203.XX century events and faces.pdf
Transcript of 203.XX century events and faces.pdf
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CENTURY: EVENTS AND FACES
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Contents
Unit 1. Leaders and Leadership ............................................................................ 4
Unit 2. Harry Truman and the Beginning of the Cold War ................................ 21
Unit 3. U.S. President Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis ........................... 33
Unit 4. General Charles de Gaulle and his Politics of Grandeur ........................ 47
Unit 5. Willy Brandt and his Ostpolitik .............................................................. 62
Unit 6. The World Leader in the Era of Globalization ....................................... 76
Appendix 1. Tapescripts...................................................................................... 90
Appendix 2. Word Lists ...................................................................................... 99
Appendix 3. Functional Bank ........................................................................... 107
Appendix 4. Hints for Speaking Activity ........................................................... 112
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Unit 1
Leaders and Leadership
Lead-in 1. Work in groups. Discuss the questions.
What does a history-making individual mean? Should strong leaders be feared or admired? Do you think that a strong leader needs fasces? A: I suppose a history-making individual is an outstanding person because
B: I completely disagree with you because all people have an equal
opportunity to become a political leader.
C: I also share this point of view. Every day we see young men and women all
over the country in high schools, colleges, civic groups and local governments
who demonstrate their leadership abilities
Listening
2. a. You are going to listen to some information about important criteria
which can be applied to characterize a good leader. Before listening, discuss
the following in pairs.
Look at the bar chart and put a dot on each bar according to your opinion. Tell the class what features of character a good leader should possess.
docile contumelious pleasing alluring obstinate compliant cautious impulsive expressive eloquent
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How do these features of character can help him/her? A: In my opinion, a good political leader should be a contumelious person,
because he should know what to do.
B: There is something in what you say, but being too aggressive wont bring
any benefits as
b. Look at the statements below. Which one do you agree with more? Tell
your partner.
The challenge of leadership is to be strong but not rude, be kind but not
weak, be bold but not bully, be thoughtful but not lazy, be humble but not timid,
be proud but not arrogant, have humor but without folly (Jim Rohn).
The real leader has no need to lead he is content to point the way (Henry
Miller).
c. The following words and phrases appear in the passage. How do you think
they will be related to the theme of the passage?
to move beyond appearances a containable situation to show poise a
perilous situation to make it through being articulate and compelling to be
persuasive in communication to acquire charisma
d. Now listen to the passage. For questions 1-3, match the extracts with the
criteria A-C. There are two criteria you will not need.
A. Ability to control oneself 1.
B. Ability to take active steps
C. Ability to be cooperative 2.
D. Ability to ease peoples pain
E. Ability to be inspiring and
influential
3.
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d. Discuss in groups.
Do you agree with the suggested criteria? Which is better for a country to have a routine leader or a charismatic one?
Reading 1
3. a. Look at the title of the article. What do you think the message of the
article is? How far do you agree with it?
b. Read the article below and say whether you consider repulsive features of
character to be an integral part of a political leader.
If You're a Liar, a Bully or a Cheat,
then You Too Could Be a Great
World Leader
If you want to get ahead, be egotistical, stubborn and disagreeable. And a
bit of untidiness will help too.
The research presented yesterday to the American Psychological
Association conference in Washington, examined the traits of the most
successful men in the US history all 41 Presidents and compared them to
more average individuals.
The truth is that being nice gets you nowhere not to the White House or
Number 10 or even on to a parish council.
The researchers discovered that the great Presidents were low on
straightforwardness, vulnerability and order. "The very characteristics which
mark people out as an unattractive choice as a spouse or a neighbour make them
successful as leaders", said Rubenzer. "One real surprise was that people who are
a little disorganized do a bit better. Abraham Lincoln was notoriously untidy, and
it certainly seems to be an asset".
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The psychologists asked 100 biographers and historians to help them fill in
questionnaires and then scored them on different characteristics. Forcefulness,
the willingness to flatter and manipulate, egotism and assertiveness all seemed
to help push Presidents up the ladder of greatness.
"As far as UK goes, Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher fit right into
our model. Stubborn, assertive and socially often obnoxious just the right stuff
to make them great figures in history", said Ruberzer.
