segregationof theBantuand theWhites.. . theBantuin

, the u r b a n

areas

shouldberegardedasmigratory

citizens

notentitled

} topoliticalor social

rights

equaltothoseof theWhites.Theprocess

(

of

detribalization

should

be

arrested

....'.

From

the

beginning

there were

two co-existing c once pts o f

apart-

heid.

O n e w a s that the racessubdivided

into

tr ibesshould be

completely segregated

into

self-suff ic ient

territories.

The

other

was

thatapartheidwas not tomeancompleteterritorialsegregationbut a

more rigid e n f o r c e m e n t

of

non-White

social,

economic

andpolitical

infer ior i ty. From

1948 to 1965, the South Afr ic an Government has

m o v e dinbothdirections. On 4December 1963,the

then

PrimeMinis-

ter,

Dr. H. F.

V e r w o e r d

stated

that'...we

shall

be

able

to

prove

that

it is only by creating separate

nations

thatdiscrimination

will

in f a c t

disappear

in the long run'. It is certain that s o m e idealistic

White

South

Afr icans

hopedthattheincipientc onf l ic tin theSouthAfr ican

situation

w o u l d

beresolvedby

apartheid.

Further, m an yhopedthat

while the

political

and

e c o n o m ic

aspirations

of theAfr ic an m ajor i ty

andthe

Coloured

and

Asian

minoritieswouldbe met by 'separate

development',

the privileges of a White South

Africa would

be

guaranteed.

The cre at iono fBantustans'Black homelands 'from thescat tere d

reserves and the establishment of the Transkei as an example of a

semi-autonomous

state,

arestepsin this'separate development'.It is

not

n e c e s s a r y

here to gointothe

government's

case forindependent

B a n t u s t a n s o r

the caseagainst it. It is suff ic ient to note the

report

14


6/49

Introduction

oftheUnitedNations'Spec ial C o m m itte eon thePoliciesofApartheid

in South Africa, 13 September

1963:

'These m o v e s are engineered by

a

Government

in

which

the

Afr icanpeople

concerned haveno

voice

and are

a i m e d

at the

separation

of the

races

and the denial o f rights

to the

Afr ican

populationin six-seventhso f theterritoryof theRepub-

lic of

South

Afr icainreturnforpromisesof sel f-government for the

Africans

in

scattered reserves which account

fo r

one-seventh

of the

territory. These

reserves c o n t a i n

less than two-fifths of the

African

populationof theRepublic, w hile m anyof theAfrican sin therestof

the c o u n t r yare largely

detribalized

and havelittle

attachment

to the

reserves...

The

creation

o f B a n tus t an s

may,

there fore ,

b e r e g a rde d a s

designed to re inforceWhite supremacy in the

Republic

bystrengthen-

ing the

position

o ftribal

chiefs,

dividing the African people

through

the o f f e r o fopportunitiesf o r alimitedn u m b e r o fAfr ican s an d

deceiv-

in g

publicopinion.'

Sinceseparationor apartheidis the ideological and legal basis for

the

inequalities in

access

to education and to culture, and

inter fe res

with

scientific

de ve l o p m e n t

an d

f r e e d o m

o f

i n fo rm a t i o n ,

it

would

be

u s e f u l to examine

briefly

at this

point

thelegislation which e n f o r c e s

separation.

Legislation affect ing

particular fields ofUnesco'scompe-

t e n c e

will

be

analysed

in

deta i l

in the

re levant

chapters.

On e

important

s tep in any

attemptedseparation

o f t h e ra c e s w a s

the e n f o r c e dremovalo fpeopleo f

differing

races who had lived closely

together.

The Population

Registration

Act of

1950

with itslater a m e n d m e n t s

provided

for the

classification

of the

South

African

population

into

three

maingro ups: W hite , Colouredan d

Afr ican the

Asiansco ns t i tu-

ing a sub-group in the Coloured

group. This

classification w as

f u n d a -

mental

to the whole

g o v e r n m e n tpolicy

of '

Separateness'

for

each

'race'. As

f r o m

1August

1966

it b e c a m e

c o m p u l s o r y

for all cit izens

o ftherepublic

over

16 years of age to posse ssidentity cardsand to

produce these at the request of an authorized person. The racial

group

of

the

holder

is on thiscard.Itwasestimated

that

approximately

148,000

people

had not

applied

fo ride nti tycards

b e c a u se

the y f e a r e d

that they

might be placed in a

racial category which

would af fec t

their

socialstatus, lead

to dismissal

f r o m their

present

e m p l o y m e n t

an d

totheir

e n f o r c e d

r e m o v al

f r o m

theareain w hichthe yn o w

lived.

1

1. A Survey

o f

Race Relat ions in South

Africa, 1966,Johannesburg,

SouthA f r ic an

Institute

o fRace

Relations, 1967,

p.

123.

15


7/49

Apartheid

C o n t r o l of the f r e e d o m o fm o ve m e n t o fAfrican s ha s been achieved

through

the'PassLaws'. A s y s tem of

pass

laws

was in

e f fec t b e f o r e

the National

Party

c a m e to

p o w e r ; however ,

these

laws

varied f r o m

province to province.

S o m e

classes o f Africans

were

exempted f r o m

carryingthem, and in the Cape,

while

they existed in

theory, they

were inpracticenolongerrequired.

The Natives (Abolition o f

Passes

an dCo-ordination o f Do c u m e n t s )

Act, 1952 repealed previous laws. H e n c e f o r t h

all

Africans

were

re -

quired to

possess

a 'r e f e re n c ebook'

which co nta insdetailed

i n f o r m a -

tion

aboutthe

holder,

includinga

space

for

efflux

and

influxcontrol

e n d o r s e m e n t s .

Failure

to

produce

the

' r e f e re n c e

book'

o n

d e m a n d

is

a criminal o f f e n c e .

B e t w e e n

1January and 30June 1964, 162,182

A f r i c a n s

had

been prosecuted

for

failing

to

register

or to

produce

these documents.

1

The Natives (Urban Areas)

Consolidation

A ct o f 1945 and its

a m e n d m e n t s

o f 1952, 1956 an d 1957, together

with

the

Bantu

Laws

A m e n d m e n t Act,

No. 42, of

1964, provided

for the

c o m p ul s o ry

residence

in

locations, nativevillages

o r

hostels

ofAfrican s within an

ur ba n

area.

It regulated the

e n t ry

o f

Africans

into

the

areas

and the

place of thei rsettlement. The p re s e n c e of a n African in a prescr ibed

a r ea f o r

m o re

than 72 h o u r s is

subject

to severerestrictions. Totake

u p

w o r k

he

m u st

get perm iss ion

f r o m

a

labour bureau

a nd to

visit

the

area

perm iss ion

m u stbe sought

f r o m

a

labour

off icer . S o m e

Afr icans

are exempted f r o m theserestrictions, fo r example,

those

cont inuously

resident in the

a re a sincebirth

(who m u s t

provide

proofthatthey are

entitled to b e

there).

Bu t

e v e n

Afr icans w ho

qualify

t o r e m a i n i n a

prescribed area

may be

d e e m e d'idle'

or

'undesirable'

and

then

be

orderedout of thearea, fo r fe i t i n g

their

residentialrights.Moreover,

there s e e m s

to be

s om e

c o n f u s i o n as to

what

the exemptions are and

to

whom they

apply.

The GroupArea Act has b e e n fol lowed by alist o fGroup Area

Declarationssett ing aside areas

for the

exclusive o cc u pa tion

o f o n e

or other population group. This act has

be e n

implemented in spite

o f

repeated resolutions

by the

Gener a l

Assem blyRe solution

395 (V )

of 2 D e c e m b e r 1950, 551(VI) of 12 January 1952, 615 (VII) of

5 D e c e m b e r 1952 and 719 (VIT) of 11

N o v e m b e r

1953.

