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UKOL SA PAGIGING PILIPINO

NG PHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCE

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LEDIVINA V. CARINOSecretary-Treasurer

Philippine Social Science Council, Inc., CY 1979

Katatapos pa lamang ng ikatlong pagtitipon ng Associationof Asian Social Science Research Councils (AASSRECl."lsa samga paksang tinalakay dito ay ang suliranin na tinagurian saIngles na "indigenization." Sa aking palagay, mukhang napaunaang karuwahe sa kabavo sa pangyayaring ito: hindi ba dapet naito ay una munang pinagmunimuni ng pamayanan ng siyantipi­kong sosvat ng bawa't isang bansa bago iniharap sa isang sanggu­niang internasyonal? Kaya't sa maiksi kong edito ryal na ito,nais ko'y sama-sama nating pag-isipan ang maaaring ipakahulugansa atin ng indigenisasyon ng pagiging Pilipino ng ating kaalamanat agham sosyal. Dahil dito, hindi nagkataon lamang ang paggamitko ng wikang Pilipino, sapagka't ang pagsusulat sa wikang katu­tubo ay makatutulong sa ating pag-iisip na ito.

. Sa simula, dapat idiin ang dalawang maling akala ukol saindigenisasyon. Una, ang indigenisasyon ay hindi bagong usolamang, isang academic fad wika nga, na naisip ng ilang tao saUNESCO, 0 ng ilang puti sa Hilagang Amerika upang ipadildilsa mga akademiko na may kaisipang kolonyal. At ikalawa, hindihinihingi ng indigenisasyon ang pagkalag ng Pilipinas sa pamava­nang global or ang pagsasawalang-halaga ng lahat na kontribusyonng dayuhan, sa pangkalahatan mang kaisipan 0 sa kaalaman ngmga Pilipino.

Kung gayon, ana ang indigenisasyon? Ang binibigyang­diin ng salitang ito ay ang paglaganap ng diwa na na9,sasaad na angbukal ng kaalamang Pilipino ay nasa Iipunang ito mismo at lalona, nasa mga taong bumubuo ng lipunang ito. Kaya't sa ikala­wang pag-iisip, hindi siguro dapat pangalanang"indigenisasyon"ang paglago ng socialsciences tungo sa Pilipinasasyon, sapagka'tang paglagong makabuluhan ng kaalamang sosyal ay kinakaila­ngang tungo sa indigenisasyon lamang. Ano ang mga manipestas­yon ng paglagong ito? Nais kong isangguni.sa inyo ang mga

sumusunod na batayan.1. Ana ang pinag-aaraJan at nilaJaman ng pananaliksik?

Ito ba ay idinikta ng banyaga at ng kanilang funding priorities?

o ito ba ay suliraning tutoong bumabagabag sa atin na maketu­tulong sa pagpapaliwanag ng mga kalagayan ng ating pemumu­hay ngayon? Ito ba ay eleganteng teoriya na naglalahad at nagpa-,paliwanag ng buhay sa Amerika at mga bayang tulad nito 0 itaba ay teoriya, elegante man 0 hindi, na rnanapa ay naipaliliwangang buhav sosval sa isang bansang tulad natin na satellite hang~

gang ngayoll ng Unang Mundo? \2. Ano ang mga kagamitan sa panarialiksik? Ito ay ika-

lawang konsiderasyon lamang sapagka't kahit ano'y maaring gami­tin para sa pagsiyasat na maka-Pilipino. Lamang, kailangan dinnating suriin kung ang piniling teknik av ginagamit upang maiha­lintulad lamang sa gawaing banyaga 0 kung ito ay sadyang kaila­ngan at hinihingi ng suliraning nakatakda. Isaisip din natin angkatutubong .ugaling Pilipino sa pagpili ng research techniques."ana ang palagay sa isang dalagang mag-isang nakikipanayam salgabi sa baryo? Kailangan bang gumamit ng tape recorder? Sino salmag-asawa ang higit na nakakaalarn ng gastos sa tahanan? Gaano:karami ang sumasagot 'ng questionnaire na idinadaan sa postoffice, 0 sa telepono? Ano ang epekto ng martiallaw sa ating mgalpag-aaral?

Tayo ba ay Ratungo sa indigenisasyon? Kami sa PhilippIne'Social Science Council ay umaasang ito nga ang ating dlreksvon,nguni't maaring ito'y pangungusap ng pananampalatava lamanglat hindi pa tunay na empirikal. Sa panahong ito, iisa pa sa mgalcomponent social sciences ng PSSC ang nakatapos ng research,integration project ng katutubong kaalaman na ang batavan avang pagka·Pilipino nito. Maymagandang balitang dala si VirgilioEnriquez sa kanyang katatapos na pag-aaraJ ukol sa sikolohiyang;. ~

Pilipino. Ayon sa kanva, itoay sikolohiyang bunga ng karanasan,kaisipan .at oryentasyong Pilipino; marami rin siyang nakitangmateryal na bumubuo ng panitikang ito. Sana'y gumawa rin nglganitong batayan ang iba pa nating disiplina sa kanilang panana-.liksik. Nawa'y magkaroon din ng mabuting bunga ang mga I

pagpupunyaging ito sa pananaliksik sa agham panlipunan.

.. JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/3

The Moncado Believers: A case study in religious. typology

VICTORIA v. FLORES-rOLENTINO

At the time of her demise, the author wasProgram Officer of theCommunity Projects Research and Evaluation Program of the DansalanResearch Center, Dant;alan College in Marawi City. She was the reci­pient of a study grant under the PSSC Graduate Training AssistanceProgram for her masteral degree.

Religious movements have been classified according to the cult-sect-denomination­ecclesla typology. These however, are ideal types in the sense that they suggest onlyaspects, of the type and that no existing religious movement is purely characterized byone type. Thus, there are neither pure cults nor pure sects.

This is a study of the development of the Moncadista movement - a religiousgroup who considers Hilario Camino Moncado as their God: Jesus Christ in His secondAdvent. An attempt was made to situate the Moncado group within the cult-sect-deno­mination-ecclesia typology. The group obviously does not possess most of the aspectsof an ecclesia for it has no professed universal membership goals. Neither can it be classi­fied as a denomination for it is not in a comparatively advanced stage of developmentthat characterizes most denominations. The classification used in this paper is cult-sectto denote the movement's transition from the "more-of-a-cult" to the "more-of-a-sect"type of religious organization.

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Contributions of religion

religion since science can. pass judgmentonly upon what it can observe through thesenses (although perhaps by such refinedtools as the electron microscope), andi hasno principles for passing judgment on theo­logical or philosophical views. Obviously;this scientific silence about theologicalor other aspects outside the realm ofscience is far from a denial of the tfueo­logical or philosophical implications, im­portance and merit of such views.

Functionalism. The contributions ofreligion to society are many. The Durk­heimian view that religion helps promotecohesion in, unity within, and rationaliza­tion for society is disputed among socio­logists. While functionalists have tendedto view religion as having a positive roleto a society, numerous other sociologistson the one hand are inclined to agree thatwhile sects, cults and some non-Christiandenominations do encourage unity, cohe­sion and rationality within their owngroups they do not necessarily do so acnossreligious groups in society. While it is alsotrue that religion can be instrumentalfor integrating society, it could conceivablybe used by the wrong people as a means ofsilencing the·greater majority for the bene­fit of a dominant few. Marx expressedthis Viewpoint when he interpreted reli­gion as "the opiate of the people." R'eli­gion can thus be both functional anddysfunctional, cohesive but also divisive,unifying but 'also disintegrating. It isfunctional if that religion contributes tothe maintenance of social order; it isdysfunctional if it contributes to the dis­ruption or breakdown of society.

Religion and social integration. Men­tion has been made of the relationshipbetween religion and social integration.What is social integration? What do wemean when we say that religion supportssocial integration? Yinger suggests thatto answer th is, it is necessary to discuss

is also. If man had no culture, he wouldlikewise have no religion.

Religion may be studied from the theo­logical, psychological, philosophical andbehavioral points of view. This study is asociological study of religion. As such it isa scientific study of that aspect of humaninteraction which is primarily religious innature (Vernon, 1962:4). Because it isscientific, it can say nothing about thetheological and phiiosophical aspects of

In mid4une 1979, the author and her husband, Bruce J. Tolentino, met with thePSSC Program Coordinator, Ms. Pilar Ramos Jimenez, to discuss some projects to beundertaken by the Council and their home institution, the Dansalan College in MarawiCity. At the same time, they submitted several copies of their masteral theses, bothhaving been PSSC grantees under the Council's Graduate Training Assistance Program.Consaquentiy, Ms. Jimenez invited both of them to submit articles basedon their thesesfor possible inclusion in the PSSC Socia! Science Information. These articles were sup­posed to have been published in the April - June issuebutsince both were busy at thattime, they wereable to send their articles only about a month later.

Unfortunately, Mrs. Tolentino, a very promising young social scientist, did notlive long enough to see her article in print. On July 22, 1979, she and their only child,Kim, died in a vehicular accident at the outskirts of Marawi City while her husband wasseriously injured.

This article is the summary of a thesis submitted in partial completion of require­"!ents toward an M.A. in Sociology at Xavier University, Cagayan de Oro City.

The study of religion is a necessaryfeature of the examination of culture orman's social heritage because of the primalrole that religion plays in shaping socialbehjj\,tior. Like other aspects of culture,religion is part of the human condition thatis learned and acquired by men from socie­ty and also subject to change and modifica­tion as intergenerational processes takeplace. Religion is then so much a part ofculture that where culture is, there religion

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briefly the problem of social order (Yin­ger, 1957: 63).

. . . even the smallest and most stable ofhuman societies faces the problem of dis­tributing scarce values. The economicmeans of Iivalihood, power ..• andprestige ... are all, by definition, in scarcesupply. How can a society prevent indi­vidual and subilrOUP pursuit of thesevalues from disrupting the network ofagreements and accommodations thatsocial life requires? And how do socialgroups prevent the hostility that is gene­rated by frustration, by a sensa of injus­tice, by guilt, from constantly tearingtha febric of society? Pushed back fur­ther, the question becomes: How can weaccount for the fact that sociaties menageto exist at all when the tendencies towardself-aggrandizement are so strong andhostile feelings so abundant?

Many theories have been put forwardin an attempt to account for and provideexplanations of social order. One levelof explanation is the fear of punishmentwhich Cohen summed up in the coerciontheory: people do what they ought to dobecause of the fear of isolation, punish­ment and ridicule. Social order is also pro­moted by conscious or unconscious actsof "interest groups" or by a set of norma­tively approved means for acquiringscarce values as contained in the consen­sus theory (Cohen, 1970).

The function of a religion or religions inthese processes is seen as that which con­trols or subdues the hostility betweengroups arising from frustration and painencountered in the process of acquiringscarce values. A religion thus provides arationale, a hope to man, that in spite ofsome lack in material values, there is awider, much surer way of achieving andexcelling in some non-material value. Ithelps ease the tension in man in the midstof his failure to achieve the values of thislife.

Manifest and latent functions. Withregard to the goals or objectives of a reli­gion and of religious movements, func­tions can be manifest (professed or intend­ed) or latent (unrecogniZed, unintended).Most, .if not all, religious institutions con­sider as their manifest function thestrengthening of man's relationship withGod or the supernatural. But there areimplicit functions which result frombeliefs and religious activities that are

usually unseen and unknown and can bededuced and recognized after careful andanalytic study. For example, although areligion with its organized rites and beliefsmay somehow prevent its members fromviolence and destructive force, it can alsofoster intergroup hostility and hindercooperation as non-members find thesebeliefs ridiculous and therefore unaccept­able.

Conflict. Part of normal social organi­zation is the concept of conflict, and withit a discussion of a group's power structure.Every religion must consider itself in somecases as the true religion and must to someextent consider the beliefs of other reli­gions as incompatible with its own. Whilethis does not necessarily lead to conflict(e.g. the ecumenical movement), it ob­viously can cause some problems. Conflictcan originate not only from non-memberswho do not share the same values held bythe group members, but also from dis­agreements that may arise from amongthe group members themselves. But evenconflict has its own functions. Simmelsaid that conflict specifically with out­groups also increases internal cohesion(Simmel, 1955: 87).

Religious movements. Religious move­ments can be categorized in' many ways.Frequently used in most sociological writ­ings is the ideal typology of cult-sect­denomination-ecclesia. An ideal type.is notan "ideal." Rather it is an abstraction ofthe "pure form" of the type. For example,the "whitest" color and the "darkest"color imaginable would be ideal types ofblack and white between which we couldarrange actual existing colors in the orderof intensity.

The cult-sect-denomination-ecclesia ty­pology is a device against which research­ers can "measure" religious movements. Anexisting religious movement may nottherefore exactly correspond to the idealcharacteristics of these types but may becharacterized as, for example, having bothcultic and sect-like characteristics, butthat in general, it is more of a cult than itis ofa sect.

The research problem

'From the 1930's through to the 1950'sa group known to many as "long haired,bearded and strictly vegetable-eating"people were often heard about and more

often than not were the objects of quest­ions and the subjects of ridicule. Theirleader, Cebu-born Hilario Camino Mon­cado, spent most of his lifetime outsidethe Philippines. He emigrated to Hawaiiin 1914, working initially as a plantationlaborer. In 1925 he organiZed the FilipinoFederation of America (FFA), an organiza­tion of Filipino workers in the UnitedStates. From the FFA came the core andmost ardent supporters of the religion thatcame to spring out of the organization:the EquifriJibricum World Religion, Inc.

The Moncadistas (meaning followers ofMoncado) have been and are still subjectedto remarks that are uncomplimentary intone and content. Their activities weredescribed as"mysterious" and lucrative":their leader as "pretentious'; and theirorganization linked with "theological non­sense" and religious "fanaticism;" Therewere also speculations about the group'ssurvival after Moncado's death in Aprill1956. But in the more than fifty yearslsince Moncado organized the FFA, recos­nition of the Moncadistas as a distinctreligious' group has been growing - slowlyand painfully. Like most religious move­ments, it has played and continues to playa function in the lives of its members.The extent to, and the manner in whichthe Moncadistas have been and are in­fluenced by the movement is the subjectof th is paper. What values and attitudestoward fellow members and the largersociety does belief in'Moncado and the.tenets of Equifrilibricum provide to itsmembers? What are its manifest func­tions? There are also the latent functionsof religious movements,those which bringabout unintended consequences and whichsometimes serve as the stronger forcethat motivate membership in a religiousgroup. What are some of these functionsin the case of Equifrilibricum?

Since functions of religious institutionscluster around other types of concernssuch as doctrines, - rituals and behaviornorms, the answers to the followingquestions were among the concerns of th is .paper:

a. What is the Moncadistas' creed orpattern of belief? What do theypreach? What characterizes the na­ture of their relationship with theultimate reality?

b. What form of religious services or

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ceremony do they perform to sym­bolize their creed and keep themmindful of its significance?

c. What are the various behavior normsexpected from the members? Arethese behavior norms consistent withthe. values expressed in their doc­trines? What reasons support thesenorms? How closely are these normsadhered to, that is, are the attitudeswhich produce behavior consistentwith the expressed or explicit valuesof the norms?

From a conflict perspective, the follow­ing questions were significant insofar asthe answers provided insights into thegroup's power structure, sectional interests,and relationships with non-Moncadistas.

d. How do non-Moncadistas regardMoncadista norms?

e. Who makes decisions for the group?How do members regard these deci­sions? Can members question thesedecisions? To what extent havethey done so and do they questionthem today?

The primary focus of this paper, how­ever, lies in its attempt to situate theMoncadistas as a religious group withinthe framework of a religious typology. Itis to be understood that the cult-sect-deno­mination-ecclesia typology is an "idea",type. Thus no one religious group can becompletely classified under anyone ofthe "polar" ideal or entirely "pure" types.Sociologists indicate that the classificationis a "continuum with degrees of differencerather than a dichotomy with absolutecontrasts" (Horton and Hunt 1972:189­190). That is, existing religious groups mayor may not correspond to these types.They may not only be partly one type andpartly the other. They may also be onlypartly on the monotonic continuum. Ifwe were to identify the place of the Mon­cadistas within this typology, would itbe classified as a cult with some sectcharacteristics or is it a sect with cult-likecharacteristics?

From this study, it is hoped that fur­ther insights may be gained into the na­ture of this particular religious group andvarious social factors involved in the studyof religion. The attempt to describe therelationship between religion and other

social institutions as manifested in thisstudy may be an important contributionto the growing interest in the sociologyof religion in general and to the study ofreligious minority groups in particular.It is also the writer's belief that the papermay be instrumental in reducing theamount of misunderstanding that has pre­vailed about the Moncadistas. The mis­understanding does not only originate inthe lack of accurate information aboutthe group, but also from the lack of un­derstanding of the social meanings at­tached to the practice of their religion.As Yinger said: ,i ••• the nature of their(religious group's) influence can ade­quately be understood only if it is studiedin the light of the available alternatives:how would the individuals and groups inquestion respond to the dramatic changesin the world around them if the religiousmovement in question were not avail­able?" (Yinger 1963:41)

The Moncada religion:

How it came about

During the first decade of American rule. in the Philippines, foreign travel by Fili­pinos was .mostly limited to members ofgovernment missions, government scholars,children of upper class families who weiltto school abroad, and by Filipinos whoenlisted in the United States Navy.I,Q1907, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Asso>ciation (HSPA) began to tap the Philip­pines as a source of cheap labor, thusopening opportunities for many Filipinosfrom low-income groups to migrate toHawaii. The HSPA scheme was broughtabout by its failure to "secure competentand satisfactory labor" (Clifford, 1976)during its earlier experiments with Chinese,Japanese and other labor contracts. Be­tween 1910 and 1920, the HSPA throughits recruiting agents attracted many labor­ers from various parts of the Philippines,resulting in a steady flow of assisted con­tract labor migration to the HawaiianIslands.

During the world-wide Depression of1929, the United States, including Hawaii,was faced with an urgent· problem ofproviding work for millions of unemploy­ed. Movements to restrict immigrationsprang up. Hostility ensued between na­tive American workers and Filipino immi-

JULY-SEPTEMBER 19:'9/5

grants. Despite the economic chaos thatprevailed, Filipino workers were cheapand were willing to labor under conditionsthat American workers would not endure(Whittaker, 1976).

", . . For American workers, the flow of /the cheap man from the Orient was ve""jreal and decidedly personal. He saw th~

movement into .the U.S., !Ind the com­bination of run-away industry and Fili­pino immigration, as a direct challen9ltto his jOb, to his earning capacity (how­ever meager) and to his way of life ... "

In the agricultural areas of Califorrnia,Filipinos worked as plantation laborerspicking peaches, apricots and cherries,jobs which were formerly performedl bywhite workers. In the tomato and aspara­gus fields, Filipinos replaced Portuguese,Spanish, Mexican an~ Italian workers. Inthe potato fields, Filipinos performedjobs formerly done by Japanese laborers.Many other Filipinos were employecl inrestaurants and hotels, where they weremostly preferred over the white maru be­cause Filipinos were "manageable and per­rnanent."

A number of other problems also aroseat this stage. As.ide from hostilitv-betweennative American- laborers and Filipinolaborers, . there w~ conflict betweenFilipino groups in the United States:lloeanos against Cebuanos, Tagalogs agai':1st<;ebuanos and the like. Consequently,

. 'r-i~aIFilipino factions arose. The Filipinomi9~nt was also confronted with the'h~rculean task of adjusting to his newstyle of life, his new work environment,his new ileighborhood and associationsand above. all, to the shift from the Phtilip­pine rural orientation to the largely Ame­rican urban atmosphere,

The impression 0'1 native Americansabout the Filipino migrants were .!"lastlyunfavorable, for the Filipinos were' oftenseen in pool halls, bars, and 'o.ther publicplaces associated with vice (Lasker, 1931):

. . . where Filipinos arrive ~n droves andseen suddenly to be innundating thestreets and public places, unfavorab~e

reports concerning them are more apt tobe believed, and this suspicion and dislikeoftan contribute toward the developmentof attitudes and forms of behavior ,amongthe Filipinos, which givestill further occa­sion for their disrepute ...

The Filipino migrants undoubtedlv res­ponded to the conditions of "culture

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shock" and the feeling that their waysand values did not fit into the Americansetting. The indulgence in vice by theFilipino migrants could very well havebeen one of these, while others could haveopted for assimilation into the new culture.In each case, some frustration and a weak­ening of motivation were experienced.Yinger particularly noted that it is withinthis type of social setting that most cultsand sect-like types of religious movementscome to be organized.

Filipino Federation ofAmericafor unitY and strength

In responding to the new socio-econo­mic conditions the Filipino Federation ofAmerica (F FA) was founded in Californiaon December! 27, 1925 by Hilario CaminoMoncado. Not. only were there unstablesocial conditions during that time; therewas also general economic distress begin­ning in the mid·1920's culminating in theDepression ofthe 1930's.