The team further categorized the Presidents into seven personality types
innocents, autocrats, introverts, actors, philosophers, extroverts and maintainers.
Innocents: too nice for their own good, these people make it to the top through a fluke. In Britain John Major and the late Alec Douglas-Home, a Tory
Prime Minister in the sixties, are in this category.
Autocrats: the disagreeable, bossy bullies. Using the rules applied by the researchers, Margaret Thatcher, Winston Churchill and the US Presidents
Theodore Roosevelt and Richard Nixon are in this group.
Introverts: erratic, anxious and tense, like British PMs Ramsey MacDonald and Anthony Eden, and US President Herbert Hoover.
Extroverts: publicity-hungry, assertive, dominant, but somehow low on organizational skills. Bill Clinton destined for the history books if only for
his sex life, say researchers and Tony Blair are examples.
Actors: similar to extroverts but less open. They have low concentration. Ronald Reagan and Harold Macmillan are examples.
Philosophers: their interests are wide and they are not afraid of change like Clement Attlee, Labour's post-war election victor.
Maintainers: traditional, holding family values and not open to new experiences. George Bush and Harry Truman are in this group.
(Tracy McVeigh, the Observer)
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c. For questions (1-6), choose the best answer (A, B or C).
1. According to the research, if a person is pleasant to deal with, kind and
friendly
A it wont do him/her any good.
B it is necessary for him/her to conceal these features of character.
C it will bring some positive result in the future.
2. Leaders who dont have good and effective organization
A will never gain a high position in life or their job.
B are destined to succeed.
C can become leader easier than others.
3. Psychologists evaluated all leaders according to
A their influence on other people.
B the number of points they got for their qualities.
C the proportion of their negative features to the positive ones.
4. Presidents were classified on the grounds of
A their attitude to success.
B their nature and character.
C personal opinions of biographers and historians
5. Autocrats and extroverts show similarities in
A their behaviour in their private life.
B the way they treat weaker people.
C their abilities to organize.
6. Philosophers and maintainers represent an opposition because
A they regard everything new differently.
B they have different experience.
C other people dont share their values.
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Vocabulary practice
4. a. Match the words/phrases from the text to their meaning.
A B
1. a parish (council) a. famous or widely known for something bad
2. vulnerability b. very unpleasant and offensive
3. a spouse c. confident belief in ones own authority
4. notorious d. having, showing or causing nervous anxiety
5. an asset e. a husband or wife
6. assertiveness f. feeling worried and frightened, nervous
7. obnoxious g. changeable in behaviour without reason
8. erratic h. a valuable person or quality
9. anxious i. a quality of being easily hurt or sensitive
10. tense j. (in Britain) a small area (esp. a village),
having its own local government
b. Explain the meaning of the highlighted words and phrases.
Discussion
5. Discuss in groups.
Can you think of other examples of political leaders to fall into the given categories? Think of any other types of political leaders.
Rank the following factors according to how important you think they are for a person to become a good leader (1= most important, 10 = least important).
Then compare your ranking with that of another student. What other factors can
you think of?
attractive appearance
charisma
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reputation
circumstances
close-knit team
public support
willingness to compromise
ruthlessness
ability to delegate
foresight
A: Personally I think that first of all a good politician should have an
attractive appearance because
B: I partly agree with this idea but sometimes circumstances are the most
important thing as they help to reveal a personality
Reading 2
6. a. Study two opposing points of view on the question of leadership below.
Compare them and decide which one you agree with more. Tell your
partner.
1. The subject of political leadership appears to be outdated. The division
of society into leaders and followers is rooted in a predemocratic culture of
deference and respect in which leaders "knew best" and the public needed to be
led, mobilized or guided. Democratic politics has certainly placed powerful
constraints on leadership, notably by making leaders publicly accountable and
establishing an institutional mechanism through which they can be removed.
2. The politics of leadership has become increasingly significant, helping
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to contribute to the establishment of a separate discipline of political psychology,
whose major concerns include a study of the psychological makeup and
motivations of political leaders. Furthermore, as society becomes more complex
and fragmented, people may increasingly look to the personal vision of individual
leaders to give coherence and meaning to the world in which they live.