The

proclamations issued

in Octob er

1963 involved,

in

Durban

alone,

the evic t ion of near ly

10,000 famil ies ,

the

great majori ty

o f

1. Annual

Report

of the Commissioner of the SouthA f r ic an

Police

for theyear

ended

30

June

1964.

16


8/49

Introduction

them

Indians.

In

1964

the declarations

were designed

to resettle

virtuallyall of the

38,000Indians

on the

Rand.

Eviction

orders a r e n o t conf ined to situations in whichthere m ay

be a

degreehowever smallof mixed

residentialdistricts;

the

orders

w e r e f r a m e d

to

f o r c e non-Whites

out of the t o w n

centres

a n d to

resettle them

on the

outskirts.

Thus,

thejointministerial statement

ofFebruary1966

dec lared

District

Sixone

of the oldest sec t ions of

Cape Townwhich had.be e npopulated

by

Coloured residents

fo r

over

300 years, as a W hite area. A Colou redpopulationo f ove r 20,000 /

were

to bef o r c e d to m o ve . /

In

spite

of the ideology of

apartheid,

in

spite

of the

uprooting

of

tho usa n ds

o f families, the

comple te

separation of peoplesinto tribal

an d ethnic groupings in South Afr ica has proved

impossible.

The

closelyintegrated

e c o n o m i c

structure, the location of all the

m a j o r

industries,all the

m ineral weal th,

all theimportant

h a r b o u r

facilities

and all the best

arable land

in

that part

o f So uth Afr ica

which

w as

outside

the

reserves

in

White

ow ne rship

m e a nt

that

Afr icansas

well

as

Coloureds

an d

A sians re m ain de pe nde nt

on the

t ow n

an d

farm ing

com plex o f

White

South

Africa

f or alivelihood.

E ve n

the

go ve r n m e n t 's

attempt to

encourage

African-owned

small-scale industries in the

Transkei

has c o m eup against therelative

pover ty

of the

area,

the

comparat ive lack

o fnatural

r e so ur c e s

and the

lack

o f a c c um ul a te d

capital.For g o o dorill, Whiteand non-White

South

Afr ica r e m a i n

e c o n o m i c a l l yinterdependent. If thenon -W hites

n e e d

the job

opportu-

nities at

present

available in

White South

Africa,

White

South

Afr ica

could

notmaintainitspresent

industr ia l

and

agricultural pr o duc t io n

n o r the

p re se n thigh

standardo f livingwithoutnon-Whitelabour.

In f a c t , whatever the statedpolicy o f the G o ve r n m e n t ,therehasb e e n

an increas ing

n u m b e r

o f Afr icans a d mi t t ed to

urban areas.

Table 1give s t h e n u m b e r o f

Afr icans

a dm it t e d to the m a in

u r b a n

areas

and the

n u m b e r e n d o r s e d

o ut

during

1964

and for the

first

three m o n t h s of 1965.

Between

1962

an d

1964

the

African

population

of

Johannesburg

in -

creased

f r o m

609,100 to 706,389;then u m b e ro fAfr icanm e nem ployed

in

Durban

increased

f r o m 74,500

in

1946

to 136,000 in

1965.

In the

Western Cape, the n u m b e r o fAfr icans employed bylocal authorities,

the

Provincial

Administration, Public Service D e p ar t m e nt s ,

agricul-

ture

and

industry increased

f ro m

1963

to

1964

by 7.5 per

c e n t

(from

a l m o s t

77,000 to alittle u n d e r 83,000)an dincreasing n u m b e rs were

7


9/49

Apartheid

TABLE 1.

Numbers

of Africans admitted to and

endorsed

f r o m

main

urban areas

in

1964

an d

first threemonths

o f

1965 *

Admit t ed

Y e a r

1964

First3 months of 1965

Men

156352

44409

W o m e n

18747

5133

E n d o r s e d

o u t

Men

84258

19159

W o m e n

13983

3855

1. House of AssemblyDebates, Hansard, Vol. 12, 1965, Col. 4430. Quoted f r o m A Survey of Race

Relations

in South

Africa, 1965,

Johannesburg,

South Afr ican

Institute

o fRace

Relations, 1966,

p.155.

being

recruited for employment through the labour bureauxin the

Transkei.

1

In the

Rand

the African population exceeds the White

by

morethan 500,000.

2

The main push ofapartheidhas been

therefore

in thedirectionof

more rigid racialdiscrimination,

with growing

inequalities in

opportu-

nities. Table 2 illustrates this.

As

it

could

be

expected,

the policy of apartheid ha s

given

rise

to

opposition.

Therehave b e e nprotests,demonstrationsand riots f r o m

the

non-Whites,

whileamong Whitesopposition to the

Government's

policy

has

r a nged

f r o m

criticism

to

morepoliticalinvolvement.

A

minority can

hardly s uc c e e d

in preserving its

absolute

supremacy

in all

sphe reswithout

the use

o f f e r e e .

It is

the refo re

not

surprisingthat

the

implementation

of the

policy

ofapartheidhas b e e n

accompanied

by anabuse o fpolice power , adisregard for theintegrity of theindi-

vidual and by the

censorship

of the

press.

The real or

imagined f e a r

of counter-violence has led those in

p o w e r to a multiplication ofprocedures a i m e d at

strengthening

the

system o f apartheid by

destroying

opposition.

Again and

again

during the

post-war

period,

attention

has been

called

to the

situation

hi SouthAfric a

withregard

tocivil

rights.

3

One

n e e d

only briefly

draw attent ion to the

90-day

detent ion clause in the

GeneralL aw Am e n d m e n t Act, 1963,whic hwhenit was

withdrawn

on

1. Second Special Report of the Director-General on the Application of the Declaration concerning

the Policy of Apartheid of the Republic of South Africa, Geneva,ILO, 1966, p. 11.

2.

A

Survey

of

Race Relations

in

South

Africa,

1966,Johannesburg, SouthAfr icanInstitute o f Race

Relations,

1967, p. 168.

3. See in

part icular

The Report of the International Commission of Jurists, 'South

Africa

and the

Rules of Law , 1960, an d Tlie Reports of the

United

Nat ions

Special

Commi t tee on the Pol icy of

Apartheid in the

Republic

of

South

Africa, 10

D e c e m b e r 1964

(A/5825/Add.l) and 16

August 1965

(S/6005).

18


10/49

Introduction

T A B L E

2.

Population

of South

Africa

by

racial

groups

Item

Distribution

x

A n n u a l in c o m e

(Rand )

per capita 1960

a

Average

salaries

3

Mining

Manufacturing

Public Service

Maximum

pension

4

city )

non-city

\

Infant

mortality

rate

u n d e r

1 yearold per 1,000live

births, 1965

B

Increase/decrease ofT.B.

rates

in 1963 over 1962, children

under 5

6

Incidence o f Kwashiorkor

rate

pe r

100,000, 1965?

Africans

12 465 000

87

152

422

346

44

T*T

n o

figures

given

+ 20.3%

980

Coloured

1 805 000

109

458

660

603

168

138

136.1

+ 7.5%

410

Asians

547 000

147

458

660

884

168

138

56.1

-16.8

40

Whites

3 481 000

952

2562

2058

1694

360

29.2

-7.0

negligible

1.

Estimates in mid-1966. Statistical

Yearbook 1966,

compiled

by t h e B ure au o f

Statistics,Pretoria,

Republic o f So ut h

Africa ,

TableAl 1.

2. A Surveyof

Race Relat ions

in South

Africa, 1965

o p.

cit.,

p.

205.

3. Figures takenf r o mA Survey of Race Relat ions in South

Africa,

1963 ,Johannesburg, 1964, p. 25 ff.

In mining,

Africans

receive

f re e f o o d , a c c o m m o d a ti o n

an d

m e d i c al

se rvices.

4.

Revised

Social Pensions in South Africa 1966,Johann esb u r g,1965,p. 5 (AFactPaper,n o .

17,1966).

5.

Estimates

inmid-1966.Statistical Y earbook

1966,Table C32.