Hilario Camino Moncada came fromthe town of Balamban in the Province ofCebu where he was bam on November 4,1898. In 1914, he left the Philippines forHawaii where he worked as a seced» atthe Koloa Sugar Plantation Co. for abouta year. The following year, Moncada leftfor San Francisco, California where heattended high school. During the sum­mer, he worked with the Alaskan PackersAssociation in Cordova, Alaska until hefinished Bachelor of Laws in 1928. At thetime of the organization of the FFA, Mon­cado wrote:

... there was a clamor for my leadershipamong Filipinos in America. I receivedpetitions from immigrant laborers fromHawaii, Alaska and the entire UnitedStates to found an organization. Filipinos,by nature people of vices, were frequent­ing pool halls, dance halls and gamblinghouses . . . Newspapers in the UnitedStates, especially in California, containedstories almost daily about the stabbingsbeing committed by Filipinos in dancehalls and about Filipinos being caughtill raids on gambling joints in Chine­town ...

Moncado organized the Filipino laborersabroad because he saw a need to organize"misbehaving" Filipinos. Likewise thestrains imposed by the conditions and thestrange culture prompted Filipinos toview the federation as a means towardsome form of unity and strength. Mon-

cado was first uncertain about how he wasto attract members and keep them. Ac­cording to one of his members, he initiallythought of a business organization. Even­tually however, it started out as a kind ofa social reform movement fixing in theminds of its members the aversion to anyform of vice and conformity to rules, asembodied in the objectives of the federa­tion:

All members of the FFA were expectedto desist from vices (smoking, dancing,drinking alcohol, gambling). Moncado'searly concern for moral behavior, showthe beginnings of a religious posture onthe part of the movement. Although theFFA was still primarily a social organiza­tion, it began to impart to its membersa particular "mode" of confronting reality- a function attributed to cult-like move­ments.

Members were also expected to avoidstrikes and violence; to maintain a personalbank account; and to respect and defendthe Constitution of the United Statesof America in order to uphold the goodreputation of the Filipino communitiesin America.

It is interesting that even while Mon­cado seemed to conceive of the FFA asprimarily a social reform movementabroad, his statements of the federa­tion's objectives already reflected dual,and to some extent, conflicting interests:on one hand, the federation aimed at ob­taining "immediate and complete inde­pendence" for the Philippines which wasthen under colonial rule; on the other it

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aimed at "upholding" the United StatesConstitution and also aimed at an expres­sion of a particular morality by its mem­bers.

The FFA's objectives however didmirror the social climate at the time of theFFA's incorporation in 1927. It projectedan image of the Filipino laborer who wasnot altogether quite eager to shake offfrom his shoes the dust of his native land,but at the same time mindful that he wasnow on a strange soil. Thus, the FFA in­volved itself in the "solution of Philip­pine problems" but made sure that the"friendly relations between Americans andFilipinos" were maintained. Though themembers were far from their native Philip­pines, th~y wanted to feel they were partof the Filipinos' struggle for Philippine

Hilario Camino Mercado - believed to bethe returned Christ.

independence from America. At the sametime they feared the consequences that anactive campaign for Philippine indepen­dence might bring to them.

Membership

By 1927 Moncado claimed to have "at­tracted several thousand Filipinos in Cali­fornia" mostly Filipino laborers. Moncadoinitially gathered twelve members - most­ly acquaintances he had during his sacadadays. To these he gave the task of strength­ening the federation with new members.

Membership in the FFA was defined toinclude anyone of the foltowinq classes:

1. Matriculate membership. A matricu­late member paid a membersh ip fee of$100.00 for life. There were 1728 matri­culate members in the federation, dividedinto twelve divisions each composed oftwelve lodges. Each lodge was composedof twelve matriculate members. The matri­culate members composed the core of theorganization.

2. Sub-matriculate membership. A sub­matriculate member paid a membershipfee of $25.00 which was to be renewedeach year.

3. Associate membership. An associatemember paid a membership fee of $5.00per year.

Informants claimed that mem.bershipfees were oftentimes paid on installmentbasis. Upon completion of payment how­ever, the initiate became a full memberand was given what members call kalakior manang tinago. Some informants

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described the kalaki as containing certainpowers (gahum) which they believedwould protect them from danger and helpthem tread the "road to morality." Somesay the kalaki took the form of a "libri­to," a small booklet approximately nolarger than two by three inches in size,which bore certain principles (principio)of the organization. A couple of inform­ants said the kalaki contained relics-piecesof human bones believed to be from theremains of the "vrilya" (engkantohanon)who took human form to complete amission on earth. Although the facto aboutthe kalaki were first obtained from theHead minister herself and later confirmedby many others, several informants dis­missed the kalaki as "unnecessary" and"optional" that is, that the kalaki wasgive!) only to those who wanted it. At anyrate, the informants claimed that thekalaki was to be kept secret and was neverto be shown to non-members.

The concept of the kalaki and thesecrecy attached to it seem to reflectMoncado's encounters with mysticism andIndian philosophy which he may haveacquired from his earlier travels in India.This indicates a definite direction towardcult-like movement. Although the FFAis still primarily a social organization theintroduction of mystical elements into theorganization indicates a religious orienta­tion. Indeed what would be the place ofmysticism in the FFA if it were to remaina social organization? Later on, in thedevelopment of the organization, Moncadohad included in his biography a claim tosome astral world and an army of 200million invisible men (vrilya) who considerhim (Moncado) as their Master. From thepoint of view of the members, this provi­ded Moncado with super-human qualities.

There are many other reasons citedhowever for the gains in membership:as a social movement the federation wasinstrumental in providing a number ofworthwhile services to its members. Thefederation was divided into 12 depart­ments: membership, organization, reli­gious, welfare, education, labor, recreation,finance, music, publicity, transportationand legal advice. Through the welfare de­partment the federation made available'lodging space for some members and for'new Filipino arrivals. The labor depart­ment conducted free employment bureausand was helpful during the Depression

when many Filipino laborers suddenlybecame unemployed. The recreation de­partment sponsored sport tournamentsamong the members to promote camarade­rie. The education department was respon­sible for the promotion of the federa­tion's goals and objectives, but morethan that, it took care of disseminatingboth to members and non-members thepolitical stand of Moncado, thus theFederation's.

The movement's evolution into a reli­gious organization began when the FFA'saversion to vice was transformed into areligious precept. The creation of "Man'sMoral Concept" by Moncado followed,becoming a justification for the standardsof morality exacted by the FFAfrom itsmembers. "Man's Moral Concept" is a cor­ruption of the biblical passage that "manwas created unto the image and likenessof God." In "Man's Moral Concept" sinceGod is moral, man should likewise striveto be moral by eschewing vice. "Man'sMoral Concept" preaches "equality withGod," that man should be moral in orderthat he can be equal with his Creator'"God is moral, moral is man, and man isGod."

The introduction of "Man's Moral Con­cept" by Moncado is indicative of, themovement's evolution into a religiousorganization: it marked the beginning ofa conscious effort to relate the federation'sgoals to Ultimate values. It became notonly "immoral" but also "un-Christian"to indulge in vice. The effort to attainultimate values signified a concern to relatehuman self-denial and sacrifice (l.e. aver­sion to vice) with supernatural and other­worldly rewards (i.e. equality with God).

The religious department The FFA as asocial organization had a distinct organiza­tional structure. It collected dues accord­ing to a classification of membership. Ithad a legal personality and mandate as acorporation and although the membershiprecognized 'Moncado as, founder andmover, it had a set of recognized officers.All these were characteristic of the FFAas a whole. In contrast, the analysis of theMoncado religion is focused on the FFA'sreligious department. The Moncado reli­gion grew out of the religious departmentof the FFA. The discussion of the historyof the FFA was necessary since it helpedexplain how the Moncado religion cameabout.

JULY -SEPTEMBER 11979/7

The religious department was initiallythe least organized of the federation's12 departments. Its general mandate was tokeep religion present and alive in the fe­deration. During its early years, the activi­ties of, the religious department were li­mited to weekend fellowships. There wasneither pressure nor compulsion on themembers to renounce their originall reli­gious affiliations. Many were members ofeither the Roman Catholic Church or thePhilippine Independent Church. This earlystatus of the religious department cor­responds to the "amorphous" structure ofmost . cult-like organization (Zanden,1965:354).

With the institution of "Man's MoralConcept" as a rationale for the federation'sgoals, the religious department graduallybecame more prominent. An informativecampaign on "morality" was launched.When Moncado required the members tomemorize "Man's Moral Concept," the taskof implementation fell on the religiousdepartment.

Note two significant points at this j~nc­

ture in the movement's history: FirSt,"Man's Moral Concept" provided a newinterpretation of the concept of ultimatesalvation: aversion. to vice leads to mora­lity; morality is the key to man's equalitywith God; man's equality with God meanssalvation. Second, both the religiousand education departments representedl themovement towards an "exclusive" organi­zation. Although there was no obligationto withdraw from their respective religiousaffiliations, these activities neverthelesswere deliberate attempts to instill into themembership "Man's Moral Concept" andeverything that it stood for, including eon­formity .to a standard pattern of behavior.Both the first and the second points aboveare undoubtedly cult features.

The growth of the retigious departmentmay be attributed to Lorenzo de los Reyes,one of Moncado's first disciples - a nativeof Arayat, Pampanga who spent most: ofhis childhood in Tayabas, Ouezon Prov­ince. Although he did not go to school,he claimed to have studied the "move­ments of the earth and the universal mys­teries"under the tutorship of a 250-y,earold Mystic ProfessOr who lived on themountain of Banahaw. In 1910, "when thecelestial signal appeared," de los Reyes leftthe Philippines for Hawaii "to look for aman who may someday lead the world in

8/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

morality."

Both de los Reyes and Moncado wereinfluenced by what they claimed were"encounters" with the "mystic and psy­chic" people or what they termed the"vrilva" - unseen, supernatural forceswhom Moncado claimed looked up to himas their "Supreme Grand Master:' It wasat this time (1927) that Moncado publish­ed his biographical sketch which containeda description of his journey to India at theage of six to attend the Indian College ofMystery; his obtaining a doctoral degree in"Kabala, Numerology and Human Nature"at the age of nine; his travels over theworld with his unseen "mystic and psychicmasters" and his being conferred the nameof EOUI FRill BRIUM (which means'" am the Way of Equality, the Truth ofFraternity and the Life of Liberty") byhis psychic masters at the age of eleven.All these were of course the object ofmuch disbelief as young Moncado wassaid to be in his hometown during thoseyears and given the poverty of his earlyyears, travel to India would have beenimpossible. Informants, however said thatMoncado's experiences were beyond 'thoseof physical travel and it was his "spiritual"or astral self that did the traveling.

It was perhaps on the basis of Monca­do's charisma that the myth about Mon­cado's astral and supernatural characteris­tics developed. Non-members say thatthese stories were products of the ima­gination of Moncado's followers. This wasalso said about the Christian Gospels ascontained in D. F. Strauam's mythicaltheory.

Given the full attention and inspirationof de los Reyes, the religious departmentbegan to take on more "spiritual" and"mystical" directions. De los Reyes exhort­ed the FFA members to "gain the mysticsecrets of mind and power. To achievethis, members were told to follow Reyes'"Scientific Experimentation on the Eco­nomic Formula of Life" - which de­mended a strictly vegetable diet, a periodof fasting, and a general breaking awayfrom a "materialistic" way of Iifl!. Those,according to de los Reyes, would developin the members a high degree of loyaltyand obedience to the organization (FFA),to the leaders and to Moncado. Again thisreflects the movement's intention to de­mand from its members a particular set

of discipline - another cult-like feature.The "Scientific Experimentation ... "

of de los Reyes was influenced by a bookwritten by one Dr. Richter and a series oflectures conducted by the same on "un­fired foods." This "invention" providedthe seed for a new set of beliefs andpractices which reinforced the mysticalelements in the movement. De los Reyesrecommended to the FFA members aseries of fasting stages - a gradual processin self denial.

The first stage in de los Reyes' "Scienti­fic Experimentation ... " demanded with­drawal from eating the meat of any four­legged animal. For the first stage the per­missible diet consisted of chicken meator fish or vegetables and rice. The secondstage banned meat in the diet, allowingonly a strictly vegetable diet. The thirdstage was more difficult: it required the"raw diet": grated young papaya (oftentaking the place of rice). dried cassava orbananas, fruits and others. The fourthstage consisted only of a liquid diet. Mem­bers in this fasting stage lived on wateror fruit juices or most often from the mapor juice extracted from groun'd peanuts.

There was also a fifth fasting stagewhich demanded complete abstinence fromboth solid or liquid. Those who were onthis level of fasting were required tomeditate for .aslong as they could endure.The College of Sages which was managedby de los Reyes provided the memberswith lessons on "Kabala, Numerology andHuman Nature" before they went: intofasting. Members were told that the fifthfasting stage provided the ideal setting inwhich communication with the vrilya orthe engkantohanon became possible. Theybelieved that thevrilva were supernatural,other-wordly creatures who were capableof doing them -good provided the spiritswere done no harm. They also believedthat the vrilya (engkantohanon) were Mon-

The »tterot all EFB churchesis adorned byalar. -e illustration of a star at the centerof ";hich is Moncado's portrait. Moncadis­tas believe that Christ and the Holy Spiritdescended upon the earth on a star andsettled within Moncada. The date of thedescent is believed to be December 24,1925 - the date the FFA was organized.

cado's soldiers and that these spirits were"watching" them. This fact of course be­came an effective control of Moncado andof the organization. Informants whoattended the "College of Sages" and wentthrough the fifth fasting stage describedvisions which consisted of what theythought were revelations from vritvaapparitions.

Whether these are indeed vrilya appari­tions or hunger hallucinations are not allthat important. What is significant at thispoint are the concrete manifestations ofa cult-like movement. Yinger wrote thatcults are often built around spiritualismand the "search for a mystical experience."

Many of the FFA members were drawninto the organization imbued with the zeallof this mystical experience, the comrade­ship and the sense of belonging to a very"distinct" type of organization. The Col­lege of Sages became the channel throughwhich the group's "spiritualism" andmystical practices were-drummed into themembers.

Moncado also found religious justifica­tions for all his actions. The Bible (which .members claimed was extensively studiedby Moncado) was searched for verses that .

seemed to be supportive of these activi­ties. Members were thus assured that "mandoes not live by bread alone but by everyword that proceedeth from the mouthof God." The religious department underMoncado and de los Reyes' inspirationssupplied "religious" reasons behind thefasting activities.

Moncado, the leader, became known tothe members as provider, bringer of peace,problem-solver, moral and civic leader.Eventually, as the federation becamemore popular and began to gain headway

....

•

in the recruitment of new members, Mon­cado apparently was seized by a Messianicvision. No longer did-he think of himself asa reform leader. To his first disciples, heannounced that he was the "returnedChrist," and that the organization ofthe federation was part of his divinemission on earth. He proclaimed that asChrist returned, he was EQUIFRILI­BRIUM, as man on earth he was Moncadoand the Man's Moral Concept was the newkey to salvation. However, Moncadowarned his first followers that his time hasnot yet come, and that strict instructionswere given to the members to refrain fromproclaiming him as God. But since then,the federation took on a new dimensionat least from the point of view of themembers. The task of strengtheningthe federation with new members becamea religious mission and Moncado throughthe organization, was out to save the worldfrom immorality. Then the myth began. Tothe members, the day the Federation wasfounded was the day Moncado proclaimedhimself as EQUI FRill BRIUM - "thereturned Christ" and the "Master" ofmorality.

"On December 27, 1925, at exactly8:00 P.M. Equi Frili Brium for the firsttime made himself known to the twelvefounders or organizers of the FilipinoFederation of America. Upon knowingand learning his great mission on thisearth, together they pledged themselvesto help Him inform the world that thetime is at hand. {Moncado Mission Bulle­tin, Vol. I. No. 71

The belief in the vrilya, the fasting acti­vities which were tantamount to someform of religious conversion and Monca­do's visions as the "second Christ" com­plete the growth and the transition of theFFA's religious department into a cult.These developments, according toYinger, represent "a sharper break, in reli­gious terms, from the dominant religioustradition of a society" (Yinger, 1957:155).

The Destinos. By 1928, the Federationhad put up branch offices in various partsof the United States including Hawaii.The years before then were difficultyears for the pioneer members of theFederation, having left their farm jobs inorder to join the campaigns for federa­tion membership.

The efforts to campaign for more matri­culate members in Hawaii were resentedespecially by plantation owners becausethe FFA was suspected to be a labor or­ganization and thus would have "unfavora­ble influence" among the plantation la­borers. An informant related: Unsahonman namo ug pag-campaign. Dili man mipasuluron sacampo. Di man nt ipatumbonsa vuts . . . (How could we campaign?We were not allowed to enter the camp'spremises. We were prohibited to "step"on its grounds).

This was the first stage in the evolu­tion of the movement from a cult to asect. It was evident that the campaignsfor membersh ip became a religious missionmore than anyth ing else. Th is was thebeginning of the concern toward gain­ing more adherents to the movement, asagainst the cult's concern for "personal"experience. In 1929, Moncado sent 24 ofhis followers (destinos) to the Philippines"in order to spread his (Moncado's) sacredprinciple and the dissemination of thenoble teach ings of the Filipino Federationof America . . . " Twelve members ofthe delegation were sent to Laoag, llocosNorte; the other half of the delegationto Danselan (now Marawi City) in LanaoProvince. The number twelve was probab­ly a religious symbol used by Moncadotorepresent his members' "religious mission."Some members claimed that Moncado hadalso envisioned Dansalan as the "holycity."

The Lanao delegation was initiallyhoused in a temporary shelter built on apiece of land bought by the Federation.Later, a bUilding was constructed to housethe convention hall and sleeping quartersfor the destinos. The other destinos builttheir houses within the compound. Thesurroundings were landscaped and por­tions of the area were planted with vege­tables. This Lanao colony was the firstof the four Moncado colonies that wereto be established in Mindanao.

The destinos moved about the Lanaoarea (which then included what is nowLanao Sur and Lanao Norte) ostensiblyto sell the "Filipino Nation," (the federa­tion's magazine) which they receivedmonthly from the United States. Allthrough this time, the destinos survivedfor the most part on a diet of vegetablesand raw food. They lived lives of extreme

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/9

austerity and obedience to Moncado'slinstructions. Before coming to the Philip­pines, they were told to leave behind!most:of their possessions other than those thatwere absolutely necessary. The "informantssaid that, like Christ's disciples, they lefttheir jobs and their belongings when' theywere called to do "the Master's will." Butapart from that, it was a proof of theirsincerity towards the Federation and 'theirMaster Equifrilibrium.

In 1931, Moncado sent a second dele­gation to Lanao composed of nine memobel's "1:0 infuse more vitality into the lag­ging membership campaigns. The thirddelegation which was made of 16 des­tinos arrived in Manila in June, 11932.Thirteen members of the delegation underthe leadership of Lorenzo de los Reyes,proceeded to the Moncado Colon" inDansalan; the three others stayed in CJ:ebuto lay the groundwork fo'r future federa­tion activities in the region, and forMoncado's political campaigns in 1!~35.

Beginning in the 1930's, the politicaland the spiritual were joined. True tOI theFederation's objectives of helping "solvePhilippine problems" and "peacefully ob­taining Philippine Independence," Monca­do made known his political intentionsin the Philippines. He assured his memli>ersthat victory meant the opportunity to leadthe whole Philippines into morality and

hence solve the Philippines' problems.Again this indicates the movement's fNO­lution toward the sect and of the cult­sect continuum. Most sects begin byproclaiming that they hold the "truth"and that it alone can save humanity fromthe evils of the world.

In 1934, he ran for Senator of Cebuprovince but lost. That same year, he wonhis bid for delegate to the ConstitutionalConvention. After the Convention, he leftfor the United States but returned to thePhilippines in 1938, this time to run asassemblyman from Lanao Province. Hewas defeated by Cabili, whose politicalfollowers were referred to as "Cabilistet"It was during this time that the term "Mon­cadista" originated to refer in turn to Mon­cado's followings.

In 1941, he Iaunched a campaign forpresidency against Quezon but lost again.

Moncado stayed in the Philippines through­out the Japanese occupation and in 1946,he made another attempt for the presiaem-

lO/PSSCSOCIALSCIENCE INFORMATION

cy of the newly-established Phi1ippine Re­public against Manuel Roxas and ~argio

Osmeiia. Moncado lost his bid for presiden­cy in 1946, was accused of collaborationwith the' Japanese and was charged oftreason for having/displayed the Japaneseflag in his home and automobile. In 1948,the charges against him were dismissed.For Moncado, that seemed the end of hispolitical career. He left for the UnitedStates and devoted more time to thefederation and to his increasing numberof followers.