A: On the one hand, I agree with the first statement because
B: Yes, I see what you mean. Nevertheless there is a lot to be said for looking
at it differently
b. What are the incentives for the growing focus on leadership? Decide how
much the following stimuli influence the growth. Discuss in pairs.
- the desire of leaders to gain electoral support
- modern means of mass communication
- manipulation of leaders public images
- individual leaders determine the world in which ordinary people live
. Read the title of the text. What styles of leadership can you think of?
Discuss in groups.
d. Look at the following styles of leadership. What do you think they mean?
A. transactional leadership B. transformational leadership C. laissez-faire leadership (laissez-faire means not to
interfere)
e. Read the text and decide which paragraph describes the given styles of
leadership.
Styles of Leadership
A style of leadership refers to the strategies and behavioural patterns
through which a leader seeks to achieve his or her goals. Quite simply, leaders
are not all alike: leadership can be exercised in a number of different ways. The
factors that shape the adoption of a particular leadership strategy or style are, of
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course, numerous. Amongst the most obvious are the personality and goals of the
leader, the institutional framework within which he or she operates, the political
mechanisms by which power is won and retained, the means of mass
communication available, and the nature of the broader political culture. Three
distinctive styles of leadership have been identified:
1 The reluctance of the leader to interfere in matters outside his or her
personal responsibility is the chief feature of this style of leadership. Such leaders
have a hands off approach to cabinet and departmental management. An
example of such leadership could be found in the Reagan White House, and the
relatively slight interest that Reagan took in the day-to-day workings of his
administration. George W. Bush, similarly, was strongly inclined to delegate
responsibilities to key advisers, but the so-called 'war on terrorism', launched in
2001, forced him to adopt a more forthright leadership style. The strengths of
this approach to leadership are that, because subordinates are given greater
responsibility, it can foster harmony and teamwork, and it can allow leaders to
concentrate on political and electoral matters by relieving them of their
managerial burdens. On the other hand, it can also lead to the weak
coordination of government policy, with ministers and officials being allowed too
much freedom to pursue their own interests and initiatives. The Iran-Contra
affair, for example, demonstrated how little President Reagan knew about the
activities of the Central Intelligence Agency officers and White House officials
for whom he was supposedly responsible.
2 In contrast, the second type of leadership is a more hands-on style of
leadership. Such leaders adopt a positive role in relation to policy-making and
government management, but are motivated by essentially pragmatic goals and
considerations. Prominent amongst these are likely to be the maintenance of
party unity and government cohesion, and the strengthening of public support and
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electoral credibility. Such leaders act as brokers who are concerned to uphold
the collegiate face of government by negotiating compromises and balancing
rival individuals, factions and interests against one another. In the USA, Lyndon
Johnson and George Bush Sr could be seen as leaders of this type, as could
Harold Wilson and John Major in the UK. This is above all a managerial, even
technocratic, style of leadership, its advantage being that it is fiercely practical
and allows scope for tactical flexibility. Its central drawback, however, is that
such leaders may be seen as opportunistic wheeler-dealers who are devoid of
firm principles or deep convictions. This was illustrated by George Bush's
damaging admission during the 1992 US presidential election that he did not
understand what he called the vision thing.
3 In the third style of leadership the leader is not so much a coordinator or
manager as an inspirer or visionary. Not only are such leaders motivated by
strong ideological convictions, but they also have the personal resolution and
political will to put them into practice. Instead of seeking compromise and
consensus, this type of leaders attempts to mobilize support from within
government, their parties and the general public for the realization of their
personal vision. The effectiveness of such a leader hinges on the degree to which
the leader in question 'embodies' the story, and the extent to which the story
resonates with the broader public. General de Gaulle, for instance, recast the
nature of political leadership in France as much by presenting himself as a 'father
figure' and 'national leader' as by establishing a presidential system in the form of
the Fifth Republic. A very similar style was adopted in the UK by Margaret
Thatcher, whose avowed aim when coming into office was to run a 'conviction
government'. The continued use of terms such as Gaullism and Thatcherism
bears witness to the enduring impact of these leaders' ideological visions. Not
uncommonly, the third type of leadership is linked to populism, reflecting the
desire of such leaders to demonstrate that they are articulating the concerns and
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interests of the people. Although the strength of this leadership is that it
provides a basis for pushing through radical programmes of social, economic or
political reform, it may also encourage a drift towards authoritarianism and lead
to ideological rigidity.