6. Minister o fHealth in theHouse of Assembly

Debates,

21April 1964

(qu oted

f r o m

A Survey o f

Race Relations

in South

Africa,

1963,

Johannesburg,

1964,

p.

308).

7. ASurvey o f RaceRelationsinSouthAfrica, 1965,op.

cit.,

p.276.

11

J a n ua ry 1965,was inf a c treplacedby the 180-day

detention

m e a s u re

of the CriminalProcedure A m e n d m e n t A c t N o . 9 6 o f 1965.

U n d e r

this act the Attorney

General

m ay

issue

a warrant for arrest an d

detention

fo r a

m a x i m u m

of s ix

months (180 days)

a

person

who is

likely

to

give evidence

for the

State

in any

criminal proceedings with

respec t to

certain

o f f en ces , aslong asthat

detention

is

d e e m e d

to be

in the interest of suchap e rs o nor of the administration ofjustice.

1

The

International

Commiss ion

of Jurists

o b s e r v e d :

'This

m u s t

be

o n e o f t h e m o s t

extraordinary

powersthathave ever beengranted

outside

aperiodof em ergenc y.It authorizesthedetentionof an

inno-

c e n t personagainst w h o m

n o

allegations

a re m a de a n d n o s us p i c i o n

1. See A, S.

Mathew s

and R. C. Albino:

The p e r m a n e n c e

of the

t e m p o r ar y .

An exam inat ionof

the 90 and 180 daydetentionlaws'.The South African Law Journal ,

1966,

p. 16 ff.

19


11/49

Apartheid

even exists;

it

authorizes de tent ion

in the absolute discretion of the

Attorney General.

It

denies

the

detainees access

to a

lawyer with-

o ut

special permission;

and i t precludes the

courts

from

examining

the validity of the

detention

evenwithin

the already

very wide powe rs

o f

the

Act.

It fur ther

authorizes

the

subject ion

of the de t a in e d witness

to

solitaryc o n f in e m e n t

fo r a

period

of s ix

months and,with

the

objec t ,

inter

alia

o f excluding tampering

with

o rintimidation o f a n yperson,

places him in asituationwherehe is in thealmostuncontrolled

po w e r

o f

the police who also have an

interest

in the evidencehe maygive.'

1

There

are

too,

the peculiar techniques of

banishing,

o r listing

per-

sons , a nd o f banning.

B a n i s h m e n t

is an

action which

c a n b e

taken against Afr icans .

Section 5(l)(b)of the Native

Administration Act, 1927,

a m e n d e d

1952

and 1956,e m po w e r stheStatePresident, w h e n e v e rhe d e e m sit expe-

d i e n t

in the

public

interest,

without

notice,to

o r d e r

any

tribe,portion

o ftribeor

individual

African to m o veto any

stated place. Banishment

has

b e e n

u s e d ,

i.e.,

to

r e m o vef r o m

thereserves

p e r s o n s

w ho

ha v e b e e n

active

opponents

o f chiefs o r o f government m e a s u r e s fo r 'Bantu

authorities',

or

land

betterment,or the

issuing

of

r e f e r e n c e b o o k s

to

w o m e n .

a

In addition,e m e rge n c yregulations for the Transkei (Proclamations

400 and

413) provide that

anyperson suspected of c o m m i t t i n g an

of f e nc e

under

theregulations o f a n y

law,

o r o fintending t o do s o , o r

o f possess ing in format ion about an

o f f e n c e

m a y b earrested

w i t h o ut

warrant

an d

held

in

custody until

the

police

o r prison

authorities

are

satisfied that they have

fully

an d truthfully answered all relevant

quest ions

put to

them.

The

o f f e n c e s

include:

holding

a m e e t i n g o f

m o r e than

te n

Africans

unless

withspecialperm iss ion(church

service s

an d funerals

are

exempted), m a k i n g

an y

statement

o r

p e r f o r m i n g

an y action likely to have the

e f f e c t

of in te r fe r ing with the

authority

o fthe

State,

one of its officials, or a chieforheadmanorboycotting

an official meeting.

Theperson

held

in c us t o dy

u n d e r

these

regulations may not c o n s ul t

with a legal

adviser

unless

with

t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e M i n i s t e r o f B a n t u

Administration

and

Development.

3

1.

Bulletin

of tile

International Commission

o f

Jurists,

G eneva , S eptem b er 1966. Here qu oted f rom

Report

of the United

Nations Special Commit tee

on the

Policies

o f

Apartheid

of the

Government

of th e

Republic

of

South Africa,

O c t o b e r1966,A/6486,p.121.

2. MurielHorrell,

Act ion, Reaction a nd Counteraction ,

Johannesburg 1963,p. 64. Seealso

A Survey

of Race Relations

in

South Africa, 1965,

o p.

cit.,p.

52 .

3.

A Survey

o f

Race Relations in South Africa,

1965, o p.cit., p. 52.

20


12/49

Introduction

Between January

an d

April 1966,

a

total

o f

sixty-twoTranskeians

were detainedby theSouth African

authorities.

1

U n d e r the Suppress ion of Communism

Act, 1950,

am e n d m e n ts

1962, a person might belisted as member or ac t ive

supporter

of the

C o m m u n i s t

Party o f

South Afr ica (banned

in

1950)

o r o f a n y

o t h e r

organization d e e m e d

unlawful

(as the

Afr ican

NationalCongress, the

Pan-AfricanCongress and theA f r i c a n

Resistance

Movement). In 1962

alist of 437n am e s ofpersons, 129 Whites and 308n on-Whites , w as

published

in the

Gazette*Laters o m e h a ve b e e n r e m o ve df rom

thelist,

others

have b e e n a d d e d .

Although, strictly speaking, the

publication

of

thenameshas no direct

legal

consequences, the Minister of Justice

is e m po w e re dto

take certain

ac t ions againsta

listed

person.Itshould

be m e nt i one d that the

same

act ions might be directed against certain

other

categories ,too,aspersons c o n vic t e d o factions d e e m e d to have

furthered the a ims of communism. Banning orders of t h e m ost vary-

ing c h a ra c t e r

might

be

served.

Thus, a p e r s o nmight be

prohibited

f r o m b e c o m i n g or be ing a m e m be r o f specified

organizations

o r

orga-

nizations

o f a

specified

nature.

Further,

a

p e rs o n

m a y b e

prohibited

f r o m at tending gather ings of anykind,

including

social

gatherings.

Such prohibitions are

rather

frequent. With certain exceptions it is

an o f f e n c e to r e c o r d ,publish, o r di s s e m in a t ean y speech,utterance o r

writingmadeanywhere at anytimeby a person under suchban.

In addit iona b a n n i n g

o r d e r

mayim plythatthe p e r s o n c o n c e r n e d

is

prohibited

f r o m

absenting

himself

f r o m

an y stated place o r

area,

he may be

c o n f i n e d

to a town or a

suburb,

he may be

conf ined

to

h o us e a r re s t

for a

c e r ta in n u m b e r

of

h o urs ,

andpublic

holidays.

It is

s o m e t i m e s r e qui re dthatthe

person

shallr e m a inat home for 24 hours

e a c h

day.

8

The publication o fparticulars in the Gazette contains the

date

o f

delivery

o f

notice

and the

date

o n

whichnotice expires.

The

per iod

varies,

o f t e n i t i s one or two

years,

an d s o m e t i m e s

five

years.

At the beginning of 1964, 257

persons were

subject to

restrictions

u n d e r

the

Suppression

o f C o m m u n i s mAct.

TheUnitedNationsSpecial

Committee

on the

Policy

of Apartheid

1.

Report

of the

Uni ted

Nations

Special

Committee on the

Pol ic ies o f Apartheid

of the

G o v e r n m e n t

of the Republic of SouthAfrica, October 1 9 6 6 ,A/6486,

quoted

from the ChiefMinisterof the

Transkei in a reply to aquestionin the

Legislative

A s s e m b ly

reported

in

The

World,

Johannesburg,

8 June

1966.