Filipino Crusaders World Army: in thecourse of Moncado's political campaign,membership in the federation increased.Moncado colonies had been established inSamal Island and Kitaotao. During the

. Japanese occupation of 1942 FFA fol­lowers in the Philippines composed theCrusaders Army Force, a guerrilla move­ment against the Japanese, which wasorganized by Moncado, their commander­in-ehief. The force claimed to have2,500,000 crusaders distributed into seve­ral divisions assigned at particular regionsover the country. The leaders of each divi­sion were given military titles, thus a divi­sion was under the command of a colo­nel, a It. colonel, a major, a captain, alieutenant and a sergeant. As commander­in-ehief, Moncado gave himself the rankof Five-Star General of the CrusadersArmy Force.!

After the war, and at the close of Mon­cado's political activities in the Philippines,the group took on a new mission. From aforce of fighting guerrillas, the FilipinoCrusaders World Army, as it was laterrenamed, became an army of men, womenand children who dedicated themselvesto fight against the evils of Commun­ism . . . every member was a crusaderagainst every form of sin or vice. The Fili­pino Crusaders World Army (FCWA) wasincorporated in the Philippines on Novem­ber 4, 1945 and from that time on becameconcurrently, the Filipino Federation ofAmerica (FFA) in the Philippines.

The FCWA, Inc. retained its originalquasi-military structure. Members wereorganized into divisions and divisionleaders were continued to be called bytheir military titles. As a'corporatlon, theFCWA, Inc. has a life of 50 years from thedate of incorporation. Upon its incorpora­tion, membership fees were increased to

P100.00 for sub-matriculate membershipand P25.00 for associate membership.

The incorporation of the FCWA wasimportant in the continuity of the move­ment. After the Second World War, mostof the objectives of the FFA, whichevolved within the setting of the mid­1920's and the years immediately, hadworn out its significance. The fight forPhilippine Independence was completedand with the new political order, the na­tion was looking forward to some socialand economic promise. The establish­ment of "better relationships betweenFilipinos and Americans" lost most of itsmeaning because many of the FFA mem­bers had returned to the Philippines.

Thus, the incorporation of the FCWAInc. signalled a reorientation in the orqanl­zation's objectives. Although it was con­currently the FFA, Inc. in the Philippines,the realization that the 1925 objectives

.were no longer meaningful Jed Moncadoto narrow down the FCWA objectivesinto just one: "to promote world moralmilitary training tor serving humanity."Under this "principal" purpose, cameother "secondary" purposes such as topromote "Moral peace ... moral unityand moral education" by establishing com­munity centers, agricultural schools and a"Moral University" which they wouldcall "General Moncado University." Ano­ther purpose was "to promote world moraleducation and . . . researches of the truemeaning of the Bible which is calledBook of Books ... " Th is led to new inter­pretations to the Bible which though culticbecome more pronounced in sect move­ments where these interpretations are heldas proof that other groups deviate from thetruth.

Moncado's sudden popularity in thePhilippines brought about by his politicalactivities and the membership campaignsin the 1930's, gave way to doubts andcriticisms hurled by non-members towardMoncado and the organization.

Some claimed that Moncado's suddenaffluence in the 1930's was due to hisunconstrained use of membership fundswhich he required from the members.

dili kane tlnuod. Natural ang usa ka or­ganisasyon magsolicitar ug membership.Naa gavud iyang ibavad 18 pagkamiem­bro. Bisag unsa nga organisasyon • . .

(that is not true. It is natural for an or-

ganization to solicit for membership fees.Any organization does this .. .I

An informant from Cebu said thatduring their early federation days iinAmerica, Moncado instructed members tomaintain savings accounts kun dili kuhaonang espiritu sa imong lawas" (otherwiseyour spirit will be taken away from YOIJrbody). To facilitate this, Moncado himselfopened saving accounts for some 300members into which he deposited an ini­tial amount of one dollar. He then toldthe members that regular deposits shouldbe made into these accounts. To each. ofthese accounts, Moncado was co-siqnatorv,

Members also claimed that sometimebefore the 1920's, Moncado became anadopted son of a multl-millioneire, oneMr. Alexander of Pasadena, Los Angeleswho made Moncado the heir to his wealth,

The early life of a sect is characterizedby a pattern of behavior which in timebecomes the remainder of one's member­ship into the "exclusive" sect. While themembers give themselves up to the dictatesof these rules, the leader of most sectschoose to be apart from all these prescrip­tions. In an effort to provide justificationto their leader's behavior, most sect mem­bers make out myths regarding theirleader. Many Claimed that Moncado wasengaged in chicanery and that he fooledhis members into believing he had super­natural powers. While he demanded fromhis members all forms of self-denial, h.ehimself indulged in vices and ate meat;None of the informants denied this,instead they found justifications for theirleader's behavior. 2 Dalumpines wrote':

Indeed he l!te meat and drank wine insome social circles but the followers feelthat they are not fooled because theyunderstand that it was just a part of thepolitical life of their leader. It was a kindof adjustment called assimilation. It wasbut temporary. (Dalumpines, 1971: 211

In contrast to what Dalumpines wrote;a minister provided a religious explanationto Moncado's behavior. He claimed that all'that Moncado did was in consonance withbiblical precepts. Soon, the members de­veloped a religious superiority ccmplexand claimed that like Christ's apostles,they too were subjects of religious per­secution. In 1954, one of the members'exhorted President Magsaysay through one

...

I

I

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of the newspapers:

Let the destiny of the Philippines beplaced in the hands of Moncado ... theComing of the Living God of this Centurysometime July 1955 with his invinciblefollowers of 379,000,000 vrilya activespiritual army, navy and air forces areworking now for the welfare of thePhilippines . . . (Philippine Free Press,July 1954: 22)

Th is is one feature of the sect. Yingerpointed out that sect members tend toconsider themselves as the "religious elite"since they believe that interpretations ofthe truth "other than its own are inerror" (Yinger, 1961: 1621. While this is sohowever, non-members consider the sect'sinterpretation of the truth as absurd. Inthe face of such reactions from outsiders,some sects tend to withdraw and establishsettlements where they can be left aloneto establish their own culture and "to keepthemselves unspotted from the world"

. (Yinger, 1961: 165). In the case of theMoncado movement, this physical with­drawal was probeblv the reason for theestablishment of Moncado Colonies. Themembers probably found comfort in livingwithin a larger community of Moncadistaswhere their beliefs and practices could beaccepted. This withdrawal which was anattempt to set the group apart from otherestablished groups is definitely sect-like.It has retained however its mystical andspiritual features which became the basisof the norms and behavior patterns thatwere accepted by the group.

The Equifrilibricum World Religiousincorporated

In the early 50's, Moncado retired frompolitics and devoted as much time aspossible to the federation. His 'efforts toacquire American citizenship were in vain.In 1954, he and his wife were deportedto Mexico, where he was given permanentresidence status in 1955. He also publishedat this time, the Moncado Mission Bulle­tin, which largely contained Moncado'sspiritual and religious teachings.

On April 8, 1956, Hilario Camino Mon-/ cado died suddenly while playing golf at

the Agua Caliente in Mexico. He wascalled by- his followers as the "Master ofMorality" - philosopher, leader, and Five­Star General of his army, but above all he,

according to them, was "God's Humanmechanism."

To his millions of followers in Hawaii,the mainland United States of Americaand the Philipp,ines, he was God because

- he was good to them. Jesus said, "Thereis none good but one, that is God ...

There were speculations about thecause of his death - but to his thousandsof followers, their Master willed his deathto prove that he was "God" -:

"Nagpakamatay siy« aron pagtuman sanasulat sa balaangkasulatan. "

(He allowed death to overcome him tofulfill those written in the bible ... "l

After Moncado's death the usual Sun­day Services conducted by the religiousdepartment were held in his honor. Thesereligious activities however were brandedas illegal.

The death of the charismatic leaderposes a problem to most cults. Since acharismatic leader like Moncado holds hisfollowers by virtue of his charisma or"personal magnetism," his death maylead either to the eventual death of themovement or to institutionalization whichthen completes the cult's transition intoa sect.

A month after Moncado's death, AnsieMariano, one of the women members ofthe federation in America initiated thework on the articles of incorporation andby-laws. On August 23, 1957, Equi FriliBrium World Religion (EFBWR) wasincorporated in California with Moncado'sspiritual legacy - The Man's Moral Con­cept - as main doctrine. Copies of the-articles of incorporation were sent out tomembers in Hawaii and the Philippines. In1958, the EFBWR was registered underPhilippine Jaws. The succeedinq five yearswere years of missionary work to thePhilippines by Ansie Mariano, the firstHead Minister of the new-found religion.EFB churches were built in the Moncadocolonies of Bukidnon, Dansalan (nowMarawi ~ity), Babakand Piflaplata (both inDavao del Norte). Churches were also put,up in areas where there were a considerablenumber of members.

The formalization of norms, the settingup of structures lind the appointment ofofficial religious leaders were' the signsof the movement's evolution from a cultinto a sect-like religious group. At the

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/11

same time the members felt the presenceof three related institutions: the FilipinoFederation of America, Inc. (FFA); theFilipino Crusaders World Army, Inc.(FCWA) which was concurrentlv theFFA in the Philippines 'and the Equifrili­bricum World Religion, Inc. (EFBWR).It was at this time also that the FFA andthe FCWA members were asked to re­nounce their original religious affiliationsin favor of membership into the new reli­gion. This is also another sect-like feature.

At present, members say that ang·FCWA mau ang among organisasyon; angEFB mau ang among relihiyon. They referto their membership to the FCWA asparasa material and to their membership inthe EFB aspara saspiritual. Thus, member­ship in the FCWA (or the FFA) arnd theEFB is inseparable and joining one general­ly resulted in automatic membership inthe other.

The religion as it stands today is underthe Supreme Head Minister, who is usuallyselected from the FFA members illl Cali­fornia. He is assisted by an Assistant HeadMinister. For the Philippines, the highestranking church official is called the SecondAssistant Head Minister. She3 supervisesreligious activities and is largely responsi­ble for the execution of policies handeddown from the central office in Ameri­ca. The immediate subordinates to theHead Minister are the three division super­visors: one for Luzon churches, amotherfor the Visayas and the third for Minda­nao. All the church officials, including theleader of each local EFB church, are calledReverend. The ordinary members includ­ing the minister, call each-other "brotheri

, ­

and "sister."

The members of their clergy, unlikethose of established sects and_churches, .-l

are not required to go through anyforme] Itheological training. As the Philippine HeadMinister said: ''The FFA is the greatestinstitution of learning; the only curricu­lum is morality:' This is another sect fea­ture. Unlike the denomination type of reli­gious movements, sect leaders neitherundergo specialized training nor under­take any college preparation at a tlileolo­gical seminary. Again, this stresses theimportance of the conversion experiencein the sect rather than the formal educa­tion needed for a ministerial position inthe denomination. In the Moncado move-

12/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMA TION

ment, knowledge of Moncado's teachingsand loyalty to the principle of the organi­zation are the main qualifications.

A member is appointed as minister bythe Supreme Head Minister. Once appoint­ed as a minister, one remains a ministerfor life: walay limite forever gayud kutobna ikaw may kinabuhi pa. ("No limit, aslong as you have life,") The EFB minis­ters are not provided with salaries for theirservices.

Although there has been no census ofits members during the last ten years ­the Philippine Head Minister claimed thatthere are approximately 10,000 membersof the FCWA. However, only about halfof these are practicing EFB members.Of the 21 presently recognized EFBchurches all over the Philippines, 15are in Mindanao.

Moncadista beliefs, practices and rituals

For a religious group to persist, it hasto retain its identity partly through themembers' reaffirmation of their commit­ment to the movement and by the loyaland consistent practice of a set of beliefsand behavior patterns handed down by orbuilt upon the charismatic leader.

Doctrines. The following are the Monca­distas' basic tenets:

1. Man's Moral Concept: the doctrinethat man and God are equal. Moncadistasrefer to this as "the new doctrine ofChrist." They believe that man can achieveequality with God by being "moral" andmorality is keeping away from all forms ofvices. Thls doctrine is believed to be theshortest interpretation of the bible.

2. The Equifrilibricum's Creed is to theMoncadista as the Nicene Creed is to aRoman Catholic. It contains the Monca­dista's declaration of faith in God andChrist and in Equifrilibrium, the "Christ"who returned in the person of HilarioCamino Moncado.

Beliefs: The Moncadistas believe that:

1. Moncado is Christ in His SecondComing. On the cornice atop the mainportals of each EFB church, is an eaglecast in cement. Its wings are outstretchedand underside the wings fully visible toviewers are the words: fidelity, equality,fraternity, liberty, destiny, obedience and

hope. A band carrying the words EQUI­FRILIBRIUM is clutched in the eagle'sbeak. To the members, the eagle symbol­izes the fulfillment of a prophecy inIsaiah 46:11: "... I am calling a man tocome from the East '... " They are alsoconvinced that if Christ were to returnon Earth, He would take on a new nameas it is written in Revelation 3:12: " Iwill write on him the name of my God .I will also write on him my new name .. ,"

2. Christ and the Holy Spirit believedto be in Moncado descended on earth on astar. The date of his descent is believed tobe December 27, 1925 - the date the FFAwas organized.

3. There are proofs that Moncado isGod. Moncadistas claim that Moncado isGod for several reasons:

a. It was he who first revealedChrist's new name (kai sivanakapanudlo man sa ato ni-iningbag·ong ngalanni Kristo nga Equi·frilibrium).

b. Members survived their powasa(fasting) and they are convincedthat this is only possible with di­vine protection.

c. Members claimed that Moncadohas travelled around the world,even before his birth in Balam­ban, Cebu. His members claimedthat Moncado's "physical birth"was in 1898, but that Moncado's"spiritual birth" was in 1BB8.

d. On the night of his birth, mem­bers related that the midwifewho assisted at his birth reported­Iy saw the sun, moon and starjuxtaposed into a triangle througha roofless portion of the Monca­do home.

e. Moncado was tall. Members claim­ed that he was 6'8" tall and thathe towered over everybody hemet. They believed that the manGod would send to complete Hismission on earth should be tall.

f. Members are convinced thatChrist's miracle at Cana severalthousands of years ago led to thespread of vice, particularly alco­holism, and that Christ in hissecond coming would surelychange the wine back to water.Members believe that the Man's

Moral Concept of Moncado is theonly doctrine that can changeor reverse the miracle of Jesus atCana.

g. Members said that through KabaJathey are able to prove that Monca·do is Christ. The. Kabal analyzesnames and words by assignirngnumbers to the letters of thealphabet. These numbers are ma­nipulated by a method which theycall "reducing to lowest terms."Nine (9) is the highest numberand six (6) is referred to as God'snumber.

4. Rizal had the same "divine" missionas Moncado's but failed to accomplish it.

5. Moncado is not dead; he is in hiding(nagtago). Members believe that Moncadocannot die because he is "God". On No­vember 4, 1995 the Filipino CrusadersWorld Army will have completed its cor­porate life of 50 veers. Acceptance of newmembership into the organization willcease and members belie~e that this shallbe the "judgment day" and only theMoncadistas will be saved.

6. There is a 'World's Coming Flag.,"The Moncadistas believe that in the future,all nations in the world will have onlyone flag: the Philippine flag but with sevenstars and Moncado's portrait at the center.According to the members this flag' wasgiven by God to Moncado as predicted in •the Bible.

7. Belief in the Vrilya (engkantoha­non): sundalo ni Moncada. The Moncadis­tas believe in the vrilya (imgkantohanon)whom they refer to as "mystic and psy­chic" people (sometimes called "spirit­ual"). It is a spiritual achievement to beable to communicate and malntain con­tact with the vrilya. To be able 'to do thisone has to go through a series of fastingstages and salt-less diet in order for oneto communicate with the vrilya.

8~ Belief in the power of the "kalaki".The "kalakl" is a booklet given to eachmember who has completely paid h;ismembership dues to the FCWA or the FFA.It is called pinadayag, manang tinago, orprincipio and is considered. personal andconfidential by each of the members. Thekalaki is believed to have the-power to savethe members from danger and ali forms af i

suffering or castigo sa Diyas. MembeliS

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Icarry their kalaki with them anywhere theygo.

9. Belief in the cardinal principles of"equalitY, fraternitY and libertY."10. One can fifllt communism through

golfing. Members believe: "that learning tobe a good man is like learning to be a goodgolfer ... a good man and a good golferstrive for the same idea, that to beequal ... one strives to be equal with God,and the other works for his par on everyhole ... "

11. Women's superioritY over men. Mon­cado wrote that there will be no peaceuntil this world is ruled by a woman "forwomen abhor war and love peace . . . rr

Practices:

1. Fasting. According to members, fast­ing is performed in stages. However, onemay proceed to higher stages withouthaving to undergo the lower stages. In thissense, it is better to consider these not asstages but as different types or kinds offasting activities.

The first, includes fish and chicken meatin the diet. Moncadistas in general are pro­hibited to eat the meat of any four-leggedanimal. The second type of fasting involvesa diet consisting only of vegetables andexcluded all kinds of animal meat in thediet. The third type of fasting consistsof a "raw food" diet. Grated unripe papayausually takes the place of cooked rice.

The tourth type is what members call thetubig-tubig. Members undergoing this typeof fasting live on fruit juices, sap extractedfrom ground peanuts, oatmeal drinks orplain water. The fifth fasting type is calledhangin-hangin. Neither solids nor liquidsare taken in and the person is locked upin a room, usually a room in the churchbuilding or community hall set aside by thechurch for that purpose. He is allowed onlyto bring with him a bible, and some writingmaterials.

Members are required to do thehangin­hangin type of fasting once a year for atleast three days. Fasting may be done atanytime of the year. There are no specificrequirements for the other types of fasting.Most members practice any of the fourtypes of fasting at various times of theyear. Some members have reportedly beenon tubig-tubig for as long as ten years,the longest hangin-hangin tasting was re­ported to have lasted for 72 days.

2. The Moncadian Calendar. Moncadocreated a Moncadian calendar in whichthe year is composed of 13 months of 28days each. The extra month they call theUm month. There are 364 days in the yearand the day between January 1 and De­cember 28, they call the Cum day - aholiday which takes the place of the NewYear. Moncadistas claim that the worldneeds a new calendar, one that should bebased on Moncado's doctrine - the Man'sMoral Concept which espouses equality.

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979V13

3. Big, concrete places of worship arecalled "churches." Small places of wor­ship are called chapels.

4. Sunday services are held from 9:00to 12:00 a.m. The first hour (9:00-10:00)is devoted to bible study; the next hour(10:00-11 :00) to Kabala instruction ledby what is called a "Minister of Kabala."Services follow at 11:00 to 12:00 noon.

5. The following are important churchholidays:

November 4 - Moncado's date ofbirth

April 8 - Moncada's date of deathAugust 21 - death anniversary of

de los ReyesDecember 27 - 'founding anniversary

of the FFA and the beginningof Moncado's "divine mission"on earth.

6. Local churches hold meetings on Sa­turdays or on any appropriate day of theweek. This is usually convened by the localminister.

7. Baptism is not compulsory. The bap­tism ceremony is similar to that performedby the Catholic Church but without thesalt.

8. There is neither Communion norConfession. Confession is made directly toGod (diretso sa6inoo).

9. There are services performed for the'dead.

10. Weddings are performed. No wed-

The Moncado Colony in Babak, Sarnal Island:' At'right is the Equifrilibricum (EFB) church. The wooden building at the center is theparsonage which also houses the Philippine headquarters of the Filipino Crusaders World Army (FCWA). The Babak colony is thebiggest Moncado colony in the Philippines. Rev. Tomasa Daguman is currently minister of the Babak Church and Philippine Assistanthead minister of the Equifrilibricum World Religion, Inc.

14/PSSCSOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

ding fees but cash offerings are encouraged.11. There is a women's organization and

a Young People'sGroup.12. Violence is forbidden. Participation

in strikes is forbidden. "Radicalism" isfrowned upon.

13. Indulgence in all forms of vice in­cluding dancing, is forbidden.

14. All members are expected to helpeach other in time of need and providemutual assistance at all times (pagtina­bangay).

15. All members should keep copies ofMoncado's publications. Books, pamphletsor posters that carry Moncado's message,doctrines or life history are sacred (sagra­do) and should be treasured.

16. Prayers are said before' and aftermeals, at bedtime and upon waking up.Prayers can take the form of singinghymns, bible reading, reciting the "Man'sMoral Concept" or ~eading from any ofMoncado's books or publications.