Vocabulary Practice
7. a. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make
sentences using these collocations as in the example.
A B
avowed practical
to pursue cohesion
to be devoid of responsibilities
electoral ones own interests
fiercely firm principles
to delegate aim
government impact
enduring credibility
It is generally known that the councils avowed aim is to stop the growing
spread of racism.
b. Find a word in the text that has the same or similar meaning to the words
given below. Then make your own sentences using the words from the text.
held (past participle) unwillingness (n) disposed (adj) inferiors (n) breed (v) administrative (adj)
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freedom (n) beliefs (n) perception (n) depends on (v) changed (v)
c. Explain the highlighted words and phrases from the text.
Discussion
8. a. Discuss in groups.
Can you think of other examples of the present day world leaders to fit into each category?
Do you agree that if you can control your feelings, you can control the world?
Do we get political leaders we deserve? To what extent is leadership compatible with freedom and democracy? Does leadership inspire and motivate, or does it subdue and repress? A: If you ask me, people choose politician through voting, so we choose our
future ourselves
B: I completely disagree with you. No nation deserves a dictator because
b. Comment on the statements.
The personality of a leader has a great influence on the destiny of a nation. Whenever you have an efficient government, you have a dictatorship
(Harry S. Truman).
Use of English
9. Fill the gaps with one word. There is an example.
Regardless 1) ..of.. the leadership style they adopt, there are reasons to
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believe that modern political leaders face greater challenges 2) their
predecessors 3) . This is important, because attitudes 4) leaders, and
the perceived effectiveness of leadership, do much to influence people's general
view of the political process. The first difficulty 5) leaders face is that
modern societies have perhaps become 6) complex and enmeshed with
global influences that politicians find it almost impossible to get things done.
Leaders are therefore doomed to disappoint, to fail to live up 7)
expectations.
8) , leaders suffer because old ideological and moral certainties are
breaking down, and this makes 9) more difficult to construct compelling
narratives that have wide popular resonance.
Third, modern societies are becoming more diverse and fragmented.
Political leaders are therefore finding it increasingly difficult to construct a
political appeal 10) on a common culture and a set of shared values. Fourth
and finally, a cultural gap has perhaps developed between the political and the
nonpolitical worlds. Political leaders are increasingly career politicians 11) ...
lifestyles, sensibilities and even language are remote from the concerns of private
citizens. 12) from being seen as providing inspiration and articulating
popular hopes and aspirations, modern leaders tend to be viewed 13) self-
serving and 14) of touch. To the extent that this is true, people become
alienated from conventional politics, and perhaps look elsewhere 15) a
source of political leadership.
Speaking Activity
10. Get ready to discuss the problem of political ambition at a round-table
talk. Before it we should study its scenario. Read the following scenario and
the list of participants. Chose the part you are going to play.
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Political Ambition: a Virtue or a Sin.
The scenario
Stage 1 Chairpersons introductory speech
Stage 2
Debating Statement of position on the
1st problem
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Clarifying the position
Discussing
Conclusions on the 1st
problem
Statement of position on the
2nd /3d /etc. problem
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Clarifying the position
Discussing
Conclusions on the 2nd /3d
/etc. problem
Stage 3
Chairpersons concluding remarks
List of participants
Chairperson, hippie, family psychologist, clergyman, politician, primary
school teacher, journalist, sociologist, celebrity, historian.
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Study your role card and think of a number of arguments, examples
and illustrations to prove your stance. Get ready to defend it against
criticism. Make use of the conversational patterns given in Functional Bank. Politician Hippie
Ambition is the linchpin of society it holds society together. To discourage ambition is to discourage dreams of grandeur and greatness.
A world without ambition would probably be a kinder world: without demands, without abrasions, without disappointments. Competition would never enter in. Conflicts would be eliminated, tension become a thing of the past.
Family psychologist
Ambition is intimately connected with family, for men and women not only work partly for their families but harbour some of their most ardent ambitions for their children.