2.

Annua l Survey

o f Sou th

African

La w, 1962, p. 53.

3.

House

o fAssemblyDebates,Hansard, 28J a nua ry

1964,

Cols.

405-6.

21


13/49

Apartheid

in the Republic o f

South

Afr ica gave the n u m b e r o f pe r s o n s'banned'

as approximately

600 in 1966.

1

While

U nes co

is not

direc t ly concerned with

the

e c o n o m i c

and

poli-

tical aspects

o f

apartheid

in the

Republic

of South

Africa,

the

policy

ofapartheidhas consequences foreducation,

sc ience ,

culture and the

dissemination o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n s e q u e n c e s w h i c h

follow

logically

f ro m the philosophical c onc e pt of man as conceived by the ideology

of 'Apartheid' , f ro m thee c o n o m ic

ine qualitie s

whichthepolic yc reates

an d

reinforces,

an d f ro m thepolitical

situation

which severelyc urtails

f r e e d o m

for all South

Africans,

and in

particular

for the

non-White

South

Afr icans

w ho f o r m the

majori ty

of thecountry'spopulation.

In conformity wi th the

ideal of'separateness',

Africans, Asians,

Coloureds and

Whites

are

ed u ca ted

asindependentgroups within the

population,the'separateness'emphasized by the administrative struc-

ture

ofeducation,bymethodsof f inance , by di f ferences insyllabus,

and by

di f ferent

levels of achievement deliberately imposed to fit in

with

di f fe re nt

expectations

in

employment. Ultimately education

is

geared

for the effect ive

preparation

of the Afr i cans f o r

their f u t u r e

occupations as unskilled

labourers. Higher training

is

intended only

for th e s ma l l nu mb er o f p er s ons wh o ca n b e emp l oy ed in

skilled

works in African 'homelands' or African 'development

schemes'.

The result of racial discrimination in educat ion and in the

pat te rn

of employment is seen clearly in the

field

of

science.

South Africa is

fac ing

a

chronicshortage

of

top-level

manpowerin

science

and

techno-

logy

as

well

as in m a n age m e n t. The

shortage cannot

be r em edied by

relying

on the Whitepopulation

alone. M o r e o v e r,

the

genera lrepres-

sive atmosphere is

inimical

to the development of a spirit of f r ee

inquiry and has led to the loss to South Afr ica o f

s o m e

scientists of

great e m i n e n c e , particularly

in the field of the social

sciences.

The

political

atmosphere ha s

also

a f f e c t e d recruitment o f

staff ,

particu-

larly

f r o m universities

in the United

Kingdom.

'

Se paratedevelopm en t'

in thefieldof

cu lture

hasreduce dto a

m ini-

m um

allcontacts

b e tw e e n

Whites

andnon-Whitesthatare not

purely

of

an

e c o n o m i c

nature.

As in all

other fields,

'separate

development'

is

in

f a c t s y n o n y m o us

with

'inequality

of

access',but,moreover,

cultural apartness, as opposed to cultural interaction for which

1. Report

of the

Special Com m i t t ee

on the Policies

o f Apartheid

of the

Government

of the

Republic

of South Africa,

October

1966, A/6486, p. 118.

22


14/49

Introduct ion

Un e s c o stands, has limited the

creative possibilities

of all South

Africans.

That

policy c a n n o t

be

separated

from

principle

is illustrated

in Part IV, on informat ion. Whilst the South African G ov e rnm e nt

in its statements

continues

to

uphold

therightto

f r e e d o m

of

i n f o r m a -

tion,the need to enforce the policy ofapartheidha s af fected the

rele-

vant

legislationand itsapplication,theactions takenden yinginf a c t

the

principle

o f

f r e e d o m

of

informat ion.

3


15/49


16/49

1

Aims

an d

objects

An

inquiryinto

the

e f f e c ts

of the

policy

o f

apartheid

in the

field

o f

South Afr i can e duc a t io n o f

necess i ty begins with

an

examinat ion

o f

the

basic objectives

of the

G o v e r n m e n t

o f

South Africa.

What d o e s

the government seek

f r o m

education?How

does

itspurpose compare

with that

generally

accepted by

other societ ies

of the

w o r l d ?

In 1945, three years before the Nationalists c a m e to power, two

statements w e r e m a d e

in the

House

o f Assembly by

m e m b e r s

w ho

were prominent

in the National

Party:

'As has

b e e n correctly stated here,educ ation

is the key to the

cre ation

o f

theproper relationship b e t w e e n European and non-European in

South

A f r i c a . . . .

Put

native

e d u c a t io non a

s o u n d basis

and

half

the

racial

questions

are

solved....

I say

thatthereshould

be

r e f o r m

of

the

whole

educational

system

a nd i t m u s t be

based

o n the

cul ture

an d

background

and the

whole

life

of the

native himself

in his

tribe....

This

whole

(present) policy is also a

danger

f o r o u r o w n W e s t e rn

civilization.'

1

Weshouldnot givethen ativesanaca d em iceducation,ass o m epeople

a r e to o prone to do. I f we do this weshalllater be b u rd e n e d with a

n u m b e r

o f

academical ly

trained E u r o p e a n s an dnon-Europeans, an d

w ho

is

going

to do the

manuallabour

in the

country?

... I am in

thorough

a g r e e m e n t

with

the view that w eshould so

c o n d u c t

o ur

schoolsthatthe nativewho a t tends those

schools

will k n o wthatto

agreatextent he m u s tbe the labourer in thecountry.'

2

1. Mr. M. D. C. de Wet

Net,

House of Assembly Debates, Hansard ,

Vol.

52, 2

April, 1945,

Cob.

4494-9.

2. Mr. J. N. leRoux,

ibid.,

Col.

4527.

27


17/49

Apartheid

An important

inf luence

in

def ining

the

objectives

o f

education

in

South

Afr ica was the concept o f Christian National Education,

1

outlined

by the

Institute

ofChristian

National

Educationfor the

Fed-

eration

of Afr ikaner

Cultural Organizations

(FAK). The Christian

National

Education

policywaspublishedin a

pamphletissued

by the

FAK in

1960;

it stated:

'In full

preservation

of the

essential unity

of his tory webelievethat

God. . .

has

willedseparate nations

and peoples, and has

given

to

e a c hnation

andpeopleitsspecialcalling andtasksand

g i f t s . . . .

We

believe

that

n ext

to the mother tongue, the national history of the

people

is the

great m e a n s

of

cultivating

love

of

one's

own....'

2

ChristianNationalEducation did not

have

the support of all White

South

Afr icans.

English-speaking

teachers associations,

NUSAS,

the

English-speaking

press and

s o m e

Afrikane rs

opposed

it. They

claimed

that

it

overemphasizes

the

d i f f e r e n c e s

b e tween

peoples

and

could,

by

encou r a ging unilingualism and by

developing

divergentconceptions

o f

history,

dangerously

divide

Afrikaans-speaking

f r o m

English-

speaking South

Afr i cans .

M or eov er th ey m i s t rus t e d the Christian

NationalEducationopinion that

subjects

like sc ience ,history

should

be presented in the light of fixed belief.