Ritual: The service or what memberscall "The Divine Worship", starts a fewminutes after the Kabala lessons, usuallyat 11:15 a.m. At the opening of the servi­ces, the congregation stands. A member ofthe congregation, usually the AssistantMinister, walks forward to the front aisleand leads the recitation of the Man's MoralConcept. Then a group of women, sittingat the right front corner of the churchlead the singing, which is taken up by themembers of the congregation. At times thesongs are adapted from ordinary churchhymns. Usually however, the songs haveoriginal tunes and the songs themselvesreflect the movement's message: ... Bag­ong ngalan ni Kristo mao si Equifrilibrium,Oh mga katawhang tanan motoo kamo ugdili man, amo kining katungdanan, pagfsangyaw sa kalibutan . . . (The new nameof Christ is Equifrilibrium. Oh people ofthe world, whether you believe or not,our mission is to spread these messagesto the whole world,)

A message follows, usually by theminister or by one of the elder membersof the federation particularly those whohave been in America. They tell of thetimes they've spent with Moncado andth is can go on for hours. The scripturereading follows and then each of the mem­ber of the congregation walk up the aisleto a table in front of the, altar and tbey,

deposit th-eir cash offerings into an opendrawer. Others offer fruits or 'vegetables.Sometimes, another message is given afterthe offerings but usually the offering isfollowed by more singing. The recitationof the "Man's Moral Concept" and theMoncadistas' version of the Sign of theCross ends the Worship: "In the name ofthe Father, and of the Son and of theHoly Ghost EFB, our Master, Amen."

Functions and dysfunctions

Religious movements also play import­ant functions in the lives of its members.The increase in the number of Moncadoadherents was due primarily to the func­tions (both manifest and latent) that mem­bership in the movement fulfilled. In themid-1920's, membership in Moncado's or­ganization provided the forum for fellow­ships and represented what seemed to bethe "true" means to attain salvation: theaversion to all forms of vice. More import­antly, adherence to Moncadism providedfor the Filipino migrants in Californiaand Hawaii the opportunity to lead andorganize. The lowly, obedient sacada inthe pursuit of material values, becameleader and organizer in his pursuit ofspiritual values. Thus, in the midst of iso­lation, economic insecurity, anomie andlow status, the federation was instrumentalin providing them worth and human dig­nity.

Most important of these functions is thefact that the movement provided a reli­gious interpretation to economic - mis­fortune. After the war, the-number of ad­herents -increased because the movementresponded to the need for rehabilitationefforts. Moncado sent his disciples to thecolonies that he .found and allowed-thesefamilies to till federation farms. Up to thistime, the members find in the movementsolace and comfort in the midst Of econo­mic distress. What used to have been frus­tration and anger over their poor economicsituation was redirected into contentment,resignation and sacrifice in preparationfor the life after.

There are however unintended conse­quences (dysfunctions) of the belief inMoncadism. In the 1920's, the FFA's aver­sion to strikes and violence made theFFA members more "qualified" to work inthe plantations. This. in effect contributedtoward the perpetuation of, the then pre-

vailing low wage rates and the poor farm­ing conditions. As the Moncado groupgained new membership, many accusedMoncado of using the organization to favorhis own political and economic interests.Through the federation, and under tileguise of spreading "the doctrines of tilereturned- Christ," Moncado was able tofurther his own political and economicinterests.

Today, even while Moncadism providesits members with a positive and construe­tive interpretation of suffering and distress,there remains the obvious facts of discri­mination and poverty. Their attitude - oneof the silent resignation to the ways of theworld - makes them vulnerable to mani­pulation and draws them away fromquestioning the social, economic and poli­tical conditions that perpetuate povertyand oppression. Martial law, according to,one of the ministers, is only a fulfillmentof "the Master's prediction that a dicta­torial form of government will come tous."

Unless one understands the social andreligious meanings attached to a Monca­dista's beliefs and practices, one is unableto grasp the depth of his commitmentto the role he has chosen to play in society'.

A dying community?

A significant observation made duringthe visits to the colonies and throughparticipation in some of their social andreligious activitles was the predomlnantlvlarge proportion of adult members rangingin-age from 50 to 85 years. A number 011members aged 35 to 50 were noted, most­ly the children of the destinos and theorthodox Moncadistas. There seemed to bea very small proportion of members agedl10 to 35 years. Services are most oftenattended by the very old and the very'young.

Although no specific statistics on the:growth of the movement have been ob-­tained, the present writer's impression isone of slow growth, if growth is takingplace at all. In fact, some of the destinosexpressed pessimism: ... maayo kungnaa'y usa ka gatos na sako niya pagbalikniya dinhi . • . (good if there will be ahundred members left when he comesback) referring to their Master's return in

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I

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/15

Ec~nomic cost structures and patterns in non-formal education: The case of theAdult Education Program of Dansalan College.

v. BRUCE J. TOLENTINO

This article is a summary of a thesis submitted in fulfillment of requirements to­ward an M.A. in Economics degree at Xavier University. The thesis was successfully de­fended in May 1979.

The author is presently the Director of the Community ServiceDepartment at Dansalan College in Marawi City. He was the recipientof a study grant under the PSSC's Graduate Training Assistance Pro-gram for his masteral degree. .

'Since the 1960's increasing attentionhas been paid to what Phillip Coombs hascalled the"world educational crisis." Thecrisis, which is in the formal educationalsystem, has been fostered primarily by thequadrupling of school enrolments withinthe last quarter-eentury, resulting fromrapid population growth and the popularbelief that formal education is a mostpowerful vehicle toward socio-economicamelioration and development.

TheProhlem

The crisis and the ensuing reappraisalhas led to a search for "alternatives" toschooling. Recently that search has beendirected to education taking place outside

the school - non-formal education. Thisnew interest is an act of rediscovery, sincethe activities now labelled "non-formal"are not new. However, the rubric "non­formal education" is of recent coinage.It includes within its broad scope suchfamiliar activities as functional literacyand adult education, agriculture extensioncourses, on-the-job training and appren­ticeship, conscientization circles, studygroups and even catechetical programs.

Non-formal education is distinguishedfrom formal and informal education, andin this paper, is spoken of as:

. . . any intentional and systematiceducational enterprise (usually out­side of traditional schooling) inwhich content, media, time units,admission criteria, staff, facilities and

other system components are selec­ted and/or adapted for particularstudents, populations and situationsin order to maximize the attain­ment of the learning mission and tominimize constraints on the sys­tem ... 1

Non-formal education possesses certainfeatures that offer alternatives to the diffi­culties observed in formal schooling. Thesefeatures include: (1) its apparent flexibili­ty and innovative capacity, with its adap­tability to learning demands in a widevariety of situations; (2) its apparentefficiency and effectivity in utilizing mini­mal inputs (in time, talent, facilities, finan­ces and other resources) to achieve itsgoals; (3) its apparent appropriateness incontexts of poverty and underdevelop­ment, where it offers renewed possibili­ties for "universal primary education"- a goal as yet unrealized by formalschooling; and (4) finally, its strong po­tentials in cost-saving and the economicaluse of resources.

The attractive features of non-formaleducation have largely been identified in­tuitively, based only on sketchy obser­vattons, Much of non-formal educationresearch is still concerned with exploratorytreatment. The enormous problems in thebasic tasks of non-formal education pro­gram inventory, description, classification,and case analysis have yet to be hurdled.Moreover, most of the literature availableon non-formal education deals with West­ern-initiated and/or located programs writ-

ten by Westerners.The study of the economics of non-: I

formal education. is of even more recentorigin. The application of economicthought and methods to the field tOI guideinvestment decisions and to ask questionsand provide answers of an economizingnature may be traced back only to thelate 1960's. Furthermore, whatever studiesthat have been accomplished on the eco­nomics of non-formal education took theircues from studies done of the economicsof formal schooling. The problem is thatthe economic studies of formal educationwere constructed based on the particular'attributes of formal education, and arethus hardly replicable on non-formal edu­cation, considering differences in inputs,educational processes and learning outputs.

Thus the research problem that current­ly needs most attention in the economicsof non-formal education is the field-levelstudy of operational programs in the less­developed nations. Such empirical data­gathering research needs to be done withinthe framework of economic theory, withattention to the formulation of viableinvestment criteria. The formulation pro­ceeds through several stages, basic to whichis the cost analysis of actual programs ­the subject of this study.

Limitations

This study is limited to the identifica­tion and measurement of program costs.An examination of the possible benefitsthat the program brings to its participantsis not made, for reasons that: (1) the taskof measurement is very complex, andthat the task of cost measurement aloneis already of considerable magnitude;(2) economic science is still in the processof formulating adequate measurementtools, and (3) very little data was availablefor the measurement of benefits.

16/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

Objectives

This study attempts to contribute tothe empirical knowledge based on non­formal education through the examinationof certain investment and cost aspects ofan operational, non-formal education pro­ject. The case was the adult educationprogram administered by Dansalan Col­lege, in Lanao del Sur province in SouthernPhilippines. Specifically, the study aims:

1. To determine the nature of the Dan­salan College non-formal adult education

. program as an area of economic invest­ment;

2. To determine the origin, types andallocation of the resources invested intothe Dansalan College adult educationprogram;

3. To determine the levels, charac­teristics, distribution and types of eco­nomic costs that the Dansalan Collegeadult education program incurred;

4. To determine how the cost structureof the Dansalan College adult educationprogram changed in response to modifica­tions in program policy and operationsovertime;

5. To explore the possibilities for cost­saving and resource economizing in theDansalan College adult education program,and

6. To review, choose and apply appro­priate methods of economic analysis,particularly those concerning investmentcost description and measurement.

Methodology

In summary, the methodology em­ployed in the analysis of the case of theadult education program of DansalanCollege proceeded as follows:

1. The thorough examination of thecase program's history and operations overa period of six years to provide the back­ground for the analysis of its economiccosts;

2. The identification and measurementof Its economic costs, including:

a) the creation of a "program costmodel" - an operational frame­work/matrix within which theentire range of possible econo­mic investment and cost itemscould be gathered, identified andorganized;

b) the formulation of detailed proce­dures for the measurement ofeach economic cost item;

c) the use of available accountingdata - through an item-by-itemexamination of all entries madeover the six-year period, theextraction of all entries associa­ted with adult education programoperations, and the summation ofthese into annual statements usingthe program cost model;

d) the formulation of procedures forjoint cost identification and costallocation;

e) the formulation of procedures inthe use of dummy, or shadow,values, and the imputation ofvalues in certain cases; and

f) the adoption of tenable assump­tions to provide the frameworkfor the procedures used.

3. The analysis of the program's econo­mic costs, through:

a) the construction of appropriatetables for organization and com­parison of data;

b) the standardization, through theapplication of chosen indices, ofthe computed values to controlfor the effects of inflation/de­flation and thus facilitate compa­rison;

c) the analysis of the cost data byapplication, or use, and by origin,or source;

d) the comparison between socialand private costs; and

e) the computation of unit, pergraduate costs.

4. The drawing of observations, eonclu­sions and recommendations based on theanalyses made.

Summary of Findin.qs

1. The case program lent itself relative­ly well to the measurement and analysisof its economic costs. The general conceptsof cost in economics were found applica­ble to' the non-formal education program.

2. The major problems in economiccost measurement had to do with jointand opportunity cost elements. Thesemethodological problems were compound­ed by inadequacies in the data, particular­ly since these were collected for purposesother than those of the study.

3. More than half to two-thirds of allexpenditures in the program were for per­sonnel costs. It was found however that asoperations grew, the personnel cost did notincrease in direct propertion: instead, pre­sent personnel were spread out more thinlyand thus the program was able to handlemore activities without significantly in­creasing the number of staff.

4. One-third to two-fifths of all person­nel costs were for part-time employees.As operations grew, however, the proper­tion of part-time employees decreased.

5. Operating costs accounted for thenext largest (to personnel) share of totalcosts. As the program staff paid more at­tention to increasing the non-formal curri­culum, operating costs increased, inflatedprimarily by rising demands for instruc­tional materials and services.

6. The program incurred very low capi­tal costs. The sharing, borrowing and reno.tal (at minimal rates) of equipment andlfacilities lay behind this characteristic..

7. The program's cost structure wasrelatively stable. Personnel cost alwaysaccounted for majority of expenditures,followed by share of operating costs.Taken together, personnel and operatingcosts took up three-fourths to nine-tenthsof total cost.

8. Unit costs per graduate were retetive.ly low. Due to complications, however, itwas not possible to make acceptable com­parisons.

9. Foreign funding institutions were thesources of two-thirds of all the financialsupport received for the program; Of thefive major agencies involved, only one wasFilipino.10. Of the funds received through fund­

ing agencies, at least half were contributedby foreign governments. The Filipino sup­port came from private business firms.

11. The Philippine gOllernment contribu­ted support in the form of services, thevalue of which constituted only rela­tive minority ofsocial cost.12. The adult education learners -incur­

red minimal costs in participating in theprogram. The classes were held during nor­mally idle hours over a reiatively short du­ration of four months per course.

13. The major items of cost which couldhave been borne by the learners throughtuition payments were shouldered by Dan­sa/an College. The average cost per grad-

- III

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A participant in the functional literacyphaseof Dansalan College'sadult literacyprogram. In this. phase, the adult parti­cipants learned the fundamentals ofreading and writing the Roman alphabet,syllabicating words, forming words fromgiven syllables, using correct capitaliza­tion, punctuating sentences properly, andwriting paragraphs. These' skills weretaught in Madrasa, the Maranao languagewritten in Roman letters.

uate may be taken as an estimate of fulltuition rates.

14. The communities from where thelearners came, and where the classes wereheld incurred negligible costs in supportingor cooperating with the adult educationprogram. The class activities did not re­quire undue effort and sacrifice on thepart of the community.

Concluding remarks and observstions

Economic Analysis and theAdult Edu­cation Program of Dansalan College. Basedon the finding that the case program "lentitself relatively well to the analysis andmeasurement of its economic costs,"

it is tempting to conclude that economictheory can achieve a level of analysis in.non-formal education that is comparableto its successes in non-human capital in­vestment. Such a conclusion however,may be unwarranted for a number ofreasons:

First, the analysis carried out in thisstudy embraced only a narrow portion ofeconomic investment theory - that ofcost. Furthermore the examination of thecost of the case program did not fullyinvolve the rigorous analysis of a signifi­cant and controversial area of cost - theopportunity cost or income forgone ofparticipants in the program. The non­examination of participant's forgoneincome was dictated by the nature of theDansalan College adult education program.The learners attended classes which werescheduled during their normally-idle hours.The assumption was then made that thevalue of the time that the learners devotedto the classes was negligible, since theydid not sacrifice any income-generatingalternatives.

It was known that should the learnershave borne significant sacrifices to parti­cipate in the program, the study wouldhave dealt with the controversial aspectsof opportunity cost given that alternative'cost measurement assumes the operationof a market-directed price system: butit is believed that markets and price sys­tems in human resource development,and particularly in the case program'ssituation are imperfect. Thus opportunitycost estimates assuming the centrality ofthe price system will probably be inaccu­rate. Furthermore, the object of invest­ment, human beings, cannot be viewedin the same light that economic analysishas examined material' capital. Thereare numerous other factors to be consider­ed - moral, ethical, psychological,' socio­logical, political - most of which defyquantification.

The second reason why a conclusionsupporting the applicability of acceptedmodels of economic analysis in non-formaleducation is not accepted that the exam­ination of a single case does not often war­rant a viable generalization.

However, the primal usefulness of eco­nomic analysis of human capital invest­ment cannot be denied. This is the attemptto measure the aspects of the investment

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/17

object, the purpose of which is to developobjective criteria to evaluate the effective­ness and efficiency of investment, and toguide decision-making.

Finally, it should be stated that thestudy was aware of the limited usefulnessof a study of costs alone. Costs have limit­ed meaning unless related to the benefitsthat may be derived from' the cost-incur- I

ring object. Great awareness was however,also present about the practical impossi­bility of judging and measuring benefitsat th is time, due to data and methodolo­gical inadequacies. The recommendationis therefore to institute a two-stage processwhere first, a series of similar studies onthe cost aspects of similar non-formaleducation- programs are made,-and second,based on the findings and the data ac­cumulated in the cost studies, projectmethodologies that-will allow the measure­ment of benefits are formulated.

It should be emphasized that a criticalfactor in the first stage is the collectionand ordering of data in standardized andcomparable form. This will ensure that

\data gathered from each project will lendanswers to questions that may be putto all of the projects. The study attemptedto fulfill in part what Borus proposed:that the examination of the cost aspectsof a number of non-formal education pro­jects be made, using a standard cost-re­cording methodology. Such follow-upresearch is strongly recommended.

Cost Reduction and Adult EducationProgram Personnel Costs. The case pro­gram appeared to have taken great ad­vantage of cost reduction through the useof part-time labor, and that this measurewas taken very early on the program.In examining this action which resultedin the cost-reducing effect, it must benoted that there seemed to have been nodeliberate decision of "utilizing part-timelabor in order to reduce costs." Theprogram staff, at initiation, had strongertendencies to hire full-time workers: thedelimiting factor was the'"lack of funds."Thus th~ cost-reducing characteristic wasidentified in the case program's staffingpattern ex post facto.

In retrospect the adult education pro­gram could have reduced costs even furtherby undertaking the project jointly or with

Please turn to page33 .

\lS/PSSC SOCIAL SClENCE INFORMATION

Preliminary report:

\

\

Third AASSREC Conference

The Third Conference of the Associa­tion of Asian Social Science ResearchCouncils (AASSREC) was held in Manilafrom Sept. 12-17, 1979 and was attendedby participants from all eight membercouncils, six nonmember countries, seveninternational funding agencies and severalspecial guests. Conference theme was "Re­search Utilization and Research Dissemina­tion in Asia." The conference was heldat the Manila Hotel.

Keynote speaker was Dr. OnofreD. Cor­puz, Minister of Education and Culturewho emphasized that development in theresearch capacities of the social sciencecommunity should be toward the improve­ment of the quality of life. He added: "Thedevelopment and support for a strong re­search community is an intermediate andnot an immediate goal. The end purposeis to have a research community thataccepts an obligation in turn to contributeto the improvement of life in the com­munity that sustains it:'

The keynote speech was followed bythe election of conference officers. lricum­bent AASSREC President, Loretta Maka·siar Sicat, waselected chairman of the Con­ference. The participants agreed that the

other incumbent officers of the AASSRECshould also serve as the conference officers.They are: A.K.M. Kamaluddin Choudhury(Bangladesh) and Eli Masinambouw (Indo­nesia), vice-presidents; Sunq-chick Hong(Korea), secretary-general; and V.A. Panan­diker (India), joint secretary.

Assigned as rapporteurs were: W. D.Borrie (Australia), rapporteur-general; Par­thibeshwar Timilsina (Nepal) and V. Sel­varatnam (Regional Institute of HigherEducation and Development - RIHED),rapporteurs for the country reports;V.A. Panandiker, rapporteur for thereports of regional agencies; YogeshAtal (UNESCO Bangkok), rapporteur forthe workshop on indigenization; Sung­chick Hong (Korea), rapporteur for thebusiness session; and Wilfrido V. Villa­corta (Philippines), rapporteur for thepublic forum.

Participants presented their country re­ports which included their activities overthe last two years.

A fuller report on theThird AASSRECConference will be published in the nextissue of the PSSCSocial Science Informa­tion.

T

;t'fHrRDCONFMANILA HOTELHosts: UNESCO NATIONAL

q6ci the PHILI~I

,llSsREC<.EMBER 1979

EPHILIPPINESeCOUNCIL

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/19

:io/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMA TION:

•••••••••••••••••••••psse activities•••••••••••••••••••••

6. Jeanne Frances I. 1110: To attend theXth International Congress of Anthropo­10gic~1 and Ethnological Sciences, Decem!­ber 10-21,1978. New Delhi, India.

11

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The annual meeting and elec-:tions of the PSSC will be held onDecember 7, 1979. Venue willbe announced later.

Two Board membersattendIPSA World Congress

Conference Award1. Philippine Sociological Society: A

Program of Roving Lectures, Universityof the East, June 28, 1979; Asian SocialInstitute, August 1979; De La Salle Uni~

versity, September, 1979; University ofSanto Tomas, October, 1979. Theme ­Directions in Sociology.

Dr. Ledivina V. Carino and Dr. LorettaMakasiar Sicat, secretary-treasurer of theExecutive Board and Executive Dlrectonof PSSC respectively, participated in theXlth World Congress of the InternationalPolitical Science Association held in Mos­cow, U.S.S.R. from August 12-18, 1979.

Dr. Carino presented a paper co-author­ed with Dr. Raul P. de Guzman entitled"Negative Bureaucratic Behavior in thePhilippines: Its Causes, DevelopmentatConsequences and Control Measures ­Past and Prospective."