Primary school teacher Clergyman
One can be ambitious for the public good, for the alleviation of suffering, for the enlightenment of mankind so we should bring our children up according to the principles of sacrifice.
Ambition is jesuitical. It can argue those obsessed by it into believing that what they want for themselves is good for everyone, that the satisfaction of their own desires is best for the common will.
Sociologist
The person strongly imbued with ambition ignores the collectivity; socially detached, he is on his own and out for his own.
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Celebrity Historian Individuality and ambition are firmly linked. The ambitious man or woman sees the world as a battle; rivalry is their principal emotion because he desires a rank, fame or power.
Though ambition was once the domain chiefly of monarchs and aristocrats, it has, in more recent times, increasingly become the domain of the middle classes.
Journalist All politicians and people in
high places, thought to be ambitious, are understood to be without moral scruples. Those who achieved the common goals of ambition money, fame, power have achieved them through corruption of a greater or lesser degree.
Chairperson
Stage 1 Ladies and Gentlemen, I now declare open the round table devoted to the subject "Ambition in politics". On behalf of the University allow me to express our great appreciation for your presence here today and for the contributions you are ready to make to the coming discussion. The questions to be debated today are highly controversial and allow for a variety of opinions. The attacks on ambition are many and come from various angles; its public defenders are few and unimpressive, though they are not extremely unattractive. Yet, all those who assembled here today feel that the young generation needs to know the answers. The questions are as follows:
1. What is political ambition? Is ambition a virtue or a sin?
2. What can cause political ambition? 3. How does ambition manifest itself in our society?
I propose a time limit on statement of position of two minutes and one minute for all ther speakers during the debate. Is that agreed? Thank you. Stage 2 Will participants please identify themselves clearly to the Chair if they wish to speak or ask a question. I call Mr. ... Mr. ..., thank you for that stimulating speech.
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I now welcome Mr. ... Mr. ..., you have the floor. ay I remind the participants to identify themselves clearly to the Chair if they wish to ask a question or make an objection. Does anyone else wish to speak? We can't all speak at once; Mr.... Would you like to speak first? I shall have to call you to order, Mr. ... Now let me summarize the points of view on the first/second/third problem expressed by the participants. According to the majority of the opinions , though we should mention Stage 3 To sum up our discussion today, it seems we all agreed that... The discussion revealed that We weighed the pros and cons of Consequently, we took a closer look at Basing on the discussion we have had and the facts and arguments youve presented to us today, Id like to point out that I declare the discussion closed. Thank you, Ladies and Gentle-men.
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Unit 2
Harry Truman and the Beginning of the Cold War
Lead-in
1. a. Read the quotation. Discuss the questions.
The 20th century was marked by change faster than at any previous time in
human history. The period witnessed radical alterations in almost every area of
human endeavors. It saw a remarkable shift in the way that vast numbers of
people had lived, as a result of technological, medical, social, ideological, and
political innovation. Above all, the century is distinguished from most of human
history in that its most significant trends transformed the world in those hundred
years more than at any time in the past.(Brian ONeil)
1. What innovations in technological, medical, social, political and other
spheres of life which took place in the 20th century can you name?
2. How did these innovations improve the quality of life in the 20th century?
3. What new problems and fears appeared in the 20th century compared to
the 19th century?
b. Complete the table and get ready to give a brief talk on the main
cornerstones of the 20th century.
Event Time Causes Aftereffects World War I
the rise of communism
Great Depression industrial revolution
Fascism World War II the Holocaust
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Event Time Causes Aftereffects decolonization the Cold War
nuclear arms race space exploration
environmental movement
the founding of the League of Nations and
the United Nations
European integration
c. Work in groups. Discuss the following.
How challenging were the political events of the 20th century for the 20th century leaders?
Can you think of examples which illustrate that leaders of the 20th century could shape the way in which the world history was made?
What new features of character did the leaders have to possess to meet the requirements of the 20th century?
Listening
2. a. You are going to hear some information about the relationship between
the United States and the Soviet Union at the beginning of the Cold War.
Before listening, comment on the following.
War reached an unprecedented scale and sophistication in the 20th century. There appeared a new perverted type of war - a cold war.