3

E v e n a m o n g those w ho

supported

it,

t h e re w e re

s om ewho sawChristian

NationalEducation

not a s a meth od o f d eny ing eq u a l

rights

f o r

Afr i cans

inaccordance

with a pre-dest ined

pre-ordained plan,

bu trather a s a wa y

o fguaran-

teeing

the

Afr ikaner

heritage against

the

inf luence

of the

English-

speaking South African on the one

hand,

and on the

other,

guaran-

t e e ing

the same

separa tenesstogether with

intensi f ied

m i s s i o n a ry

e n d e a v o u r f o r

all groups within

South Africa. They

believed that

equali ty

both in

e d u c a t i o n

and in

cultural rights could

c o m e

about

onlythrough

separateness. Theypointed to the

c o n c e p t

o f

'negritude'

and the 'Afr ic an

personality'

inother

parts

o fAfr ica. In SouthAfr ica

1. Christian National

Education

which

first

appeared

in the Netherlands in

1860

was in

Afrikaner

circles

in

South

Africaseen as early as 1876 as a

means

of

restoring

theChurch's

i n f l u e n c eover

the

youth

and as protecting

them

against the

domination

ofEnglishculture. It wasfromthestart

linkedwiththe protection of the Dutch heritage and the

Dutchlanguage,

and was a

reaction

to

the

tendency

for

public

schools to use

English

as the

medium

of instruction. See T. R. H. Daven-

port,TheAfrikaner B o n d 1880-1911,CapeTown,London,New

York,

Oxfor dUniversityPress,

1966, p.30-3.

2. Quoted f r o m F. E.Auerbach,ThePower

o f

Prejudice in Sou th African

Educa t i on , Cape

Town,

Amsterdam,1965,

p.

112.

3. Seealso G w e n d o l e nM.

Carter,

ThePoli t ics o f

Inequali ty

in Sou th Africa s ince 1948, 2nd ed.,

London, Thames &Hudson, 1959, p.261-6.

28


18/49

Educat ion

they

felt

thatthe uniquenesso f theAfrican

tradition

could be fostered

best bystrengthening or thereconstructing

where

this w asnecessary,

o f

o ld

triballoyalties

and the

re inforc ing

of the

mother

t o n g ue

which

they

saw as one of the basic necessities for separateness, while

permeating the whole

with

the Christian principles of the Dutch

R e f o r m e d

Church. Both in the Transvaal and in the Orange Free

State, ChristianNational

Education has b e e nadopted. It has had an

importantin f luenc e incertain sec t ions o f the

Cape

Provinc e while in

Natalthe Provincial Councilhas

re fuse d

to

accept

it. The principles

o fChristianNational E duc a t i o n a re

important

n o t only because they

have been

accepted

by

s o m e

provinces

withinthe

Republic

of

South

Africa,

but

b e c a u s e

the

interlockinginteres ts within

Afr ikane r

society

e n s u r e that therearec losetie sb e tw e e ntheInstituteof ChristianNatio-

nal Educat ion, the Federat ion of Afrikaaner Cultural

Organizations

an d

influential

m e m b e r s of the

Nationalist Party.

What the Africans w ant f r o m educat ion has been s u m m e d up as a

quest'for

integration

into

the

democratic structure

and

institutions

of the country. To

them

one of the

m o s t

effective

ways

of

achieving

this is by educat ionan education

essentially

i n n o w a y di f f e r en t

f r o m

o r in fe r ior to ,that o f

other

sect ions of thecommunity'.

1

1. D. G. S.

M'Timkulu

in' The

Af r i c a n

and

Education',Race

Relat ions

Journal ,Vol.

16, No.

3,1949.

Quoted

f r o m

Muriel

Horrell,A Decade

of B a n t u

Educat ion ,

Johannesburg,

South

A f r ic an Institute

ofRace

Relations,

1964,p.157.

29


19/49

2 Prim ary and secondary

schools.

Administration

African schools.

The

Ban t u Educat ion

Act

Until 1953 African schools

wer e ,

with

regard

to

administration

and

controls,of

f o u r

types:privateschools

run by

religiouscommunities,

etc.,

which

could, if they wished, apply fo r

official

recognition an d

State

aid;subsidized m ission

sc hoo lsf o u n d e d

by

church organizations,

subsidized by the State an d whose syllabus w asprescribed by the

Provincial Education Departments;

government

schools

run by an

education

department;

c o m m u n ity

or

tribal schools, where

the

c o m -

mu ni t i e s or t r i b e s a s s um e d theresponsibility for themaintenance o f

the school.

The administrative control over Afr ican schools h a d b e c o m e very

complex.

Each

Provincial

Cou nc i l

legislated for i t s own areain the

Cape the Education

Department

dealt

with

the education of all children

but in allother

provincesthere were Departments

of

NativeEduca-

t ionthe control was shared with

Church

authorities, whileParlia-

m e n t

voted funds

fo r African education. In an at tempt to achieve

greater

co-ordination

aUnion AdvisoryBoard forNative Education

was

set up in

1945,

and in

1949

it had two

Afr icanmembers:Profe ssor

Z. K. Matthews and Dr. J. S.

Joroko.

In

1949,

the South African Gov e r nm e nt appointed a co mmi t t ee

which

had as

part

of itsmandate:

'(a)

The

f or mu l a t ion

of the

principles

and

a ims

of education for

Natives as an independent

race,

in

which

their past

and

present,

theirinherentracialqualities,

their

distinctive

characteristics and

aptitude, and their n e e d s u n d e r ever-changing socialconditions

are taken into consideration.


20/49

Educa t ion

'(b)

Theextenttowhichtheexisting primary,s e c o n d a ryandvocational

educationalsystemfo rNativesand thetraining o fNative teachers

should

bem odif iedin

respect

of the

content

an df o r m o f

syllabuses,

in

order

to

conform

to the

proposed principles

and

aims,

and to

prepare Natives more effect ively

fo r

their

future

occupations.'

The m ain

pro posalsof this com m ittee ,k now nas the Eiselen Com m is-

sion,

were e m b o di e d in the Bantu Education Act of 1953,and as

amendedin1954,1956, 1959and1961. Thisact,whichaf fec t ed the

African population, represented the first m a j o r

application

of the

official

policy o fapartheid toeducation.

The

Bantu Education

Ac t o f

1953

provided

for the

direct control

o f African

schools by the Ministry o fBantu

Aff airs

and not by the

provincial

governments.

The aim was tointroducea

system

of

African

education

closelyco-ordinated with other aspectso fAfr ican develop-

ment, whichcould not beachieved withtheexistingsystemo fdivide d

control.

The Minister o fNativeAff airs introducingthebill

said:

'Education must

train

and teach people in accordance with their

opportunities in life according to the spherein

which

theylive....

Good racial relations cannot exist

when the

education

is

given u n d e r

the

control

o f

people

w ho

createw r o n gexpectations

on thepart o f

the

Native

himself....

Native education should

be

controlled

in such

a way that it

should

be in

accordance

with

the

policy

of the

State

...

racial

relations cannot improveif theresulto fnative educationis the

creation o f f rus t ra ted

people.'

1

TheBantu Education

Act,

then,was not onlytoregulatethe system

of African education so

that

anomalies between provinces and

schools

should beremoved,it was to control it in accord with the

policy of the

State.

The

Bantu Education

Ac t t ransfe rred

administration

o f Afr ican

schools

from

the

provincial authorities

to the

Department

o f

Native

Affairs.

The

minister, acting under

wide

powers,

withdrew

grants

as

f rom 1957

to privateschoolsforAfricans. Private organizations

were

given

the

choice

o f

relinquishing control

o f

primary

o r s e c o n da ry

schools

an d sellingo r

letting

the building to the de partm e nt or

retain-

in g

theschoolsasprivate, unaided institutions.But

even

in the

latter

1 Houseof

Assembly

Debates,H an s ar d

Vol.

83,17September1953,Col.3575.

31


21/49

Apartheid

case the y wo uld haveto accept departmental

syllabuse s

andregulations

regarding

appointmento f

teachers,adm ission

o fstudentsan d

media

o f

instruction. O n e o f t he a r g u m e n t s against the f o r m e r system was the

lack

of

consultation

b e t w e e n

school

principals and

Africans.

In the

n e w system

s o m e

re spon sibility was to bedelegated

f r o m

the

Central

Governm ent to

'Bantu'authoritie s

a nd

local

councils as far as control

o v e rprimary

schools w as

concerned,

an d

when

n o

s u c h authorities

existed

school bo a r ds

were

to be created. However , unlike White

schoolboards, the m e m b e r sto these school

c o m m i t t e e s

were to be

subjec t to theapproval of the Secre tary for

Bantu

Education himself ,

an d subsidies

f r o m

the

CentralGovernment

could b e wi th d r a wn on

a

month's

notice,

without

anyr e a so ngive nforthis withdrawal.