Dr. Sicat participatedas the only bona fide in­dividual member of the i

\ II'SA from the Philip-:pines and asa member, jof both the Asian. Re- 11:"gional Advisory Com­mission and of the Executive Committeeof the' Asian Studies Group. She alsoserved as discussant in the panel on "Re­gional Arrangements: An Approach for

• International Peace and Security,"They were granted per diem support by

the PSSCfor this Congress.

ABASOLOFAJARDO

13. Evelyn N. Jamboy: ''The Resist­ance Movement in Lanao During theJapanese Occupation."

14. Teresita Y. Caro: ''The Problemsof Decentralized Fiscal Management ofMandaue City and its 27 Barrios."

Their Self-Concepts and ReferenceGroups."

11. Mary Joan Fajardo: "The Effect'of a Theatre Arts Program on the Self­Esteem of Filipino Adolescents withProblems."

12. Betty L. Abasolo: "Baguio City: ASocial and Economic Change, 1909­1979."

Travel Award

1. Ledivina V. Cari­1'10: To participate in theWorld Congress of the In­ternational Political Sci­ence Association, August12-18, 1979. Moscow,

~.~--

USSR.2. Jesus P. Estanlslao: To attend the

conference on China and Asian Econo­mies, July 24-26, 1979. Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia.......•~._,

3. Bro. Andrew B. Gon­zalez, F.S.C.: To partl­cipate in the XIVth Pa­cific Congress, August20-September 5, 1979.Khabarovsk, USSR.

4. Cristina P. Parel: To present a paperon ''The Development of Statistics in thePhilippines" at the 1st Franco-Asean Con­ference on Mathematics, May 28-June 2,1979. Singapore.

5. Rosita L. Fondevilla: To attend theSecond session of the ESCAP Commit­tee in Social Development, December 6­12, 1978. Bangkok, Thailand.

DumaranALANO

5. Erlinda Y. Adanza:"Comparison of the Act­ual Perceived LeadershipBehavior of the SubanonCommunity Leaders."Bukidnon State College.

6. Manuel J. Navarro: The Geographyof Rural Development through" Land Re­form in Central Luzon."

7. Violet S. Valdez: "Factors lnfluen­cing the Survival or Discontinuance ofCommunity Newspapers in the SouthernTagalog Region."

8. Angeles Alano: ''Towards a Descrip­tion of the Functions of Cognitive andNon-cognitive Meaning in the Communi­cative Competence of Second LanguageLearners."

9. Cristeta M.Dumaran: "A LinguisticProfile of Dagupan City for 1979."

New grantees

Discretionary Research Awards

1. Esperanza Aranas­Dowling: "A Study ofthe Conjugal Interactionof the Successful NaturalFamily Planning Practi­tioners of IIigan, Lanaodel Norte."

2. Nimfa S. Lagdamen: "CHild RearingPractices Among the Mamanuas of Pangay­Ian." MSU-lIigan Institute of Technology.

3. Alfonso O. Santiago: "The Elabora­tion of a Technical Lexicon of Pilipino."

4. Sr. M. Therese Bulatao: "A Studyof Variants of Alienation Among Occu­pational Groups in Paraiiaque."

10. Elsa Q Villordon: ''The Influenceof Modernization on Selected Adolescentsin the Central Visayas as Indicated by

...............newsbriefs•••••••••••••••

New LSP officers, board members

Brother Andrew Gonzalez, F.S.C., exe­cutive secretary of the Linguistic Societyof the Philippines (LSP) announced thenew set of LSP officers and board mem­bers for 1979-1980;

Elected in the June 28, 1979 businessmeeting of the Society were: Bonifa.cioP. Sibayan, president; Ponciano B. Pineda,vice-president; Fe T. Otanes, treasurer;Edilberto Dagot, Leonard Newell, EmyPascasio, and Gloria Chan-Yap, boardmembers; and Andrew B. Gonzalez, F.S.C.,executive secretary.

The officers have lined up the Society'sactivities for the ensuing year.

2nd talk for PSS roving lectures

The second in a series of roving lecturesfor 1979 sponsored by the Philippine So­ciological Society was held last August 18at the Asian Social Institute's Academicbuilding, Leon Guinto Street, Malate, Ma·nila.

The presentor for the second lecturewas .Prof. Leopoldo Moselina, the dean ofsociology at ASI. He talked on "Olonga­po's Rest and Recreation Industry: A So­ciological Analysis of InstitutionalizedProstitution."

The lecture was preceded by a slidepresentation on Olongapo's rest andrecreation business.

Professor Moselina conducted his studywhile he was still the dean at the Colum­ban College in Olongapo City. He obtainedhis Master of Arts degree in Sociology fromthe Asian Social Institute.

Symposium onVietnamese refugees

"The Vietnam Refugee Problem: Mythand Reality" was the theme of an inter­sectoral symposium sponsored by the De­partment of Sociology of the University

of the Philippines. This was held at the UPFaculty Center Conference Hall last July31, 1979 from 2-5 p.m.

The speakers in the conference wereMs. Luz Palacios, Vice-Consul and Princi­pal Assistant in the Office of PoliticalAffairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Hon.Otto Gobius, Representative from theUN High Commission for Refugees; Mrs.Leticia Generoso, Officer-in-Charge of theNational Capital Region, Ministry of SocialServices and Development; Dr. Estrella D.Solidum, Associate Professor of the UPDepartment of Political Science; and Fr.Ralph Salazar, Secretary-General of theNational Secretariat for Social Action.Several embassy representatives were alsopresent and gave their statements regard­ing the issue.

Prof. Belen Medina, chairman of theUP Department of Sociology deliveredthe keynote address. Prof. Randolf 5.David, coordinator of the Third World Stu­dies Program was the moderator. Dr. Pros­pero R. Covar gave the closing remarks.

Ms. Luz Policarpio discussed the Philip­pine policy vis-a-vis the Vietnamese re­fugee problem. According to her, thePhilippines' position is:

1. To increase the volume and speedof resettlement.

2. To increase financial contributions tothe United Nations High Commission forRefugees.

3. To establish more processing cen­ters.

4. To persuade other developing coun­tries to accept Indochinese refugees forresettlement with assurance of financialassistance from the international commu­nity.

5. To remind all nations that boat andland refugees comprise the two aspectsof the problem and should be resolvedequally.

6. To seek the cooperation of theSocialist Republic of Vietnam in regula­ting the outflow of refugees and in esta­blishing its own processing centers.

Miss Palacios revealed that these policiesare "purely for humanitarian purposes,"

Hon. Otto Gobius talked on the stand

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1'979/21

.of the UNHCR regarding the Vietnamrefugee problem. He rendered the fol­lowing stand of the UNHCR regarding·the issue:

1. Reduce the backlog in the camps,2. In agreement with Vietnam, to allow

people to leave Vietnam in a legal mannerafter full compliance with the requiredprocedures. Mr. Gobius reported that theVietnamese services and the office of theUNHCR reached an agreement on alseven-.point program which has been rnadepublicand which aims at facilitating an orderlyand safe departure of Vietnamese boatpeople.

Dr. Solidum interpreted the Vietnameserefugee problem as one which "involveshigh politics. It brings about such political·problems as international relations, popula-

. tion control, etc." She considered theVietnamese refugee problem as a critlcalissue because "the documents on therefugee problem come from the reSJllectivecountries themselves." She brought to thefront the fact that most of the refugeesare the Hoas from Vietnam who were alliesin the revolution and members of thepeople's army. She added that "other re­

fugees are CIA agents in Vietnam, thereare those from Kampuchea and the restare capitalists who don't like the socialisttransformation."Dr. Solidum mentionedthat as of now there are 200,000 refugees !in Thailand; 75,000 in Malaysia; 40,000 inIndonesia; 60,000 in Hongkong; 230,000in China and 16,000 elsewhere. Dr. Soli­dum also gave notice that these countriesrefuse to accept more refugees unlessthere are guarantees that there would be ino residual problems.

Mrs. Generoso reported on the social ac­tion program for the Vietnamese refugees.According to her, the MSSD is working fora "57 percent official transfer of Viet­namese refuqees in collaboration with theUNHCR." She also cited the efforts of theMinistry of Health, the Inter-church lang.uage School and several Catholic groups inhelping the Vietnamese refugees.

Fr. Salazar talked on the stand of theCatholic church and of its efforts in help­ing the Vietnamese refugees. Accordingto him "the Catholic church rejects theidea that the problem has no solution. Itis still possible to come to the aid of theserefugees." He further reiterated that "to.deny them any aid is sheer inhumanity:'

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22/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

IPC celebrates 19th anniversary

to "seeing God," not in amateurish,ideological misuse of undigested data.

The Institute of Philippine Culture ofthe Ateneo de Manila University celebratedits 19th anniversary last September 151979. Since 1960, the IPC has been in­volved in a continuing series of studies onthe Philippines, its people and its ways, allaimed at a better understanding of humanbehavior and the solution of problems,in various areas such as education, equitjand development. The Institute has alsoassisted and supported budding researchersand scholars of varying nationalities underits Visiting Research Associate (VRA)program. Lecture series and trainingcourses in social science research have alsobeen extended by the IPC professionalstaff. It hopes to continue acquiring bet"ter understanding of Filipino ways andusing this knowledge for the improvementof society. Dr. Ricardo G. Abad is theInstitute's present director. Virginia A. Mi­ralao is the Chief of Operations and Thel­ma G. Padero is the Office Manager. Thesenior research associates are: Dr. Wilfre­do F. Arce, Dr. Mary R. Hollsteiner,:Jeanne Frances I. 1110, Dr. Perla Q. MakiJand Dr. Romana P. de los Reyes.

Keyes, S~J.;

.....;"Socioeconomic Aspects of FilipinoSugar Farm Workers: Three Viewsfrom the Cane Field," by AntonioJ. Ledesma, S.J.

In summarizing Lynch's intellectualapostolate, to which the special issue paystribute, Philippine Studies Editor Joseph L.Roche, S.J. writes:

The intellectual apostolate of Fr. Lynchwas not primarily that of a private beliefthat managed. to span social science andthe Christian Faith. Rather it was a wit­ness to the stark truth that science andfaith do ultimately mix; that a rigorousscientist can be an intense believer; thatno human science can afford to forgetthis truth without opening itself to theperil of slipping from science to scien­tism - a most unscientific position.An essential aspect of any human truthis to realize its limitations. Perhaps, then,"seeing God in all things" may not be

as strange as it might seem at first glance;it may help remind the social scientistthat the human beings he works withare persons with subjective ,dimensionsthat cannot adequately be quantified,and that all the tabulated data that helpso much to understand this mysteriousbeing always remain open to further di­mensions that will ever remain un-obiectl­fiable and untabulatable. It may alsohelp remind the theologian, so temptedthese days to dabble in economics, socio­logy, and political science, that it wasin the hard, patient, rigorously scientificresearch that Frank Lynch witnessed

New book on Tirurays

The University Press of the Ateneo de Manil<J has justreleased its latest schoiarlv title, TI RURAY SUB­S·ISTENCE: FROM SHIFTING CULTIVATION TOPLOW AGRICULTURE. The book represents ano­ther effort of the Press toward publishing scholarlyworks relevant to Philippine culture. Authored byUniversity of California Professor Stuart A. Schlegel,who has lived and done research among the Tirurayfor a number of years, Tiruray Subsistence offersnot only a case study of a traditional economicsystem but also a glimpse into the day-to-day acti­vities of these Southwestern Mindanao people.The Tiruray's traditional subsistence system con­sists of shifting cultivation in the rainforested hillsof the Cotabato cordillera, as well as extensive hunt­fishing, and gathering of wild resources. In recentdecades, however the forests to wh ich they are .

adapted have increasingly been cut and cleared by outside interests. Under these circum­stances, the Tiruray have been compelled to change over to sedentary plow farming.Dr. Schlegel describes both subsistence systems - the traditional and the peasantized ­and compares them with each other.

PHILIPPINE STUDIES special issue

Fr. Salazar disclosed that in an interna­tional conference of the Catholic churchin Bangkok where he was present, amongthe proposals were:

1. To ask parish communities to spon­sor at least one refugee family.

2. To work for the modification ofrefugee quotas. In a conference held inRome, the church organization launcheda plea for the mentally retarded refugees.Right now the Catholic church is callingupon civic groups and encouraging posi­tive action regarding the refugee prob­lem. On the whole, the Catholic churchis taking a humanitarian and moral pers­pective to the problem.

Several questions were raised in theforum regarding the issue. Among thequestions raised were: the official Philip­pine analysis of the refugee problem,the possibility of injecting the humanrights order in the issue and the impli­cations of the United States' program re­garding Vietnamese refugees.

The Ateneo de Manila's scholarly jour­nal, Philippine Studies, published by itsUniversity Press, has dedicated the secondquarter issue for 1979 to the memory ofFrank Lynch, S.J. - well-known Philip­pine social anthropologist, professor, andassociate editor of the journal, who diedin September, 1978..

The special issue, which includes a bib­liography of Fr. Lynch's writings availableat the University's Institute of PhilippineCulture, features articles on various topicsin which ·Fr. Lynch maintained an activeinterest:

-"Class Structure in the UnhispanizedPhilippines," by William HenryScott;

-"Social Change and Religion Amongthe Bukidnon," by Vincent CUllen,S.J.;

-"Jesuit Mission Policies in the Philip­pines (1859-1899)," by Jose S. Ar­cilia, S.J.;

-"Constraints to Rural Women's Parti­cipation in Philippine Development;A Report from the Field," by JeanneFrances I. /110;

-"Economic Development and theHousing Problem," by William J.

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/23

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I

iII.II

move

gers that they operate i~ a political envi- 'ronment.

About 60 participants composed of po­pulation programme managers, heads ofmanagement institutes, resource persons :and representatives of international or- I

ganizations attended the conference,"Sixty-five years of the Department of I

History (1914-1979)" was the theme of :the recent history week sponsored by theUP Department of History. Th is was held I

last September 17-23, 1979. The cele- 'bration began with a lecture and lunch I

for the present and past members of the I

department. There were exhibits, lecturesand a book sale. The week-long exhibitsfeatured publications of the department,antiques of historical importance, histo­rical sources of value to scholars, UP cata­logues showing the changes in the courseofferings of the department, a list of thenames of the chairmen of the departmentin chronological order and a list of facultymembers, non-teaching members and grad­uates of the department. Socials anddinner for the present faculty and non­teaching members and majors of thedepartment were the closing activitieswhich were held at the house of Dr. Boni­facio S. Salamanca.

Dr. Dwight Perkins, chairman and pro­fessor of Economics and Modern ChinaStudies of the Department of Economicsof Harvard University lectured on "Re­cent Economic Development Policy Chan­ges in China." This was held from 4-5p.m. at the University of the PhilippinesSchool of Economics Auditorlurm iastJuly 17, 1979. The UP School of Eeono­mics sponsoredthe lecture.

Dr. Jose Encarnacion, Jr., dean of the.UP School of Economics spoke on "Fer­tility Behavior and Labor Force Participa­tion: A Model of Lexicographic Choice.'The lecture was held last July 20, 1979from 10-l?~.m. at the UPSE ConferenceRoom.

5, 1979. Bro. Andrew also delivered apaper entitled "Language and Social De­velopment in the Pacific Area: Some Coun­try Indicators of Language Welfare.'" Histrip was funded by UNESCO. He was

social scientists on the

last August 16, 1979 at 2:30 p.m. at theUP Faculty Center Common Room. Itwas sponsored by the UP Department ofLinguistics and Asian Languages.

The International Rice Research Insti­tute in Los Banos presented Mr. KenethP. Haydock in its Thursday Seminar.Mr. Haydock talked on "Data Analysisand Research Methodology." He is avisiting scientist at the IRRI StatisticalDepartment. The seminar was held August2, 1979 at the Chandler Hall Auditorium.

The Fourth Biennial General Confer­ence of the Association of DevelopmentResearch and Training Institutes for Asiaand the Pacific (ADIPA) will be held inSeoul, Korea from October 8 to 13, 1979.Hosted by the Institute of EconomicResearch of Seoul National University,the theme of the conference is "PersistentProblems in Development and the ChoiceAmong Alternatives."

A Seminar-Workshop in EducationalPlanning and Management was held atCagayan de Oro City on June 6, 1979.Dr. Paz P. Mendez, Vice-President forResearch and Development and Dean ofthe Centro Escolar University GraduateSchool spoke on "The Sociocultural Di­mensions on Planning." On the same oc­casion Prof. Ruben de Castro of thesame university spoke on "OrganizationalDimension of Planning".

The 1979 Annual Conference of theInternational Committee on the Manage­ment of Population Programmes (ICOMP)was held in Nairobi, Kenya on July 24­26, 1979. This year's conference on thetheme "Managing Policy Support forPopulation Programmes" highlighted a sig­nificant dimension of the management ofpopulation programmes and reflected thegrowing awareness of programme mana-

Bro. Andrew B. Gonzalez, F.S.C., presi­dent of De La Salle University, served asco-convenor for one of the symposia of theXIVth Pacific Congress held at Khaba­rovsk, U.S.S.R. August 20 to September

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

conferencesworkshops,seminars,

The 7th Divisional Assembly of the Di­vision ofSocial Sciences was held last July27, 1979 from 2-5 p.m. at the UP FacultyCenter Conference Hall. Among the topicsdiscussed were guidelines and policy mat­ters based on the report of the chairmenof the working committees and the asso­ciate dean's report.

Paglikom 8 (Pagsasanay para sa Mgalider ng Komunidad) a training program forUP Social Work students was held lastAugust 21-31 and sponsored by theUP Institute of Social Work and Commu­nity Development. The general objectiveof the training program was to maximizetrainees' effectiveness by providing themopportunities to form their own perspec­tives on development and leadership, andacquire concepts and skills needed foreffective leadership in the community.The training included lectures and discus­sions, workshops, case studies, simulationand group dynamics. Among the topicsdiscussed were "The Leader and the Com­munity" and "Leadership Concepts andSknls."

Partners 4, a six-week training course inSocial Work and Community Developmentsponsored by the UP-ISWCD began lastSeptember 17. It was held at the UPISWCD. The general objective of the courseis to maximize trainees' effectiveness byproviding them opportunities to acquirea conceptual framework and strengthenappropriate skills for development work.The training includes workshops, lectures,discussions, case studies, simulation, groupdynamics, audio-visual presentation andfield visits. Among the topics discussedwere "Philippine Realities," "Generic Con­cepts in Community Work" and "SpecificSkills in Community Work."

The Department of Linguistics andAsian Languages, UP sponsored a lectureon "Development and Use of a FilipinoEtymological Dictionary." Dr. David Zorewas the guest speaker. The lecture washeld last JUly 12, 1979 at 2:30 p.m. at theUP Faculty Center Common Room.

"A Review of Dr. Teodoro A. L1am­zon's Handbook of Philippine LanguageGroups" was the topic of Dr. ArsenioManuel's recent lecture. This was held

,TetsuroSasaki, a professor at the Facul­

ty of Education, Tohoku University willrejoin the IPC to' pursue a research pro­ject entitled "Community Development inUrban Areas of Developing Countries:•A Case of Tondo, Manila."

••

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24/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

granted per diem support by the PSSC.

Manuel F. Bonifacio, commodity teamleader for applied rural sociology of thePhilippine Council for Agriculture andResources Research, was recently awardedthe Jacques Parisot Foundation medalfor his research accomplishments in thefield of social medicine. Dr. Bonifacio wascited during the 32nd world health assem­bly of the United Nations World HealthOrganization in GeneYa, Switzerland. Dr.Bonifacio holds a Ph.D. in Sociology fromthe University of Pennsylvania. Prior tohis present position, he served as thedean of the UP Institute of Social Workand Community Development.

Marcelino A. Foranda, professor of his­tory at De La Salle University and PSSCExecutive Board member, accepted theinvitation to join the International Ad­visory Board for the International Journalof Oral History. The journal is edited byRonald Grele and is being published in theUnited States. Dr. Foronda, who has beeninvolved in oral history projects since 1972joins the ranks of distinguished oral h isto­rians from Europe and the Americas asadvisers to the journal.

David Zorc, an American linguist whoteaches in Australia, is currently in thecountry with his Filipino wife to producea Core Etymological Dictionary of Pili­pino. Dr. Zorc was commissioned by theLinguistic Consortium of Ateneo Univer­sity, De La Salle University, and thePhilippine Normal College, the Surian ngWikang Pambansa, and the LinguisticSociety of the Philippines to undertakethe project.ln tracing the history of Pilipi­no words, he uses the time-framework:3,000 years ago for native words (kawayan- bamboo), 4,000 years ago for relatedwords in Indonesian languages (bigas ­rice), and 8,000 years ago for words inPolynesian languages (layag - sail). Dr.Zorc has so far collected 9,000 entries.