The Cold War enhanced insecurities and increased a possibility of war in the world.
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b. The phrase Iron Curtain is associated with the Cold War. Read an extract
from Churchills Iron Curtain speech and decide what message Churchill
wanted to send. Discuss in groups.
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain had
descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient
states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest,
Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie
in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another,
not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in many cases, increasing
measure of control from Moscow I do not believe that Soviet Russia desires
war. What they desire is the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their
power and doctrines.
c. The Cold War is considered to be a period of tension and competition
between the two superpowers following the Second World War the United
States and the Soviet Union. Study the reasons why these two superpowers
were so distrustful of each other and complete the table. There is an
example.
The USA The USSR
Capitalist Communist
Autocratic / Dictatorship
Free elections ..
Survival of the fittest
. Government controlled economy
Personal freedom
Freedom of the media
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Can you think of any similarities between the Soviet Union and the USA
at the beginning of the Cold War? Compare the countries in terms of
military development, economic position and political system.
d. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to
hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Then make up sentences
using them.
a full-scale war a proxy war to trace to relieve the pressure an ally
private ownership of assets a state-run market dissolution of private property
to bemoan to set precedents far reaching implications
e. Now listen to the recording about the relations between the USA and the
USSR. Decide whether the sentences given below are true (T) or false (F).
The relations between the USA and the USSR of that period can be
characterized in the following way:
1. America and the Soviet Union had hostile intention towards each other
2. They led a full-scale war
3. Both the USA and the USSR were highly suspicious towards each other
4. They were scared of each other and uncertain about their foreign policy
5. The two countries were eager to relieve the pressure they experienced
6. The relations between the countries were strained with much
apprehension
7. The Soviets wished to export communism to the West
8. The USA were sure to cope with Soviet aggressive expansion
9. The ideologies of the USA and the USSR were incompatible
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10. Both countries competed militarily as well as philosophically
11. Both the USA and the USSR were not interested in developing
countries
12. They resorted to overt and covert actions in their policy
13. The superpowers were reluctant to shape the future
14. A new world order was threatening
f. Discuss in groups.
Was the opposition of two superpowers inevitable? Do you agree with the idea that the Cold War teaches us the perils of
choosing allies based on common enemies instead of common ideals?
Reading
3. a. You will read an article about President Truman and the beginning of
the Cold War. Before you read the text, list the main features of the Cold
War. Check with your partner. Then read the information below and add up
more.
When the conflict ended in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union
emerged as the two most powerful nations, and while they had been allies in the
war, they soon became hostile to one other. The military alliances headed by
these nations were prepared to wage total war with each other throughout the
Cold War (19471991). The period was marked by a new arms race, and nuclear
weapons, the most devastating ones yet to have been developed, were produced
in their tens of thousands, sufficient to end most life on the planet had they ever
been used. This, paradoxically, ensured that the cold war never became hot; both
sides had too much to lose.
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b. Read the text. Nine sentences have been removed. Choose which of the
sentences (A-I) fit into the gaps (1-9).
Harry Truman and the Origins of the Cold War
Pam Vaughn
Westside High School
President Truman dealt with the challenges presented by the aftermath of
World War II, the nuclear age, and the threat from the Soviet Union. The
emergence of the United States as a superpower, with global responsibilities,
obligations, and interests, placed President Truman on a world stage.
The relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were
acknowledged to be spoilt by mutual suspicion and growing distrust after the
WWII and through 1963. These limits and remembrances constantly
factored into the practical questions concerning what was desired and what was
possible.
However, the application of this doctrine required actions that
were less than ideal. Democratic ideals are certainly worthy of pursuit.
However, the Cold War teaches us that goodness, like power, has its limits.
On February 22, 1946, George Kennan working out of the American
Embassy in Moscow sent a telegram that changed the course of history.
Truman and his staff reviewed it carefully, and this telegram formed
the basis for the policy of containment. Kennan provided an insightful
representation of the motivating factors behind Soviet aggression. He explained
that this was a nation grown accustomed to insecurity because the Soviets had
been a country surrounded by enemies with few natural frontiers. Kennans
position was that the Soviets, threatened by their lack of development, feared
exposure to the West.