1

More-

over theUnion's Advisory Board for

Native

Educationhad had in

1949

tw o

African

members. Thisboard w asresponsible for advising

o n

important

policy

decis ions

as far as African

education

w ascon-

c e r n e d . These policy

dec is ions were

n o w b e i n g

taken

by theDepart-

m e n t o f

Bantu Administrat ion

sothat

African participation

at this

level ha b b e e n effectively abolished.

2

Secondary

school control was to remain

vested

in the

principal

or in

a s pec ia l com m it tee

w hile schools

o n

f a rm s ,

m i ne s o r

f a c t o ryproperty

could be managed by the o w n e r of thepropertyor his

representative.

The result wasthat all mission and church schools,

other

than

those

maintained by the Catholic Church

3

and the

Seventh-Day

Adventis ts , w e re t ra n s fe r re d to the Department of Ba ntu

Affairs,

o r

were f o r c e d to close.

4

Coloureds

The

Coloured Peoples

Act of 1963providedthat the control, until

then vested in the provinces , o f the educat ion for

Coloured

pe r so n s

should be vested in a Division o f Educat ion

within

the Depar tment

1.Ibid.,Vol.

89,13June

1955, p. 19,Col.7663;

Government

Notice No. 841 of 22

April1955.

2. In reply to a quest ion in the H o u s e o f Assembly, th eMinister o f

Bantu

E d u c a t i o n statedthat

of

the 28 higher

administrativeposts,

80

higher professional posts

and 42 administrative

posts

on the

salary scale

R.

2,280

x1202,760 in his department,

none

w e r e

occupied

by A fr i ca ns .

House ofAssemblyDebates, Hansard , 9April1965,

CoJs.

4084-5.

3. TheCatholic

Church

set

about establishing

a 1 million

f u n d

to f i n a n c e theirschools.

Murie

Horrell,A Decade of B an tu

Educat ion ,

Johannesburg,SouthA fr i ca n

Institute

ofRaceRelations,

1964,

p. 26.

4. The then Bishop of Johannesburg, the Rt.Rev. Ambrose Reeves d e c i d e d

that

he could not

co-operatewith

thegovernment

e v e n

to the extent of

leasing buildings

to the

Department

of Bantu

Affairs . Schools under his control

were

either

handed

over to the

owners

torun, or closed.

M. Horrell, op.cit.,p. 29.

32


22/49

Education

fo r Coloured Affairs. Afte r thisact,

n o o n e

couldmanage

a

private

school at whichmorethan 14Coloured

pupils

were

enrolled

unless

the

school

was

registe red

with

the

de pa r tm e n t .

T h e a c t

provided

not only for the

t ransfe r

o f

schools,

but for the

control of conditions o f service for the

teachers,

o n e condition o f

service

being

thatteachers

could

n o t

belong

to a ny organization to

whichtheminister,in anoticein theG azette,declared

that

the yshould

n o t belong. AnEducation Cou nc i l f or Col ou r ed P er s ons would ac t

in

an

advisory

capacity.

Asians

The

Indians' Education

A ct o f

1965also provided

for the

control

o f education fo rIndians to be vested in the Central Government

under

the

Department

o fIndianAffairs. The act had

provisions

similar

to the ColouredPeoplesAct of1963,the minis ter b e i n g e m p o w e re d

to establish anIndian Education

Advisory

Council,schoolc o m m itte e s ,

etc.,he co uld

recognize

associationso fIndian

teachers,

and i t

def ined

what

could

b e cons id er ed

m i s c o n d u c t

on the

part

o f

teachers.

1

These

two acts, the

ColouredPeoples

A ct o f

1963

and the

Indians

Education

Act of

1965,would s e e m , therefore ,

to

follow

the

pattern

of the Bantu

Educat ion

Act of1953,and to

provide

the legal

basis

for a

control

o f educat ion in line with thegovernment's

policy

o f

'separatedevelopment'.

Whites

Ever

since

the

South

African

Ac t

(1909)

Article

85,

pr imary

an d

s e c o n da ryeducation fo r Whitepupils h a s b e e n adminis tered in the

provinces by the Provincial Council.With the exceptionof Natal,

each school has a

local

commit t ee , e l ec t ed b yparents,

whose

chief

f u n c t i o n is theselection o fteachers, subject to the final approval o f

the department. In Natalthe ProvincialDepartmentcontrols

every-

thingand

there

are no

p ar e n t

c om m it tee s . Withavie wto co-ordinating

the wo rk of the provinc es the

g o ve r n m e n t

ins t i tute din

1935

an

Inter-

provincial Consultat ive C o m m it te e in the field of White

Education.

Ninety- two per cent of European pupils receiving primary an d

se c ond ary

educat ion at tend State

schools.

2

The remainder at tend

1. House ofAssembly

Debates,

Hansard ,

Vol. 13,20

April

1965,

Cols.4434-6; op.

oit.,

21 April

1965,

Cols.4552,4554,4556; op.cit.,28

April

1965, Cols.4928,4967,5015.

2.

World

Survey

of Educat ion .I: Handbook of Educat ional Organizat ion and Statistics,Paris,Unesco,

1955,p.

612.


23/49

Apartheid

private

schools,

mainlyrun by ch u r ch

bodies .

These

private schools

have

to be

registered

by the

school

authority

concerned,

but unlike

church

schools

c o n d u c t e d f o r

Africans,

they

are

f r e e

to

organize their

curricula as they

please.

Sinceallstudentsin

private

as

well

as State

schools

studyfor the samee xam ination

(Matriculation, Senior School

Certificate) the syllabuses are in fac t

very

similar.

Primary

an d

secondary

schools.

Finance

Africans

Financing African education w asintroduce d by Act No. 5 of

1921.

The

costs were

to be met partly by

taxation levied

on Africans and

partly

by

funds

dr a wn

from

general

revenue. The act

debarred

the

ProvincialCouncils

f r o m

imposing

specialdirecttaxation o nAfrican s

except undercertainconditions.

That

is, it was

provided that

every

province should expend annually

on the

educat ion

o f ' n a t i v e s ' a sum

not lessthanits expenditure on sucheducation duringthe f inancial

year

1921-22,

that

the Governor-General

might,

f r o m

t ime

to

t ime,

make

grants

to any province for the

extension

and improvement of

educational

fac ilities

among'natives',andthat

such grants

should be

m a d e

out of the

r e v e n u e s

derived

f r o m

'the

direct taxation

of the

persons, lands,

habitations o r i n c o m e s ofnatives'.

1

This act w h i c h b e c a m e

important

in theNationalist

argument

in

favour of

financing African educat ion

mainlyf ro madditionalAfrican

1. Unionof

South

Africa,

Report

of the C omm ission o n Nat ive Educat ion,

1949-51,

p. 36(the

Eiselen

report).

34


24/49

Education

taxation would seem

to lay the

p r e c e d e n t

that the c o s t of extens ions

in African educat ion should be carr ied by the African himself .

A s e c o n d

act,

No. 41 of

1925

(Native

Taxation

a nd D ev el op ment

Act) had changed the

taxation

o f Afr icans

f r o m

the provinces to the

Central G o ve r n m e n t ,

and the

provisions

o f f u n d s fo r A f r i c a n s ' edu-

ca t ion b e c a m e the responsibility of theCentral G o ve r n m e n t .

Both the principles, that

fur ther

expansion of

African

educat ion

shouldbefinanc iallybornebyAfricans, an dthatAfrican e duc a t io n a l

policy w as the respon sibility of the

Central

G o v e r n m e n t , wereinclu-

de d in the

Bantu

E duc a tio nA ct o f

1959

and the

budgetary

provisions

which

a ccomp a nied

it.