Curtis McFarland, visiting professor fortwo years at De La Salle University willenplane for Japan to serve another stintas visiting professor at the Tokyo Univer­sity for Foreign Studies. While in thePhilippines, Dr. McFarland finished a pro­ject entitled the Linguistics Atlas of thePhilippines.

Casilda Luzares, associate professor at

mn 77

the Dept. of Languages and Literature,De La Salle University (DLSU) left in lateJune for an observation tour of Englishfor Special Purposes (ESP) Centers inSingapore, Great Britain and Germany.She will also attend two in-service courseson Language and Education and ESPat the University of Lancaster in England.Sponsors for her trip are the British Coun­cil, A.S. Hornby Foundation, United Boardfor Christian Higher Education in Asia,De La Salle University, and the Fundfor Assistance to Private Education.

Exaltacion C. Ramos, former chair­person of the Dl.SU Behavioral SciencesDept., was appointed Dean of Arts andSciences by University President AndrewB. Gonzalez, FSC. The new dean is con­currently the Executive Director ofDLSU's Integrated Research Center and afaculty member of the Graduate Schoolof Business.

MacArthur Corsino, professor and headof Silliman University's Southeast AsiaProgram, received a grant to spend sixmonths at the Institute of SoutheastAsian Studies in Singapore. He plans torevise his dissertation on the communistparty in Indonesia for publication.

Karl Hutterer and William K. Mac­Donald of the Museum of Anthropologyarrived in May to conduct archaeologicalfieldwork in the area of Bais, southeasternNegros. Both are working under a grantawarded by the National Science Founda­tion for an extensive and systematic sur­vey of the area. The work will last up toAugust. It involves five Americans, fourFilipinos and one Japanese. The Filipinoparticipants are from the National Mu­seum, the University of San Carlos andSilliman University. It is hoped that thisyear's work will lay the ground for afour to five-year multidisciplinary re­search program investigating the environ­mental and sociocultural history of theBais area in depth.

Araceli N. Resus of the Department ofBehavioral Sciences of the PhilippineChristian University attended two con­ferences held in observance of the Inter­national Year of the Child. The conferen­ces were held last April 26-28, 1979 atthe University of Cincinnati. The themeof both conferences was "The Socializa-

tion of Children in a Changing Society".The travel grant was awarded to Mrs.Resus by the Board of Global Ministriesand the Women's Division of the UnitedMethodist Church and the PhilippineChristian University.

Bichin Uy, director of research, Uni·versity of Negros Occidental-Recoletos,will participate in a series of summerworkshops at the National HumanisticEducation Center (NHEC), SaratogaSprings, New York. She will be away for

. one semester.

Bruce Cruikshank, an associate at theCenter for Southeast Asian Studies at theUniversity of Wisconsin is now affiliateclwith the Institute of Philippine Culture un­der its Visiting Research Associate Pro­gram. He will do a postdoctoral study en­titled "The Franciscans in the Philippines,1578-1899." The Social Science ResearclilCouncil, New York funds the study.

Gerard Sussman, a Ph. D. candidate inthe Department of Political Science of theUniversity of Hawaii is now affiliated witlilthe IPC under its VBA program. Witlilfunds from the East-West Center, he williconduct a study on "The Political Econo­my of Communication Satellite Transfers.The Philippines and Indonesia" for: hisdissertation.

.Barbara Margaret Dobson is the loneJunior Visiting Research Associate of theIPC. She is an M.A. candidate in anthrof-_pology at the University of Western Aus­tralia (Perth). Her study entitled "Mar­riage by Elopement in the Philippines" willfocus on the contemporary marriage beha­vior particularly the changes in the tradi~

tional marriage modes of Christian Taga"log villagers in Nueva Ecija.

Elizabeth U. Eviota, IPC research asso­ciate and project director of the Womenin Development Project,. represented thePhilippines in the seminar-workshop "Useof Census and Other Data on Women to ,Set Development Goals." This was held last IJune 18-25, 1979 at Chamrousse, France.

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II

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••••••••••••••••••••••announcements••••••••••••••••••••••PAEF Fulbright-Hays grants

The Philippine-American EducationalFoundation (PAEF) has announced theavailability of grants in limited numberfor graduate and non-degree professionalenrichment programs to researchers andlecturers in the United States and in thePhilippines. This PAEF program is knownas the Mutual Educational Exchange Pro­gram (Fulbright-Hays Act).

Applications from the Philippines aresolicited from January 1 through March 31in Manila, Cebu and Davao.

Applicants must be in good health:proficient in English; and have an out­standing record and preparation with atleast two years work experience in theirchosen field of study. They must have aserious commitment towards the comple­tion of the advanced stUdy program andare obligated to their home country at thecompletion of the program. They mustdisplay personality traits and sensitivitesthat will allow them to adapt and adjustreadily to a different cultural milieu. Theymust be able to contribute a fair pictureof their own culture, thereby promotingunderstanding and friendshjp with peoplein other societies.

Grant benefits can include full support,partial support or travel costs only.

More detailed information on the grantis available at the PAEF office, Rm. 301,Teodorica Apartments, 1148 Roxas Boule­vard,. Manila. Interested parties may write'toPAEF, P. O. Box 151, Manila.

Mason program in policyand management '

The Edward S. Mason Program in Policyand Management offers fellowships to pub­Iic officials and university lecturers fromdeveloping countries who are interestedin pursuing the Master in Public Adminis­tration degree course at Harvard Univer­sity.

Mason fellows have a wide range ofcourse choices among which are: socialsector planning and management; popula­tion and nutrition; urban and regional de-

velopment; management and administra­tion; economic planning and developing;and international, business and othereconomics.

Interested applicants may inquire fur­ther by writing to: The AdministratorEdward S. Mason Program in Policy andManagement, Harvard Institute for Inter­national Development, 1737 CambridgeStreet, Room 603, Cambridge, Massa­chussetts 02138, USA.

German foundation offersSoutheast Asian programme

The Stiftung Volkswagenwerk is offer­ing a special program sponsoring researchand education in the humanities and so­cial sciences in Southeast Asia. Th is pro­gramme is one of the priorities under theFoundation's Area Studies Programmesand is implemented chiefly in SoutheastAsia.

The Programme welcomes applicationsfor the following projects:

1. RESEARCH PROJECTS: Should berelated to 'problems of special importancefor the present and future developmentof the countries of the region and theregion as a whole, should be multi-disci­plinary in character or the resuIts shouldbe capable of multidisciplinary evaluation,should not exceed an average size of twoor three persons and a period of threeyears. Some potential topics include aqro­sociological studies, stUdies in urbansociology, problems of central ization anddecentralization in administration, envi­ronmental problems political movementsand parties, ethnic questions, historicalproblems.

2. TRAINING ASSISTANCE: Seminarsfor retraining and specialized training aswell as methodological training of youngscientists, post-graduate training program­mes in specialized subjects by providingthe funds for hiring additional teachersand by making available a limited numberof scholarships for post1Jraduate parti·cipants.

3. EQUIPMENT ASSISTANCE: Avail­able in limited numbers and on a financialscale up to US$15,000, if the need can bedemonstrated.

4. WORKSHOPS: May be funded bypayment of the travell ing expenses and per

JUL Y -SEPTEMBER 1979/25:

diems if they are organized to promotecommunication about a specific scientifictopic, if they will give rise to interdiscipli­nary and supralocal cooperation, if youngscientists participate adequately, if allparticipants can contribute actively asexperts to the scientific topic of a meet­ing.

For further information, scholars andinstitutions may write to Stiftung Volks­wagenwerk, clo Dr. Wolfgang Wittwer,Kastanienallee 35, POB 810509, 01-3000Hannover 81, Federal Republic of Germa­ny.

IAHA eighth conference

The Eighth Conference of the lnterna­tional Association of Historians of Asia willbe held August 25-29, 1980 in lKualaLumpur, Malaysia.

Participants who wish to present papersshould notify the Secretary General byOctober 31, 1979 and an abstract of thepaper should be submitted at the sametime.

The organizing committee will hav,e thefinal word regarding the acceptance ofpapers. The following topics could beused as a guide in the writing of papers:bibliographical studies, conflict resolution,ethnicity and development, historiognaphyand method, leadership and authority" legalhistory, nationalism, oral history, partysystems, archaeology, religions, culturaland philosophical histories, social his­tory in relation to industrialization, migra­tion, interrelations in Southeast Asia andinternational relations of Southeast Asia

Participants are responsible for payingtheir own travel and personal expenses.Registration fee is US $50 per participant.Forms may be obtained from:

The Secretary GeneralEighth IAHA ConferenceDepartment of History

Universiti Kebangsaan MalaysiaBangi, Malaysia

International coursesin the Netherlands

The Dutch government is currentlyoffering several social science related post­graduate and post secondary courses for .

26/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

interested scholars. These internationalcourses are being coordinated by the.Netherlands Universities Foundation forInternational Cooperation (NUFFIC) andare focused on the problems of develop­ment.

Among the courses are:1. Aerial survey and earth sciences

conducted by the International Institutefor Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences,Emschede, Delft;

2. Social sciences conducted by theInstitute of Social Studies, The Hague;

3. Local government conducted by theInternational Union of local Authori­ties, The Hague; and

4. Industrialization conducted by theInternational Summer Course on Indus­trialization, The Hague.

All courses are multidisciplinary inapproach, of immediate practical appli­cation, and of relatively short duration.Given in English, these courses are opento qualified persons already practicingtheir professions.

FuJI details are available from "BasicData on International Courses Offeredin the Netherlands" by writing to:

NUFFICP. O. Box 90734

2509 lS, The HagueThe Netherlands

Interested persons may also inquire atthe Dutch Embassy or Consulate.

Articles invited

Anthropologists specialiZing on thePhilippines are invited to contributearticles to a proposed Volume NumberThree of the series on Social Changein Modern Philippines: Perspectives, Prob­lems and Prospects.

Two volumes of the same title havealready been published by the editors ofPapors in Anthropology, University of Ok­lahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, U.S.A. Thethird volume will deal mainly with someaspects of directed sociocultural changeunder the martial law regime.

For particulars on this project, pleasewrite:

Mario D. ZamoraDepartment of AnthropologyCollege of William and Mary

Williamsburg, VA 23185U.S.A.

Conference on thePacific community

The Institute of International Studiesof the University of Chile and the ChileanInstitute of Humanistic Studies are organi­zing a conference around the theme "ThePacific Community: Towards A Role forlatin America." This will be held atEaster Island, Chile from October 18-23,1979. The conference will be sponsored bythe Tinker Foundation of New York andthe Federal Republic of Germany. Thefollowing are the specific topics on whichpapers are encouraged:

1. History and culture as the founda­tions of a Pacific Community.

2. Geography of islands as a new di­mension of trans-pacific relations.

3. Economic development in the Paci­fic Basin and the prospects of cooperation.

4. Natural resources and ocean re­sources as the basis of a special relation­ship.

5. Political linkages in the Pacific Basinand its role in international relationsh ip.

6. Schemes of international cooperationand the perspectives of a growing trans­pacific interaction.

7. Emergence of the South Pacific asa regional community.

8. latin America and Chile in a Trans­pacific dimension.

Further details are available at theoffice of the Third World Studies Program,4th floor, College of Arts and Sciences,University of the Philippines, or tel. no.97 -60-61 local 783.

lORe Population andDevelopment Research Program

The Population and Development Re­search Program in the International Deve­lopment Research Center (IDRC) is de­signed to assist developing countries inundertaking research to expand under­standing of population dynamics andpolicies. The program operates as an in­tegral part of a broader IDRC program insupport of social science research in de­veloping countries. The program is respon­sive to research needs defined by deve­loping' countries. The areas within whichfinancial support may be given are undercontinual review and subject to change

over time.The Population and Development Re­

search Program was established in 1970 b¥an Act of the Canadian Parliament. Whilefunded by appropriations voted by theParliament of Canada, the centre is govern­ed by an international Board of Governors..

The IORC Board of Governors considerproject proposals in the light of the fol­lowing criteria:

National priority: Projects should relate!to national policy issues in the area ofpopulation and development as recognizedlby local policy makers and researchers;Research projects should demonstrate po­tential policy relevance'.

Utilization Of local personnel and re·,sources: Preference is given to developingcountry scholars residing in the countrywhere the research project is to be under-taken. ,

Rural emphasis: IDRC gives priority toprojects related to problems of rural popu­lations who have not benefited from tech­nological programs to the same extent asurban people.

Regional applicability: The methodolo­gy and results of the proposed researchshould be widely appticable in the coun­try and the region where the work is done.

Contributions to knowledge: Priority isgiven to research on topics wherein rela­tively little is known.

Geographic scope: IDRC operates in allparts of the developing world, includingAsia, latin America, the Middle Eastand the Caribbean.

Research training: IDRC seeks toen~ance the potential of projects for train­ing and increasing research capacity at boththe individual and institutional levels. indeveloping countries.

For further information, contact anyof the following:

Head Office: ::.. Social Sciences Division

International Development Research CenterBox 8500

Ottawa, OntarioCanada K1 G 3H9

Asia Regional Office: - Social SciencesDivision

International Development Research CenterrAsia Regional Office

Tanglin, P.O. Box 101Singapore 9124

: II

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••information section...............................

GRANTEES

Entry format: Name. Nature of grant/fieldof specialization. Place. Grantor.

Ma. Lorenza Dalupan. Thesis grant (M.A.studies in social anthropology). Ateneode Manila University. Institute of Philip­pine Culture and the Ford Foundation.

Rosendo Fernandez. Thesis grant (M.A.studies). Ateneo de Manila University.Institute of Philippine Culture and theFord Foundation.

Esperanza Roco. Thesis grant (M.A. studies,in social anthropology). Ateneo de Ma­nila University. Institute of PhilippineCulture and the Ford Foundation.

Fely David. Thesis grant (M.A. studies insocial anthropology). Ateneo de ManilaUniversity. Institute of Philippine Cul­ture and the Ford Foundation.

Sulpicio Roco, Jr. Thesis grant (M.A.studies). Ateneo de Manila University.Institute of Philippine Culture and theFord Foundation.

Sonia Imperial. Thesis grant (M.A. studiesin social anthropology). Ateneo de Ma­nila University. Institute of PhilippineCulture and the Ford Foundation.

Aniceto Oliva. Thesis grant (M.A. studiesin social anthropology). Ateneo de Ma­nila University. Institute of PhilippineCulture and the Ford Foundation.

Jeanne Frances I. 11/0. Thesis grant (Ph. D.studies). Ateneo de Manila University.Institute of Philippine Culture and theFord Foundation.

Fernando Zialcita. Thesis grant (Ph. D.studies). Ateneo de Manila University.Institute of Philippine Culture and theFord Foundation.

RESEARCH PROJECTS

Reported researches and projects con­templated, ongoing and completed for theperiod July 1979-September 1979.

Entry format: Title of research/project.Project director. Home institution.Status. Source of funding.

Status of research project:Contemplated - formal proposaldrawn.Ongoing - preparatory activities af­ter proposal is approved to the stagebefore the completion of the finalwrite-up.Completed - final write-up accom­plished.

A Comprehensive and Critical Review ofPoverty Research in the Philippines.Florian A. Alburoand Eduardo l. Ro­berto. University of the Philippines andAsian Institute of Ma!'lagement, res­pectively. Ongoing. Philippine Institutefor Development Studies.

A Macroeconomic Model of the Philip­pines. Virgilio T. Velasco. Universityof the Philippines School of Economics.Ongoing. Philippine Institute for Deve­lopment Studies.

Changing Rural Institutions, the SmallFarmer and the Landless: A Review ofthe Philippine Experience. Gelia Cas­tillo. University of the Philippines atlos Banos. Ongoing. Philippine Insti­tute for Development Studies.

Documentation on the NIA-Ford PilotIrrigation Projects in Cama;ines Sur.Jeanne Frances I. 1110. Institute of Phil­ippine Culture. Ongoing. NIA-Ford.

Econometric Planning Model Project. Vir­gilio T. Velasco. Asian Institute ofManagement. Ongoing. Philippine Insti­tute for Development Studies.

Heterosexual Behaviors and Attitudes ofthe Seniorsof the BarangayHigh Schoolin Canlubang Sugar Estate. Pililia V.Hernandez. Centro Escolar University.Ongoing.

Industrial Promotion Policies Project. Ho­

meo M. Bautista and John H. Power.University of the Philippines and theUniversity of Hawaii, respectively. On­going. Philippine Center for EconomicDevelopment. National Economic andDevelopment Authority and PhilippineInstitute for Development Studies.

Multi-Media Support' for Population Pro­grams in the Context of Rural Develop­ment in Asian Countires. Gloria Feli-

JULY-SEPTEMBER 197.9/27

ciano. University of the PhilippinesInstitute of Mass Communication. On­going. United Nations Fund for Papu­lation Activities (UNFPA).

Patterns of Speaking in Pilipino RadioDramas: A Sociolinguistic Analysis. Ma.lourdes S. Bautista. De La Salle Uni­versity. Completed. Institute for theStudy of Asian and African langwageand Cultures, Tokyo University forForeign Studies.

Research on Income and Wealth in thePhilippines: A Survey. Mahar K. Manga­has. University of the Philippines. On­going Philippine Institute for Develop­ment Studies.

Socialization Patterns in Barrio Tulay:A Case Study. leonora B. Guerr,ero.Centro. Escolar University. Ongo.ing.

Sources of Philippine Economic Growth1948-1978 and Prospects for the1980's. Harry T. Oshima and CasimiroV. Miranda. University of Hawaii andUniversity of the Philippines, respec­tively. Ongoing. Philippine Institute forDevelopment Studies.

Study of Social Services Delivery Mechan­isms. Raul P. de Guzman. UP Collegeof Public Administration. Conternpla­ted. .

Survey on Competencies of Social ScienceFaculties in Philippine Colleges andUniversities. Ofelia R. Angangco. Divi­sion of Social Sciences. Ongoing. Na­tional Research Council of the Philip­pines (N RCP).

The Filipino Adolescent in a Rural and anUrban Setting. Dr. Paz P. Mendez andDr. F. Landa Jocano. Centro EscolarUniversity. Ongoing.

The lIocano Way of Life as Reflected inSelectedShort Stories. Filomena V. Ri­vera. Centro Escolar University. On­going.

The Philippine Financial Market: A Modelof Portfolio Choice, Saving Behaviorand Finance Decision. Edita A. Tan..University of the Philippines. Ongoing.Philippine Institute for -DevelopmentStudies.

RECENT PUBLICATIONS

Reported publications for the periodJuly 1979-September 1979.Entry Format: Title. Author/Editor. Home

institution. Type. Where published (if

I'

IIII

, IiI

III

IIiI

28/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION'

it is an article). Amount. Date. No. ofpages/page numbers. Where available.

BOOKS/MONOGRAPHS

A Study of the Ministry of Public High­ways. Alex Brillantes, Jr. UP College ofPublic Administration. Monograph.1979. Send orders to Research and Pub­lications Program, UP College of PublicAdministration, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Accessibility of Govemment Health Servi­ces in the Bicol River Basin Area. Ma.Lourdes S. Joves. UP College of PublicAdministration. CPA Bicol StudiesSeries. 1978. Send orders to Researchand Publications Program, UP CPA,P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Agricultural Extension Services in Cama­.nnes Sur and Albay. Alex B. Brillantes,Jr. UP College.of Public Administration.CPA Bicol Studies Series. 1978. P5.50/US$1.50. Send orders to UP CPA,P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Foreign Investmentsand the Multinational.Corporations in the Philippines. Edber­to M. Villegas. De La Salle University.Monograph. Third World Studies, Col­lege of Arts and Sciences, UP. Philip­pines in the Third World Papers SeriesNo. 11. August 1978.

Law in the Mobilization and ParticipatoryOrganization of the Rural Poor: TheKagawasan Case. Richard Fernandez,et al. Institute of Philippine CUlture.Research report. 1979. Send orders tothe Institute of Philippine Culture,Ateneo de Manila University, LoyolaHeights, Quezon City.

Local Govemments in the Bicol River Ba­sin Area. Remigio Edgardo C. Ocenar.UP College of Public Administration.CPA Bical Studies Series. 1978. 32 pp.P4.50/US$1.50. Send orders to UPCPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Locating "Restructured" Rural Health Fa­cilities in Bicol Towns: A Case Study ofMinalabac and Malinac. Ramon Bona,Jr. UP College of Public Administration.CPA Bicol Studies Series. 1978. 14 pp.P3.50/US$1.00. Send orders to Re­search and Publications Program, UPCPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Manila Urban Development Project: A

Study in Public Bo"owinf/8 and Pro­jec,tDevelopment. Luzviminda B. Encar­nacion, Maila A. Lapuz and Ma. Cora­

zon Using. UP College of Public Admi­nistration. Monograph. Public Adn4inis­tration Occasional Papers. 44 pp. P5.50/US$1.50. Send orders to Rljsearch andPublications Program, UP CPA, P.O.Box 474, Manila. /

Marine Fishing Communities: A BaselineStudy. Anicia P~glinauan-Castillo. Insti­tute of Philippine CUlture, Ateneo deManila University, Lovola Heights,Quezon City.