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Kennan also posited that in his view, Stalin himself was ill
informed and held a conspiratorial interpretation of world events. In Kennans
view, the Soviets would respond to force and resistance by withdrawing from its
course of aggressive action.
Churchill delivered his famous Iron Curtain speech in Fulton,
Missouri only two weeks before The Long Telegram was received at the state
department (March 1946). The speech created a widespread condemnation.
This caught Truman off guard. He had anticipated the opposite reaction.
All of the bad press and criticism of both Trumans foreign policies and the
speech caught Truman by surprise and kind of took the wind out of him.
He later denied that he knew what was going to be in the speech.
This may explain why the Long Telegram, while eventually creating substantive
and significant change in U.S. foreign policy, was not initially put forward as the
foundation for new foreign policy.
It was only eighteen minutes long, but it was a landmark point
in foreign policy. Its message came from a report that analyzed U.S.-Soviet
relations, which had been influenced by the Long Telegram. It is the policy of
the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressure. Truman in a very
straightforward way had delineated the threat from the Soviets and asked the
Congress to provide support for this new policy.
The Truman administration was riding the wild and new notion of a global
super power, whose military and economic superiority was without rival.
During the postwar years, the U.S. established a global military
presence and stepped into the role of the benevolent super-cop, out to defend
freedom, and more importantly, contain communism.
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A He went on to make the case that it was the Soviet intention to destroy
western traditions, authority, and power in order to preserve its own
existence.
B It was a tremendous blow.
C This false assumption led to a narrow set of strategies and tactics consistently
and tragically exercised in resisting the spread of the communism in the
developing world.
D He had to consider almost every foreign policy decision in terms of how it
would affect the balance-of-power with the Soviet Union.
E The Truman Doctrine was the manifestation of American idealism.
F Truman read The Long Telegram, of course, but he remained for a time at
least, relatively quiet on the substance of this message.
G The events of this era show that President Harry S. Truman inherited a
changing world in which the limits of power would be tested, the costs of
war remembered.
H Kennan articulated in a compelling way, the sources of Soviet behavior and
their view of the world. This message is known as The Long Telegram.
I Truman delivered the famous Truman Doctrine speech before Congress on
March 12, 1947.
Vocabulary Practice
3. a. Find synonyms for the following words. Then reproduce the situations
in which they are used in the text.
an aftermath to factor into insecurity to posit to withdraw
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to anticipate to delineate benevolent an assumption a manifestation
b. Explain the highlighted words and phrases. Choose five words or phrases
and make up your own sentences using them.
Discussion
4. a. Discuss in groups.
Was the Cold War an unavoidable event or it was President Truman who made fatal errors of judgment that precipitated the world's slide into the Cold
War?
How did President Truman manage to balance a view of a changing world and a changing role for America in the world with international, universal ideals?
A: In my opinion, Harry Truman failed to meet the requirements of a new
world because, always characterized as stubborn, he stuck to the policy of
American superiority.
B: I completely agree with you. The "Truman Doctrine" has become a
metaphor for emergency aid to keep a nation from communist influence.
C: I would object saying that the Truman Doctrine was the first in a
succession of containment moves by the United States, followed by economic
restoration of Western Europe through the Marshall Plan
b. Comment on the statements.
According to Harry Truman, totalitarian regimes coerced free peoples and represented a threat to international peace and the national security of the United
States.
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The man who became US President in 1945 was less an incipient statesman than an intense nationalist... (Liz Blackstock)
Use of English
5. In most of the lines of this text there is an unnecessary word. For
questions 118, find the unnecessary words and write them on the lines
provided. If you think a line contains no unnecessary words, put a tick next
to it. There are two examples (0), (00).