It is

true

that the

m o n e y

available

f r o m

the General Tax levied

up o n

the

Afric ans

increasedf r o m

233,348

in

1926-27

to

459,831

in

1944.

1

However, in

o r d e r

topermit

expansion

o f African

educat ion

the principleo f

having

a ce iling o n the contr ibut ions

f r o m

the

gene ral

revenue wasabolishedin 1945.

Afte r the introduction of the

Bantu

Education

Act, 1953,

the

g o v e r n m e n t rever ted to an

earlier

position that there should be a

ceiling to the

contributions

f r o mthe general revenues.

From

the

fiscal

year

1955-56

when

the BantuEducationA c c o u n t

c am e

intoo perat ion

there has

b e e n

t ransfe rred

f r o m R e ve n ue

A c c o u n t a fixed a n n u a l

a m o u n t

o f R.13

million.

To

this

ha s

b e e nadded

a s um f o r

un ive rsity

colleges

(500,000 in 1965-66).

The

Minister

o f

Native Affairs

in

pegging

the

subsidy

for

African

educat ion

said:

'I thinkit is a wise thingto do in theinterestsof thec o u n t ryand its

f inances ,

but also because

Ba ntu ed u c a tion

can only be

guide dalong

s ou ndlines w he n w e

build

u pthis

principle that

while the

E u r o p e a n

is prepared to m a k e heavy contributions to native education, the

native

c o m m u n ity

will

haveto

shoulde rtheirshare

o f the

responsibility

fo r

this d ev e lopm ent in f u t u r e . '

2

In o r d e r to

m e e t

the

increasing

c o s t

in

African

education

the

Native

Taxation

and

Development

Ac t (No. 41 of 1925) was a m e n d e d in

1958

sothat thebasic genera l tax for

which

only African m e n w e r e

eligible

co uld be ra ised f r o m R.2 to

R.3.50.From

1959 an d 1960 this

1. Muriel Horrell,

A

Decade

o f B an tu

Edu ca t ion , Johannesburg, South Afr ican Institute ofRace

Relations,

1964,

p. 31. (1 =

R.2.)

2. Minister of Native Affairs,

House

ofAssemblyDebates,H a n s a rd , 19S4, 3June, Col. 6211.

35


25/49

Apartheid

basic

figure wa s inc r ea s ed

according

to theproportion of the

taxable

i n c o m e s

of

individual taxpayers while

in

1960 African

w o m e n , w h o

had not

b e f o r e

paid the

general

tax

became

liable if their

income

e x c e e d e d R.360 per annum.

Government Notice

No. 251 of 22

February 1957,

as

amended

by

R217 and 218 of 21

February

1964,

stated

the

regulations

fo r

school

f u n d s in'Bantu'

c o m m u n ity

schools. These f u n d s were to bederived

f ro m

bazaars,

c onc e r t s ,

etc.

In

addition there

were to

be ' volunt ary '

contributions f r o mpupils ranging

f r o m 10

c e n ts

in lowe r

primary

to

R.6 for s tudentsin vocational ortechnicalschools or

classes.

1

(See

also

Chapter

4,'School Feesand Textbook

Supplies'.)

School boards

were also require d to raisepart of the

m o n e y

towardscapital cos tso f

higher and post-primaryschools.Moreover, whenschools are

er ec t ed

i n t h e n e w African

urban

townships, the cos ts of th e l ower p r ima r y

schools m a y b eincluded in theloansfor housing

schem es,

an dSection

36

of theNative Laws

Am e n d m e n t

Ac t No . 36 of 1957

e m po w e r e d

the

Minister

of

Native

Affairs to

take

into

co nsideration

the costs of

providingeducational services whendeciding upon rentals

in

Afr i can

townships or hostels. During the

six-year

period,

1955-56

to

1960-61,

theNationalHousing

lent

R.1,177,556 to local authorities for building

lower

prim ary classroom s.

2

African te nants

were

e xpec ted

to gradually

repay these loans through rents.

The annualgrantf ro m the

Consolidated

RevenueFundf o r

African

education

w as fixed atR.13

million.

The South

Afr i can

Institute o f

Race

Relations, working

out the purchasing p o w e r of this amount

against

the

retail

price index,

c o n c l ud e d

that

1963

R.I3

million

would

purchase in1965 onlythe equivalent ofR.10.8 million.

3

In Table3 the

reven ue

fo r 1955-56

(the

first

year

ofoperationo f the

Bantu

Education Account)

is

compared

with that fo r

1960-61

an d

with

estimates o f r e ve n u e

f r o m

the s a me s o u r c e s in 1963-64.

The increase in the

total i n c o m e

available for Afr ican education

b etween

1955-56

an d 1963-64w a s d u e

mainly

to an

increase

inAfr i can

taxation,a n d to agreaterper ce n tage o f theAfricangeneral taxfour-

fifths

until

1961

an d

five-fifths

a f t erwardswhich

w as

allocated

to

African education.

4

1. M. Horrell, op.

cit.,

p. 16.

2.Ibid.,p. 15.

3. Secondary Educat ion

for Africans,

Johannesburg,

South A f r ic an Institute

of Race

Relations,

p. 12(RR.96/65).

4. Quoted f r o m M.Horrell,op.cit.,p. 34.

36


26/49

Educa t ion

T A B L E 3.Com parisonof

revenues

for1955-56an d 1960-61

withestimates

ofrevenuesin1963-64(inRand)

1

Item 1955-56

1960-61 1963-64

Fixed s tatutoryappropriation

f rom

generalrevenue

Four-fif ths of African

general tax(andfive-

fif ths in

1963-64)

Miscellaneousreceipts

boarding

fees ,etc.)

13

12

13

3

932 566 5 459 33 7 8

121278 6655 8 73

TOTAL 17 53844 19124541 2153

1. Quotedf r o mM.

Horrell,

op.cit.,p.34.

The

relationship

b e t w e e n

n e tnationalincome an deducation c a n b e

seen f r o m

Table 4. It relates South

Africa 's

n e tnational income to

t o t a l

educational expenditure

a n d t o

expenditure

o n

Afr ican schools.

T A B L E

4.

Relationshipb e t w e e n

n e t

national

in c o m e a n d

education

1

Year

1953-54

1958-59

1961-62

1963-64

Net

national

income

(millions

o f

Rand)

2833

3710

4622

5651

Total

expenditure

on

education

(thousands

o f

Rand)

113418

149 189

188 390

Expenditure o n .

Bantu schools

(thousands

of Rand)

16032

18458

19207

22352

Total

expenditure

on education

as

percentage

o f net national

income

4.0

4.02

4.07

Expenditure

on Bantu

schools as

percentage of

net

national

income

0.57

0.50

(0.4975)

0.42

0.42

(0.39554)

1.

Taken

from SecondaryEducation

for

Africans

op.cit.,p.

12.

...

=

Data

not

available.

While

expenditure

on

education

in

general

had

risen

inproportion

to the netnational

income,

the

percentage

spenton

Afr ican schools

was decreasing.

The Minister fo rBantuEducation

explained

ho w

increased enrol-

m e n t w ashandled without a corresponding

rise

in

expenditure.

It was

d o n e

by:

37


27/49

Apartheid

1. Theintroductionof double sess ionsin the

sub-standards,

thatis,

the

first

two years of schooling. In

1958,45.6

per cent of the

children

w e r e

in

these standards,

2. The

policy

o fappointing as far aspossiblew o m e nteachers for the

lower

primary classes. The

majori ty

are

teachers with Standard

6 plus three years o f

teacher

training whose starting salary is

1013s.4d.per month.

3. The grading o f farm schools

into

junior an d senior schools with

a correspondingsavingon salaries since teachers in

junior

schools

are paid a very small salary.

4. The

conversion

of

school

feeding

f u n d s

for the

expansion

of

educational

facilities, whererequested by the schoolboards.This

last was already beingdone. In thepresent financial year school

f e e d i n g

is estimated to

cost

35,000. In

1954

it was

628,000.