Ministry of Labor: A Study of Policies,Programs and Structures. Elena T. Mar­celino. UP College of Public Adminis­tration. Monograph. 1979. Send orders.to Research and Publications Program,UP CPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

Outline of Philippine Mythology. Dr. F.Landa Jocano. Centro Escolar Univer­sity. (Third Reprinting).

Philippine English of the Mass Media.AndreW B. Gonzalez, F.S.C. and WiI­fredo Alberca. De La Salle University.Book. 1978. Manila: DLSU ResearchCouncil. FOithcoming.

Refonn Politics in a Suburban Govern­ment Setting. Ledivina V. Carino andArturo G. Pacho. UP College of PublicAdministration Monograph. 1978. Sendorders to Research and PublicationsProgram, UP CPA, P.O. Box 474, Mani­la.

Regional Development Planning. FranciscoG. Balitaan. UP College of Public Ad­ministration. CPA Bicol Studies Series.1978. 37 pp, P5.50/US$2.00. Send or­ders to UP CPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

,Reversing the Brain Drain: TheBalik Scien­tist Program in the Philippines. OliviaC. Caoili. UP College of Public Adminis­tration Occasional Papers. 20 pp. P3.00/US$l .00. Send orders to Research andPublications Program, UP CPA, P.O.Box 474, Manila.

Rice Production and Land Reform. JoseCalderon. Centro Escolar University.Book. P35 for the hardbound; P15 forthe newsprint. CEU Graduate School.

Risk, Uncertainty and Agricultural ueve­lopment. James A. Roumasset, Jean­Marc Boussard, and Inderjit Singh,editors. Agricultural Development

'COuncil. Book. Published by the Agrn­cultural Development Council and theSoutheast Asian Regional Center forGraduate Study and Research in Agri·culture (SEARCA). Available atSEARCA, Los Banos, t:aguna.

Society, Culture and the Filipino. )MarvRaceiis Hollnsteiner, editor. Institute ofPhilippine Culture. Book. 1979. P32(newsprint). P52 (book paper}/ $14(newsprind, $32 (bookpaper), Pleasesend orders to PSSC Central Subserlp­tion Service, P.O. Box 655, GreenhillslMetro Manila 3113.

Socio-cultural Factors Influencing the Uti.lization of. Mangrove R660urces in thePhilippines: Fishpond vs. Other uSes;Abraham B. Velasco. Paper (Fifth Inter.national Symposium on Tropical Eco­logy, University of Malaya, Kuala Lum­pur, April 16-21, 1979). Published inCanopy Intemational. Vol. 5 No.6,June 1979. Published by the ForestResearch Institute, Ministry of NaturalResources. Pp. 6-7,15.

The Case of Annexation of Daraga to Le­gazpi City. Rodolfo C. Sabio. UPCollege of Public Administration. CPABicol Studies Series. 1978. 23 pp.P3.50/US$ 1.00. Send orders to UPCPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

The Concept of Man in the ConsociatedModel: A Phenomenal Existential Ap­proach. Carolina de los Santos Guina,UP College of Public Administration.Monograph. Public Administration Oc­casional Papers. 36 pp. P4.50/liS$1.50..Send orders to Research and Publica­tions Program, UP CPA, P.O. Box 474"Manila.

The Construction of a Syllabus and Text-:book for Pilipino 2 in College. Eduardo:T. Deveza and Pruetuosa Coneepclorn

Guamen. De La Salle University. Book.1917. Singapore: Regional Language'.Center. Southeast Asian Ministers ofEducation Organization.

The Filipino Family in Its Rural and Ur­ban Orientation. Dr. Paz P. Mendez:and Dr. F. Landa Jocano.. Centro Es­colar University. (Third reprinting).

The Health Science Center: A StructuralApproach to Organization Develop­ment Salvador R. Salceda and Pacita

. Hamos-Salceda. UP Colleqe of PublicAdministration. Monograph. Public

1

1

1

..

Administration Occasional Papers.1979. Send orders to UP CPA, P.O. Box474, Manila.

The Location of Barangay High Schoolsin Two Bikol Towns: A Case Study inLocal Decision-Making. Remigio Edgar­do D. Ocenar. UP College of PublicAdministration. CPA Bicol Studies Se­ries. 1978. 14 pp. P3.50/US$1.00. Sendorders to UP CPA, P.O. Box 474, Mani­la.

The Offshore Petroleum Resources ofSoutheastAsia: Potential Conflict Situa­tions and Related Economic Considera­tions. Corazon M. Siddayao. Instituteof Southeast Asian Studies. Book.205 pp. 1978. US$40.00 copy. Pleasesend orders to ISEAS, Cluny Road,Singapore 10.

The Rural Health Practice Program: AnEvaluation of the Rural Service Re­quirement for Health Professionals. MilaA. Reforma. UP College of Public Ad­ministration. Monograph. Public Ad­ministration Occasional Papers. 35 pp,P3.50/US$1.00. Send orders to Re­search and Publications Program, UPCPA, P.O. Box 474, Manila.

The Social World of the Tausug. JuanitoBruno, Centro Escolar University.(Third reprinting).

ARTICLES

"A Bibliography of Frank Lynch, 5.J."Teresa Cruz and Rafaelita S. Valera.Ateneo de Manila University. PhilippineStudies. Vol. 27, Second Quarter 1979.Pp. 247-276. Please refer to the journallisting.

"A Pluralistic View of Filipinism in Lite­rature." Leonard Casper. Article. Phil­ippine Studies. Vol. 27 First Quarter1979. Pp. 38......52. Please refer to thejournal listing.'

"Andam-Mouswag: A Lesson Learned,"John P. McAndrew. Ateneo de ManilaUniversity. Article. Philippine Studies.Vol. 26: Fourth Quarter 1978.Pp. 391-425. Please refer to the journallisting.

"Ang Gampanin ng Panitikan at Kritisismosa Sosyalismo at Komunismo." JoseJavier Reyes. De La Salle University.Article. Daop Diwa. Vol. II No. 1Pp. 5-22. Please refer to journal list­ing.

"Ang Kayamanan ng Wikang Pilipino."Emerita S. Quito. De La Salle Uni­versity. Article. Daop Diwa. Vol. IINo.1. Pp. 23-31. Please refer to jour­nallisting.

"Attitude Toward Language in the Philip­pines." Yvan Putseys. University Facul­

_ties of Saint Aloysius, Belgium. Arti­cle. Saint Louis University ResearchJoumal. Pp. 1-15. Please refer to jour­nal listing.

"Behavior Modification in the Classr9om. "Erlinda P. Juan. Marishan School,Baguio City. Article. Saint Louis Uni­versity Research Journal. Pp. 96-123.Please refer to journal listing.

"Bilingual Education Four Years After andBeyond." Andrew B. Gonzalez, F.S.C.De La Salle University. Article. ThePhilippine Joumal of Education. Vol.57 No.6. Pp. 286-288.1978.

"Class Structure in the UnhispanizedPhilippines." William Henry Scott.Article. Philippine Studies. Vol. 27Second Quarter 1979. Pp. 137-159.Please refer to the journal listing.

"Constraints to Rural Women's Participa­tion in Philippine Development: A Re­port from the Field." Jeanne Frances I.1110. Ateneo de Manila University.Article. Philippine Studies. Vol. 27Second Quarter 1979. Pp. 198-209.Please refer to the journal listing.

"Criteria for Shaping Spatial ProductionSystems. " David M. Smith. QueenMary College, University of London.Article. Philippine Geographical Jour­nal. Pp. 74-83. Please refer to journallisting.

"Death in Baras." Ma. Caridad Isidro. Ate­neo de Manila University. Article.Philippine Studies. Vol. 26, FourthQuarter 1978. Pp. 363-390. Pleaserefer to the journal listing.

"Economic Development and the HousingProblem." William J. Reyes, S.J. Ateneode Manila University. Article. Philip­pine Studies. Vol. 27, Second Quarter1979. Pp. 210-230. Please refer to thejournal listing.

Environmental Studies: The Fifth Tradi­tion of GeograPhy." Dominador Z.Rosell. Natio~al Science DevelopmentBoard. Article. Philippine GeographicalJournal. Pp. 50-57. Please refer tojournal listing.

"Ethnographic Survey of the Higa-anon

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/29

Tribe in the Border Regionsof Agusan,Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental." JuanR. Francisco and Angelo A. Bernardo.Philippine-American Educational Foun­dation and University of the Philip­pines, respectively. Article. Papers inMindanao Ethnography. Pp. 1-34.Please refer to journal listing.

"Folk Cults." Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr.De La Salle University. Article. Fili­pino Heritage: The Making of a Na­tion (The Spanish Colonial Period)(18th/19th Centuries) Roots of Ne­tionalldentity. Pp. 1621-1624.

"From Mardicas to Filipinos: Ternate,Cavite, in Philippine History." VicenteL. Rafael. Ateneo de Manila Uni­versity. Article. Philippine Studies.Vol. 26 Fourth Quarter 1978. Pp. 343­362. Please refer to the journal listing.

"Jesuit Mission Policies in the Philippines(1859-1899)." Jose S.Arcilla, S.J.Ateneo de Manila University. Article.Philippine Studies. Vol. 27 SecondQuarter 1979. Pp. 176-197. Please re­fer to the journal listing.

"Kalinga Child-Rearing-and Other Practi­ces." Guido B. Mangawit. Saint WiI­iam's Academy, Tabuk, Kalinga-Apa·yao. Article. Saint Louis University Re­search Journal. Pp. 61-87. Please referto journal listing.

"Perspectives on Bilingual Education."Anunciacion D. Orian. Saint LouisUniversity. Article (lecture delivered at-­the Faculty Development Program ofthe Lucban Elementary School, DistrictIII, Baguio City). Saint Louis Univer­sity Research Joumal. Pp, 32-43.Please refer to journal listing.

"Philippine Population Growth. A ""ewProjection." Francis C. _Madigan, S.J.Xavier University. Article. Kina-adman.Pp, 49-68. Please refer to journal Ilist­ing.

"Recent 1I0Kano Fiction in Hawaii." Mar­celino A. Foronda, Jr. De la Salle Uni­versity. Article. Bulletin of the Ameri­can Historical Collection. Vol. VI.No. 25. October-December 1978.Pp.8-30.

"Rituals in Manila's 'Catacombs'." VicenteMarasigan, S.J. Ateneo de Manila Uni­versity. Notes and Comments. Philip­pine Studies. Vol. 27 First Quarter1979. Pp. 74-81. Please refer to thejournal Listing.

30/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

Samtoy: The Intrepid ttokeno Epic."Marcelino Foronda, Jr. De La SalleUniversity. Article. Filipino Heritage:The Making of a Nation (The SpanishColonial Period) (T8th/19th Centuries)Roots of National Identity. Pp. 1556­1562.

"Social Change and Religion Among theBukidnon." Vincent Cullen, S.J. Ateneode Manila University. Article. Philip­pine Studies. Vol. 27 Second Quarter1979. Pp. 160-175. Please refer tojournal listing.

"Socioeconomic Aspects of Filipino SugarFarms Workers: Three Views from the •Cane Field." Antonio J. Ledesma, S.J.,Ateneo de Manila University. Article.Philippine Studies. Vol. 27 SecondOuarter 1979. Pp. 231-246. Please re­fer to journal listIng.

"Subanun Culture in Transition." Conse­jo V. Lavina. Mindanao State Universi­ty. Article. Papers in Mindanao Ethno­graphy. Pp. 35-69. Please refer tojournal listing.

"The Evolution of the Socio«onomicApproach to Forest Occupancy (Ka­ingin) Management in the Philippines."Geoffrey A.J. Scott. University ofWinnipeg. Article. Philippine Geographi­ical Journal. Pp. 58-73. Please referto journal listing.

"The God of Philippine Christians." JamesH. Ebner. De La Salle University. Arti­cle. Philippine Priests' Forum. Vol. XNo.4.Pp.46-53.1978.

"The Hazards of the Theological-LiteraryCritic." Joseph A. Galdon, S.J. Ateneode Manila University. Review Article.Philippine Studies. Vol. 27 First Quarter1979. Pp. 93-124. Please refer to jour­nal listing.

"The Lam-ang: A Great ttoceno Epic."Marcelino A. Foronda, Jr. De La SalleUniversity. Article. Filipino Heritage:The Making of a Nation (The SpanishColonial Period) (T8th/19th Centuries)Roots of National Identity. Pp. 1506­1512.

"The Mores of the Maguindanaos of Zam­boanga del Sur." Fileman Alfanta. Di­vision of Public Schools, Aurora, Zam­boanga del Sur. Article. NorthwesternMindanao Research Journal. Pp. 3-18.Please refer to journal listing.

"The Patterns of Conversion to Catholic­ism Among Subanons of Misamis Occi-

dental." Fr. Artemio A. Baluma. St. Ma­ry's ~minary, Ozamiz City. Article.Northwestem Mindanao ResearchJournal. Pp. 19-55. Please refer to jour­nallisting.

"The Task of a Jesuit University in thePhilippines." Bienvenido F. Nebres, S.J.Ateneo de Manila University. Notes andComments. Philippine Studies. Vol. 27First Quarter 1979. Pp. 82-92. Pleaserefer to journal listing.

"The Textbook Process: Getting the JobDone." Aurelio B. Calderon. De La S..IIeUniversity. Article. ASAP Newsletter.Vol. II No. 1. Pp. 16-23. 1979.

"The Theaters of Manila: 1846-1896."Cristina Laconico-Buenaventura. Ateneode Manila University. Article. PhilippineStudies. Vol. 27 First Quarter 1979.Pp.5-37.

"The Weekly Tabo-Tabo in Lopez Jaena,Misamis Occidental." Praxedito L. Can­tilang. Ministry of Public Information,Region XII. Article. Northwestem Min­danao Research Journal. Pp. 56-77.Please refer to journal listing.

"The White Horse Dancing.-" Joseph A.Galdon. Ateneo de Manila University.Review Article. Philippine Studies. Vol.26 Fourth Quarter 1978. Pp. 437­464. Please refer to journal listing.

JOURNALS

Daop Diwa. SemestraI na Lathalaing Pilipi­no para sa Pilipino ng Pamantasan ngDe La Salle. No.3 Enero 1979.

Kina-adman (Wisdom). A Journal of theSouthern Philippines. Joint publica­tion of the Ateneo de Davao, Ateneo deZamboanga and Xavier University. Mi­guel A. Bernad.S.J., editor. Ateneo deManila University. Volume 1. 1979.Available at Bookmark, Inc. P.O. Box1171, Manila P35/copy) and CellarBook Shop, 18090 Wyoming, Detroit,'Michigan 48221, U.S.A.

Northwestern Mindanao Research Joumal.Published by the Graduate School,Immaculate Conception College. Epifa­nia M. Alunan, editor. Vol. 5. 1979.Address all correspondence to theEditor, Graduate School, ImmaculateConception College, Ozamis City.

Papers in Mindanao Ethnography. DataPaper No.1, Ethnography Series 1979.

An occasional publication of the Uni­versity Research Center, MindanaoState University. P8.QQ. Please sendorders to University Research Center,Mindanao State University, P.O. Box5594, IIigan City.

Philippine Geographical Journal. Officialquarterly journal of the PhilippineGeographical Society. Dominador Z.Rosell, editor. Vol. XXIII No.2. April­May-June 1979. Subscription rate:P7.50; US$7.50/year. Address all cor­respondence to the Editor, PhilippineGeographical Journal, P.O. Box 2116,Manila.

Philippine Studies. A journal published bythe Ateneo de Manila University. Jo­seph L. Roche, S.J., editor. Ateneo deManila University. Vol. 26, Fourthquarter. 1978. Available at the Ate­neo University Press, Loyola Heights,Quezon City.

Philippine Studies. Joseph Roche, S.J.,ed. Ateneo de Manila University. Vol.26. Second Quarter 1979. Address allcommunications to Philippine Studies,P.O. Box 154, Manila.

Philippine Studies. Joseph Roche,' S.J.,editor. Ateneo de Manila University.Vol. 26. First Quarter t979. P18.Address all communications to Phil·ippineStudies, P.O. Box 154, Manila.

Saint Louis University Journal. Officialjournal of the Graduate School ofArts and Sciences, Saint Louis Uni­versltv. Felino L. Lorente, editor.Vol. X, No.1. March 1979. SUbscrip­tion rates: P48.00/US$22.00. Single co­pies: P13.47/US$8.03. Place all sub­scription and purchase orders with theBusiness Department, Saint Louis Uni­versity Research Journal, Saint Louis:University, P.O. Box 71, Baguio Ci~

0216, Philippines.

UNPUBLISHED PAPERS

Reported unpublished papers, theses,dissertations for the period July 1979­September 1979.

Entry format: Title. Author. Home insti­tution. Nature of paper. Where presen­ted. Date.

A Psychological Study of Filipino Mono­zygotic Twin.. Genevieve L. Yap.

-..

1

Centro Escolar University. Master'sthesis.

A Grammar ofPilipino in Pilipino. AlfonsoSantiago and Norma Tianco. Paper.Annual Convention - Linguistic Societyof the Philippines. May 6, 1978. De LaSalle University.

A Pedagogical Grammar of Pilipino. Glo­ria Chan-Yap and Teresita Martin-Palo.Ateneo de Manila University. Paper.Annual Convention - Linguistic Societyof the Philippines. May 6, 1978. De LaSalle University.

Administrative Measures Against Bureau­cratic Corruption: The Philippine Ex­perience. Ma. Concepcion P. Alfiler.UP College of Public Administration(UPCPAl. Paper. Seminar on Bureau­cratic Corruption in the Philippines:Causes, Consequences and Controls.

December 7, 1978. UP College ofPublic Administration, UP Office ofResearch Coordination and the NSDB­UP Integrated Research Program.

An Analysis of the Implementation of theNew Social Studies Curriculum in thePublic Elementary Schools of theDivision of Albay, Philippines. MichaelStephen Gerber. Dissertation. NewYork University.

An Economist's Approach to Studying thePolicy Aspects of Potential Conflicts inOffshore Oil Development Corazon M.Siddayao. Institute of Southeast AsianStudies. Paper. In-house Seminar, Insti­tute of Southeast Asian Studies. May26,1978.

An Inventory of Behavioral Objectives inReading with Accompanying Criterion­Referenced Test Items and SuggestedActivities for Use in the Public Elemen­tary Schools of the Philippines. Patro­cinio Saniel Gamelo. Dissertation. Flo­rida State University.

Becoming Bilingual in English in a Philip­pine Setting. Andrew B. Gonzalez,F.S.C. De La Salle University. Paper.Regional Language Center, April 16­21,1979.

Beyond Linguistics: A Humanistic Ap­proach to Language Learning. Nelia G.Casambre. Institute of Language Teach­ing, University of the Philippines. Pa­per. First Philippine linguistics Con­gress. May 29-June 2, 1978. Dept. ofLinguistics and Asian Languages, UP.

Bureaucratic Behavior and Development:

A Case Study of Supply Management ina Philippine Government Agency. Raulde Guzman and Rizalino Vifieza, UP­CPA. Paper. Seminar on BureaucraticCorruption in the Philippines: Causes,Consequences and Controls. December7, 1978. UP College of Public Adminis­tration, UP Office of Research Coordi­nation, and the NSDB-UP Integra­ted Research Program.

Children's Perception of Authority Figures.Consuelo S. Ignacio. Centro EscolarUniversity. Master's thesis.

Ecclesiastical Conversion as a Social Pro­. cess: A Case Study From the Philip­pines. Joseph Patrick Gray. Dissertation.University of Colorado.

Factors Influencing the Attitudes ofCatholic and Protestant Filipino Col­lege Students in the PhilippinesTowards Fertility and Fertility Con­trol. Luis G. Lacar. Dissertation. West­ern Michigan University.

Food Buying Pattems of Housewives in aSubdivision in Metro Manila. Consolida­cion M. Martinez. Centro Escolar Uni­versity. Master'sthesis.

Historical Notes on Graft and Corruptionin the Philippines. Jose N. Endriga. UPCollege of Public Administration. Paper.Seminar on Bureaucratic Corruption inthe Philippines: Causes, Consequencesand Controls. December 7, 1978. UPCPA, UP Office of Research Coordi­nation, and the NSDB-UP IntegratedResearch Program.

Implications of the Provincial Socio-Eco­nomic Profile of Quirino on Non-for­mal Education. Avelina B. Leonen.Centro Escolar University. Master'sthesis.

Internal Migration in the Philippines: AStudy on Migration Differentials. LuciaMaria Bello Fertoza. Dissertation.Brown University.

lsang Pag-aaral sa mga Salit(1ng Ingles naGinagamit sa Pahayagang Pilipino Ex­press. Ester R. Ramos. Thesis. AngelesUniversity Foundation.

Land Control and Political Behavior in thePhilippines: A Comparative Assessmentof the Impact of Land Usage Patternson Socio-Political Relationships. andBehavior in Occidental and OrientaltVegros.John Howard Adkins. Disserta­tion. University of Michigan.

Negative Bureaucratic Behavior and Deve-

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/31 I

lopment: The Bureau of Internal Re- I

venue. Leonor M. Briones. UP Collegeof Public Administration. Paper.. Semi­nar on Bureaucratic Corruption in thePhilippines: Causes, Consequences andControls. December 7, 1978. UP CPA,UP Office of Research Coordination andthe NSDB-UP Integrated Research Pro­gram.

Negative Bureaucratic Behavior in theLicensing of Land Trsnsportetiom Fran­chise. Victoria A. Bautista. UP-CPA.Paper. Seminar on Bureaucratic Cor­ruption in the Philippines: Causes, Con­sequences and Controls. December 7,1978. UP CPA, UP Office of ResearchCoordination, and the NSDB-UP In­tegrated Research Program.

Negative Bureaucratic Behavior in thePhilippines: The Final Report o,f thePhilippine Team. Ledivina V. Carinoand Raul P. de Guzman. UP Collegeof Public Administration. Paper. Semi­nar on Bureaucratic Corruption im thePhilippines: Causes, Consequences andControls. Dcember 7, 1978. UP Col­lege of Public Administration, UPOffice of Research Coordination, andthe NSDB-UP Integrated Research Pro­gram.

Occupational Placement of the CollegiateAgriculture Graduates of the SicalUniversity from 1966 to 1975. Simpli­cia N. Sales. Centro Escolar Univer­sity. Master's thesis.

Pagsasalin sa Pilipino ng mga PanukalangModyul sa Araling Panlipunan (UnangTaon ng Mataas na PaaralanJ. LourdesF. Chan. Centro Escolar University.Master's thesis. r

Perceptions of Married CouplesAbout theRoles of Husbands and Wives. FloritaS. Escuadro. Centro Escolar University.Master's thesis.

Perceptions on the Land Reform Pro­gram and its Effects on the Farmers ofGapan, Nueva Ecija. Liberata D. Fabros.Centro Escolar University. Master'sthesis.

Public Relations in Private Higher Educa­tion in the Province of Nueva Ecija: ItsStatus and Prospects. Antonia A. Do­mingo. Centro Escolar University. Mas­ter's thesis.

Roles of Husband, Wife and Both Husbandand Wife as Perceived by College Stu­dents. Jorge V. Macrochon. Centro

. II

CALENDAR

Manlutac. Centro Escolar University.Master's thesis.

The Influence of Water Management onOperating Policies for Sugar CaneDistricts in the Philippines. Alan ClairEarly. Dissertation. Cornell University.

The Management of Nonformal Educa­tion: A RegionalExperience. AnastacioC. Ramento. Centro Escolar University.Master's thesis.

The Pangkat Kawayan: A Tool for CulturalDevelopment Laura R. Gorospe. CentroEscolar University. Master's thesis.

The Philippines and the United NationsDuring the Tenure ofCarlosP. Romulo.Eddie A. Calderon. Dissertation. Univer­sity of Minnesota.

32/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

Escolar University. Master's thesis.Rural-Urban Migration and Differential

Fertility in the Philippines. AlfonsoC. del Fierro, Jr. Dissertation. Uni­versityof Kentucky.

Schooled in Conflict: The Impact of Edu­cation on Ethno-Religious Conflict inSouthern Philippines. Jose Roberto T.Arong. Dissertation. Stanford Univer­sity.

Society Policy and Technology: An Ana­lysis of Agricultural Change in theWestern Philippines, 7950 - 797D.Bruce Martin Koppel. Dissertation.Cornell University.

SomeSources ofSocial Tension in the Phil­ippine Industrialization. Elsa P. Jurado.University of the Philippines. Paper.Asian Regional Conference on IndustrialRelations, Tokyo. March 13-16, 1979.

Squatters and Squatting in Davao City,Philippine": The Dynamics of an Adap­tive Institution in the Urbanization ofaDeveloping Country. Kerry Dean Feld­man. Dissertation. University of Colo­rado.

Strategies ofPublic ElementarySchool Ad­ministrators in Enhancing Their Promo­tions: A F,ield Study. Adriano H. Alon­zo. Centro Escolar University. Master'sthesis.

The Administration of Simon de Anda YSalazar, Governor-General of the Phil­ippines, 7770-7776. Salvador P. Esco­to. Dissertation. Loyola University ofChicago.

The Definition of Graft and Corruptionand the Conflict of Ethics and Law. Le­divina V. Carino. College of Public Ad­ministration, UP. Seminar on Bureau­cratic Corruption in the Philippines:Causes, Consequences and Controls. De­cember 7, 1978. UP CPA, UP Officeof Research Coordination, and theNSDB-UP Integrated Research Program.

The Dynamics of Creativity: An In-DepthStudy of Seven Eminent Filipino Wri­ters. Corazon A. Gaabucayan. CentroEscolar University. Master's thesis.

The Impact of Foreign and Private DirectInvestment on the Economic Develop­ment of the Philippines. Falih M.H.Alsaaty. Dissertation. Graduate Schoolof Business Administration (New York).

The Impact ofPopulation Education of theMinistry of Education and Culture onParents in Olongapo City. Lucila M.

Oct. 11-13, 1979

13-21

22-28

24-27

Nov. 23-24

26-27

28-29,

Nov. 30':"Dec. 1

5

6-8

15

The Politics of Accommodation: Foreign'Policy Under the New Society. Benja-,min N. Muego. Illinois State University.Paper. Occasional Seminar of the Insti-,tute of Southeast Asian Studies. April28,1978.

The Private Schools Regional Superinten-,dent: His Contribution to Philippine!Educational Development. Thomas G,Brual. Centro Escolar Uriiversity. Mas-,ter's thesis.

The Relative Effectiveness of the Modularand the ConventionalApproaches in the!Pre&rvice Training of Teachers on Po·,pul8tion Education. Estela D. Garcia..Centro Escolar University. Master's the-,sis.

- Annual Conference. Psychological Association of the Philip-,pines. Venue: Maryknoll College. .

- Seminar-Workshop on "The Writing of Local History" and om"The Teaching of Local History." Philippine NationaliHistorical Society. Venue: Silliman University.

- Conference on "Updating English Teaching in ttle Philippines;for Elementary and High School." Linguistics Society'of the Philippines. Venue: Health Auditorium, Phlllp­pine Normal College.

Conference on "Ang Sikolohiyang Pilipino sa Pag-unlad nglNayon," Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino..Venue: Divine Word University of T.acloban.For the '80's. Venue: Pius XII Center.

- Study groups/workshops on issues related to human adapta­tions. Ugnayang Pang-Agham-tao, Inc. (AnthropologicallAssociation of the Philippines). Venue: UP Baguio, UPDiliman, University of San Carlos, and Mindanao StateUniversity.

- Second National Population Welfare Congress. Theme: People!Participation in Planning for Population Welfare. Com­mission on Population.

Biennial Conference. Philippine Association of Social Workers.Theme: Human Settlement: Social Work's Challenge

- Annual Seminar. Philippine Historical Association.

- 25th Anniversary Celebration of the UP Statistical Center.Theme: "Statistical Methods as Applied to CategoricalData." Venue: Philippine International ConventionCenter.

ASEAN meeting of different economic societies. Philippine!Economic Society.

- Joint Symposium on "Research Utilization and Research Dls­semination," PSSC, Philippine Geographical Society"and the National Research Council of the Philippines.Venue: Angeles University.

I,

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I "

I

II

I

II

A participant in the cotJtinuing education phase of Dansslan College's adult literacyprogram. Here, the classes shifted to a mom specific, practical focus. The content of theclasses is not standardized but rather dependent on the individual needs and interestsof the classes themselves. Technical personnel from the community services providedtechnical input The sessions became more projecMriented and less class-like, eventuallyforming more extensivecommunity organization activities.

[r

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION ...Continued from page 17

much more responsibility and participationshifted onto the Ministry of Edu­cation and Culture, the other governmentagencies and the learners themselves.Part-time adult education personnel neednot be in the employ of Dansalan Collegeworking on full-time basis - or thatthey are employees of Dansalan Collegewho participate in more than one of thecollege's activities. Part-time workers couldalso be from other institutions, devotinga portion of their efforts to the program,but that the cost of their participation isnot borne by Dansalan College.

Cost reduction and cost distribution. Ithas been recommended that a way throughwhich costs can be reduced is to utilizepart-time labor and facilities. This is trulya cost-reducing action on the part of theadministering institution. But from asocial point of view, the total cost of per­sonnel remains at similar levels. WhenDansalan College takes advantage of part­time personnel, it merely shifts the costburden from itself to others - perhapsto the part-time workers, or to the otherinstitutions which pay for the time theworkers spend with the adult educationprogram. By getting some Ministry ofEducation personnel to assist in the pro­ject, Dansalan College can conclude that

. it has reduced its personnel costs. But nowit is the government that bears the costthat Dansalan College "saved." This is notto say that the cost-reducing effort by theprogram was in vain. Most probably byusing Ministry personnel the program putat work personnel who would otherwisebe idle or underused. Thus the programprevented wastage of scarce, expensivemanpower.

To summarize, the social effect of aprivate cost-reducing action can very wellbe cost re-distribution. Perhaps a basicelement of "cost reduction" is actuallythe shifting of cost burdens from scarce­resources to mlatively abundant, unused,underuStJd, resources.

On shifting cost burdens to Philippinegovernment resources. In the previousparagraphs it may have been implied thatDansalan College neglected to fully explorethe possibilities of cost-sharing with

Philippine Government agencies, particu­larly with the Ministry of Education andCulture. Although such a possibility can­not be discounted, there were other fac­tors, among which were:

a) The Dansalan College adult educa­tion program was considered a pilotproject. Thus the progra~ staff feltthat it needed to exercise as muchcontrol over operation as possible;and

b) There was difficulty in communica­ting through the bureaucratic struc­tures. of the various governmentagencies.

The comments made earlier on theshifting of cost burdens assumed ceterisparibus, that the productivity of the per­sonnel under the direct administrationof Dansalan CoIle9e'''-ltVere equal ~ ~theproductivity of those in other agencies.However, this assumption seems to havequestionable validity for Lana6 del Sur,where general observations indicate thatgovernment personnel as a group facemuch more serious obstacles in perform­ance, particularly in the lack of workresources, and as such are less efficient.

The position of this paper however isthat in the long run only the gOvernmenthas the organizational scope, financing andmanpower necessary to implement non­formal education programs on a scaleeffective for national development. Perhaps

JULY-SEPTEMBER 1979/33

the ideal role for private agencies is totest programs on a pilot basis, or to supple­ment public efforts.

Cost-mduetion Through Re-distributionand the State of Technology. The fore­going comments on the institution cost­reducing effect of cost redistribution as­sumed a given state of program techno­logy. Assuming that the methods andmaterial used in the adult education pro­gram remain at similar rates of efficiency,then the shifting of responsibilities resultonly in similar total costs, but differentdistributions. The assumption of a givenstate of technology is also extended to agiven level of manpower skills, an exampleof which is in the preceding section.

Educational methods and media areconstantly being improved, particularly onthe basis of progress in studies on learn.,ing theory. Already many programs haveradopted modern media approaches to adulteducation and have reported varying de­grees of success. The adoption of suchmedia could improve program efficiencyand reduce unit costs.

The drawback of modern mass educa­tional media approaches is the high initialcapital outlay required. However, thelarge sums required in the early stagescan be amortized over a long period of use,and thus the long-run cost may be relative­Iy small.

Start-up and Initiation Costs. The mini­mum amount of resources required to ini­tiate a social program is often of great

34/PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION

concern. This minimum is what lies behindanswers of "Due to lack of funding" whenquestions of "Why not a program?"are asked. The experience of DansalanCollege may be instructive:

The examination of the components,structure and distribution of costs of thefirst year studies (1971-72) indicatethat:

a) Except for one to two full-time per­sonnel, the initial work requiredin the program was performed bypersonnel already in the employ ofDansalan College.

These personnel only shifted partof their time (from 10 to 50 percent)away from other duties to the adulteducation program. Thus prior to theinitiation of the program most ofpersonnel costs were already beingborne anyway.

b) The requirements for literacy teach­ers' honoraria consumed nearly halfof total personnel costs for theinitial year. With the funds avail­able, the program set up 46 classesand hired as many teachers. Mostprograms do not need to organizeup to 46 classes during the first year.Perhaps a few classes organized allowmore room for "learning the ropes"of program administration by thestaff - and dramatically reducesinitiation costs.

c) There remains the unresolved, unex­plored possibility of the use of vo­lunteers to minimize initiation costs.The Dansalan program staff wasaware of the potential, consideredtaking advantage of it, but did notattempt a trial.

d) Very minimal initial capital expen­ditures were required. Office space,major equipment and classroomspace were all borrowed. Some class­room equipment was provided, but ifnecessary, such provision could havebeen borne by the learners them­selves.

The observations on the adult educationprogram of Dansalan College indicate thatin general, the start-up and initiation costsrequired are very minimal. It is venturedthat many times the problem of initia­tion is not a "lack of funds" but a weak­ness of will and creativity in cost-mini­mization. Furthermore, there may be

the need to examine the use of resourcescloser to home. - decreasing the need forfinancial aid - which often is only availa­ble from the outside, and maximizing theuse of contributed services, equipment,time, and talent from local sources.

The preceding comment has latelyacquired the ring of a platitude, given ar­guments about the extreme difficultiesin securing, maintaining and controllingvoluntarily-contributed resources. But it isfelt that these problems arrive only withincreasing scale, of expanding program size.Perhaps non-formal education programsare ideal only for small-scale operation andwhen enlarged, controlled and regimented,are subject to the same bureaucratizing.and ossification process that plagues for­mal education structures.

Interaction between fund availabilityand program expansion. The financing ofthe activities of the community serviceprograms of Dansalan College proceededas follows: First, the program needs wereidentified and a project proposal for adulteducation programs was SUbmitted. Sec­ond, after periods of negotiation, an agen­cy would approve of the proposal andtransfer funds to Dansalan College for theproject. The interval between proposalpreparation and fund transfer was at leasta year and as long as three years.

An examination of the cost levels ofthe adult education program shows thatthe upsurges in program costs .coincidedwith the increases in the financial resour­ces obtained by Dansalan College for theprogram. Perhaps it is legitimate to ask:Were the increases in cost not necessarilyrequired to support the expansion of theprogram, but that these costs were incur­red since the finances were available? Itis true that expansion requires financing,but which is the primary determinant ofcost - finances available, or expansion re­quired? The possibility that the expendi­ture levels increased more due to fundavailability than to actual requirementsexists. The identification of the casualrelationship however, is problematic. Theimplications on funding procedures andsources are on the other hand, powerful.

One of the major implications is in theplanning of programs and the decision­making on the resources to be tapped,particularly financial resources from grant­making foundations. The findings of this

II

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A successful participant of the adult tite­racy program receives her certificate at the'graduation exercises.

study cannot yet be taken as universallyvalid since these still need to be verifiedlin other non-formal education program ..However, it seems clear that certain pat­terns in expenditure can hold in non­forma I education. Knowledge of such costpatterns can lessen guesswork in programplanning and sheer instinct in proposalevaluation.

FOOTNOTE

1. Russel Kelis, et al. Case Studies in Non"formal Education (East Lansing, Michigan:Michigan State UnivarsitY Program of Studias inNon-formal Education, 1974), e. 8.

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JULY-SEPTEMBER 1'979/3'5

THE MONCADO BELIEVERS ...Continued from page 14

1995. There were also indications thatsome adherents had drifted away to otherreligions. In Marawi City, most of thesons and daughters of the orthodox Mon­cadistas have embraced other religions,mainly forms of Protestantism. This is alsotrue of the Moncadista families in Kitao­tao and Samal. This phenomenon may becaused by intermarriages or occupationalaffiliations. One minister attributed thephenomenon to the "difficult" nature ofthe religion. It also seems however, to bean indication that the members and themovement is wanting of the charismaticleadership that was in Moncado - theexperience of which marks the differencebetween the orthodox Moncadistas and thelater adherents.

With little promise of the appearance ofa new generation of Moncadistas, onewonders how well the movement willfare in the next decade and a half - whenthe die-hard members would have all died?To believing members, that may not seemso much of a problem, since in 1995 -16years from today, the "Master" will re-

I

turn. And that they hope, will be the endof their mission on earthandthe beginningof the promised paradise. As Moncadohimself said:

" .•. all religions have their miracles, andwhich of us know from first-hand informa­tion exactly where to draw the line of be­lief and disbelief. Although the Christhimself had brothers, he individually was

born of the Holy Spirit having descendedin the form of a dove. And since all reli­gions have miracles, why are not the mi­racles of the other fellow's religion enti­tled to the same respect that we demandfor those of our own? "

For a student of the sociology of reli­gion, however, as the year of the promisedparousia dawns, as' faithful Moncadistasawait the return, day by day th~o~ghout

Ithe years, of their expected savior and de-liverer, one wonders what will be the effectof the non-fulfillment of this basic eventin their religious orientation.

Several outcomes are possible. One isthe final demise of the sect in the' dis­appointment and frustration of non-ful­fillment of an eagerly /- and long-awaitedcentral event. However, if a religious leaderof sufficient charisma takes over the move­ment during the last year (1995) or earlier,it is more likely that as the year proceedstoward its end he will be able to changethe adventistic outlook of members toacceptance of some more remote date ofthe parousia. This can be done throughproclamation of a vision addressed unique­ly to him by Moncado and that thus, thesect will be able to propagate itself intothe 21st century. This however, may notbe sufficient to prevent the dwindlingdown of the movement's final 'ultimatedisappearance. It may only prevent itssudden and painful disintegration amidthe pains of a non-return of ¥ontado.

FOOTNOTES

1. In the publication, "Moncado Sp~ks,:'

Moncado claimed for the Crusaders Arml/, manysignificant accomplishments particularlYI·duringGen. McArthur's absence from the Philippinasbetween 1943--1944 which if indeed true 'wereworth noting. However, the researcher knoWs Ofno history book which mentions Moncado'sname nor the Crusaders Army Force during thatperiod. !

2. The following was also confirmed bvsorneinformants from Kitaotao, Bukidnon and Babak,'

Samat. . f

3. The highest ranking 'church' official in th.!'Philippines had always been a woman. There doasooCseem to be a rule that this position shouldalways be taken by a w~man but it is obviousthat a woman is pr\,ferred for the position. Thisthinking was influenced by Moncado's book on"Divinity of Woman" which promotes that wo­men are better' rulers than men.

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~ SOCIAL SCIENCE

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";~".Member <>:

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PCPM SP No. 315

1979 Executive Board

Vicente R. Jayme, chairmanWilfrido V. Villacorta, vice-chairmanLedivina V. Carino, secretary-treasurerRicardo G. Abad . Natividad J. MunarrizMercedes B. Concepcion Cristina P. ParelMarcelino A. Foronda, Jr. Dominador Z. RosellRaul D. Ingles Bonifacio P. SibayanCorazon Alma de Leon Jesucita L. G. SodustaLoretta Makasiar Sicat, Executive DirectorGabriel U. Iglesias, Immediate past chairman

The PSSC SOCIAL SCIENCE INFORMATION primarily seeks to serve as a clearing house for the exchange of information, documentation, research,activities, and news on people involved in the social sciences. Since 1973, lt has endeavoured to be a regular and comprehensive inventory of informa-tion and a catalyst of diScussion. .

A quarterly newsletter published by thePHILIPPINE SOCIAL SCIENCE COUNCIL, INC.(PSSC) with offices at House No.7, PurokHeneral Aguinaldo, University of thePhilippines, Diliman, Quezon City. P.O.Box 655 Greenhills, San Juan, Metro Manila3113, Philippines. Telephones: 972671,978741,976061 loc.735

Editorial: Leni S. Diaz, Diana R. AgbayaniCirculation: Sylvia V. Tan, Elvira C. Sevilla

Unless so indiceted, the views expressed by the authors of feature articles in this publication do not necessarily reflect the policies of the Philippine So­dal ~ienceCouncil, Inc.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED: To quote from this publication, proper ecknowledgement should be given.

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