1

This

isparticularly

serious

inviewof thehigh rateof

malnutrition

among

Afr icans .

'Several surveys

among Afr ican

school childrenrevealedthat60 to

70%

were

recognizably

malnourished;

50%

needed

nursing and

medical attention,

and

almost

10%

required hospitalisation

for

diseases

directly

o r indirectly

attributable

to

malnutrition.'

2

Rough

estimates

as to the a m o u n t

contributed

by Africans to the

costs of educating their children d u r i n g the year 1960-61 give the

following figures:R.5,459,033in

direct

taxation;R.

114,225

advanced

towards the

erection

o f schools (this sum includes

a mo un t s added

to

the rentals of

houses

inurban areas);

R.200,000

contributed towards

the salaries ofteachers;

R.2,860,632

on school

requisites,

f e e s , etc.;

in all,

R.8,633,890.

3

Coloureds

Colourededucationcontinued

to be f inanced

partly f r o m

the

Conso-

l ida ted Revenue

Fund

and part ly

f rom

provincial taxation.

For the

year 1966

it

amounted

to

R.23,640,500

of

which R.501,000

had

gone

1. House ofAssemblyDebates,Hansard ,Vol.1,1965,Col.3867.(R.2=-1.)

2. African Taxat ion: I ts Relation to African Social Services,Johannesburg, South Af r i c a n Institute

of

RaceRelations,1960,p. 27

(Fact

Paper No. 4). In 1943the

government

introduceda

school

feedingscheme forAfrican childrenon the

same

basisas for children of allracial

groups.

See

M.Horrell,

op.

cit.,

p.

154.

3. M.

Horrell,

op.cit.,p.161.

38


28/49

Educat ion

to the

University

of theWe stern Cape, and

R.2,000

toFort Harefor

Coloured

students still attending classes

there.

1

In the

budget

speech

of 21

February

1963,

however,

the Minister

of ColouredAffairs said

that Coloured

peo plewould to an increasing

extentbeable to makea

direct

contr ibution to their e ducat ion and to

the costs connec tedwith

it.

2

Thisinfac t wasalre adybeing d o n e .The

Indianc o m m u n ityalone had contributed over R.2 million to building

their own schools during the period 1937-65. Indian teachers had

given 3 to 6 per c e n tof

their

basic salariesfor a

two-yearperiod.

3

Whites

White prim ary a n d s e c o n d a r y e duc a t io n isf i n an c e dpartly by

provin-

cial taxation

and partly by a

subsidy f r o m

the

Central

Go ver n men t

(see

Table

5). The general subsidy f r o m the Central G o v e r n m e n t

am ou nt s to about 50 per c e n t of the total provincial expenditure, to

which is added a special

subsidy

f o rthreepro vin c e s :theCape,Natal

andthe

Orange

Free

State.

T A B L E 5.

Provincial

expendi ture on educat ion ( in thousands of

Rand)

1

Year

Cape Natal Transvaal OrangeFree State

196

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

41968

439 3

45127

46248

51246

35451

13651

144 3

14893

155 9

18163

18732

33919

37 31

4 4

42482

4691

4818

8835

9227

965

1 174

11197

11781

1. From

State of

Sou th Africa Year B o o k ,

2 966 ,

p . 96 .

2.Yearending31

March.

Table

6

shows budgetarydetails

fo r

Afr i can, Coloured,Asian

an d

White

education

in the

year

1965-66.

1. Q u o t e dinA Survey o f Race

Relat ions

in South Africa, 196 5,Johannesburg, South

African

Institute

of

RaceRelations,

1966,p.258.

2.

House

ofAssembly Debates, Hansard , Vol.15, 21 February 1963,

Cols.

1739-45,

2193-204,

3997-8.

3. StanleyG.Osier,addressto theTeachers'E d u c a t io n a land ProfessionalAssoc iation, Cape Tow n,

28June

1965.

39


29/49

Apartheid

TABLE 6.

Budgetary

details

for year

1965-66

Item

Budge tf o r

Coloured education

2

Schools

o findustries and r e fo r m

schools

Financial

assistance fo r

course

o f

instruction

Financial

assistance to State-aided

vocational

and

spec ial schools

Departmental technicalhighschools

Agriculturaltraining

Grants-in-aid

and bursaries

Provision

for

university colleges

Primary, secondaryan d high schools and

training

for teachers

T O T A L

Budget f o r Ind ian

education

3

Financial

assistance

to declared insti tutions and courses

for educationat tec hnical c olleges

Financial

assistance to State-aided vocational and special

schools

Financialassistance inrespect o f

buildings,

grounds,

equipment and

furni ture

Provision

for universi ty

colleges

T O T A L

Budgetfo r White education*

Ad u l t

e duc a t i on

Agricultural technicalservices

(regional

service s

an d

e duc a t i on)

Ed u cat io n ,

arts

an d

sciences

(from Revenue Account)

E d u c a t i o n ,

arts

and sc iences

(from

Loan

V o t e )

T O T A L

Rand

Budg et for African

educa t ion

1

African special

education:

estimate

o f

expenditures

from

Re v e nue

Account

Loan

V ot eAfricaneducation

Estimate

of expendi turesf ro m A f ri c a nEducation

A c c o u n t

T O T A L

14 200 000

1416000

23 400 OOP

39

016 000

360 000

22000

320000

30000

25000

382000

503000

3 543

OOP

5 185 000

289000

18000

24000

857000

1 188 000

1 489 590

12 080 000

35

523 000

4 667

OOP

53 759 590

1. Republico f

South

A f r ic a ,E s tima tes

of th e

E xpenditure

to be

defrayed

f rom

Revenue Accoun t

dur ing

th e Year

ending

31 March 1966, p. 139.

2.Ibid.,p. 249.

3.Ibid.,p.

143.

4.

Ibid.,

p. 74, 84 and

117.

4


30/49

Education

Pe r capita expenditure. Comparison

between

racial

groups

Table

7

gives

the

per

capita

expenditure o n

African

pupils

over the

pe rio d 1953-61 in

State

and State -aided schoo ls.Thisin c l ude s a m o un t s

spent on

redemption

of

loans,

but

excludes expenditure

on the

main-

tenance of univers i ty col leges and capital expendi ture on the Loan

A c c o u n t .

TABLE

7. Per

capita

expenditureon Africanpupils,1953-61

1

Year

1953-54

1955

1956

1957

1958

1959

1959-60

1960-61

Amount

(Rand)

16032494

15 769 550

17277660

18036350

17 990 126

18 457 830

19473 200

18

852 514

Enrolment

938211

1 005 774

1 090 601

1 143 328

1 259 413

1 308 596

1 411 157

1 513 571

Cost per pupil

Oland)

17.08

15.68

15.88

15.78

14.28

14.10

13.80

12.46

1. Qu otedin M. Horrell, op.

cit.,

p. 41,f r om e s t imate sgivenby Mr. F. J. deV illiers,

th en

Secretary

fo rBantuEducation.

The latest

year

fo r whichover-allfigure s fo r

per

capita expenditure

isavailableis

1953

whenit was R.127.84for White

pupils,

R.40.43for

C o l o ure d.

Table

8

shows

comparative unit

costs

o f

ed u ca t ion

in

1962,

here

reproduced with explanations from Stanley Osier's address to the

Teachers' Educational and Profess ional Association, Cape

T o w n ,

1965.

It

should

be

n o t e dthatw hile

the

c e ntralize dcharacter

o f

Afr ic an

e duc a t i o n permits a single

over-all

figure f o r

Afr ican

e duc a t i o n to be

relevant,

in the

case

o f Coloureds ,

Indians

an d

Whites, per

capita

expenditure

varies

considerably

f rom province to province.

This

table indicates

the

inequality

that

exists

in the

financing

o f

ed u ca t ion

for the various

racial groups.

Theestimated

cost

pe r

head

3. Unesco Apartheid.pdf

Documents

Transcript of 3. Unesco Apartheid.pdf