Cold War history, studied from other varied perspectives, provides 0 other
a contradictory story. Talk of brinkmanship, containment, 00 V
resistance, subversion focuses on military force, proliferation of a 1
nuclear power, and spheres of influence. No comprehensive 2
treatment of the Cold War is complete without examining of the 3
most tragic mistake made of U.S. foreign policy during this period. 4
The Truman administration was riding the wild and new notion of 5
a global super power, whose military and its economic superiority 6
was without a rival. It possessed moral credibility backed off by 7
unquestioned superiority. After the war years time, the U.S. 8
became a military globocop assuming the role of the magnanimous 9
superpower, to safeguard liberal rights and to circumscribe on 10
communism. The U.S. main principle was that so as the developing 11
world progressed and had attempted to join an industrialized, 12
commercialized world, anything other rather than a pure, free 13
market, friendly to American institutions, had to have be opposed. 14
Foreign policy objectives, based on exaggerated threats instead of 15
common interests, pursued with by military means and therefore 16
limited to achieving only those goals which reached by the 17
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application of power instead of any diplomacy, led to costly 18
campaigns, crusades, missed opportunities and war.
Speaking Activity
6. Points of view on the beginning of the Cold War vary greatly. Consider
possible opinions and take part in a role play Interviewing diplomats.
Decide who would like to play the roles of journalists and politicians: a
foreign journalist is interviewing a Russian diplomat and a Russian
journalist is interviewing an American diplomat. The aim of the interview is
to find out what the representatives of different ideologies think about the
beginning of the Cold War. Make use of the conversation patterns given in
Functional Bank.
Each diplomat has his own background information. Study your stance.
Background information for a Russian diplomat
9 the imperialist United States is
responsible for the Cold War; 9 the Americans tried to strangle the
Soviet Union during its infancy and sought ever since, with the brief interlude of World War II (known as the Great Patriotic War) to contain Russia by surrounding it with hostile states; 9 the United States and its allies
menaced the Soviet Union with the atomic bomb and tried to isolate and destroy the motherland with their economic power and trade restrictions; 9 the Soviet Union depicted itself as
a defensive outpost of progressive reform in a world dominated by ruthless but ultimately doomed capitalist imperialists; 9 the United States, not just the
Soviet Union, had been an expansionist power throughout its history.
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Background information for an American diplomat
9 the responsibility for the Cold War is
placed on the Soviet Union; 9 the breakdown of postwar peace was the
result of Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe in the immediate postwar years; 9 U.S. officials were forced to respond to
Soviet aggression with the Truman Doctrine, plans to contain communist subversion around the world, and the Marshall Plan; 9 the United States was facing a new type
of enemy and had to adapt accordingly; 9 the Soviet Union is to blame for arms
race and the proliferation of nuclear weapons, as well as apportioning an overriding share of the blame for a series of local wars around the world.
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Unit 3
U.S. President Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis
Lead-in
1. a. What Cold War events that influenced the development of the
confrontation between the two blocks can you think of?
b. Analyze the approaches of the opposing blocks to liberalism given below
and discuss the roots of the conflict with your partner.
1. Khrushchev in a speech bragged about how revolutionist the Soviet Union
was and referred to Soviet support for wars of national liberation. He said that
colonialists did not grant independence, that resistance to imperialism was
inevitable, and that wars of national liberation would lead to communism.
2. Kennedy was alarmed by Khrushchevs bluster, and he was moved to
include in his inaugural speech defiant words about paying any price, bearing any
burden, meeting any hardship in order to assure the survival and the success of
liberty.
A: I suppose the opposition is rooted in confronting ideologies because
B: I cant but agree with you but we should not forget about the colonial
policy of the Soviet Union and the United States, which could have led to the
crisis.
c. Read the abstract given below and guess what country is being discussed.
Work in groups and decide why it was important for the USSR to have such
an ally. Why was the USA against this cooperation?
The revolution in this country on January 1, 1959 initially attracted little
attention in Moscow because Soviet planners, resigned to U.S. dominance over
the Western hemisphere, were unprepared for the possibility of a future ally in
the region.
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Listening
2. a. You are going to hear some information about the Bay of Pigs Invasion
and its consequences. Before listening, compare the two historic facts about
Kennedys policy towards the invasion in Cuba below. Discuss in pairs
Kennedys decisions.
1. On April 12, Kennedy held a news conference at which he was asked
whether the U.S. was going to help an uprising against Castro. Kennedy
answered: First, I want to say that there will not be, under any conditions, an
intervention in Cuba by the United States Armed Forces. This government will
do everything it possibly can, I think it can meet its responsibilities, to make sure
that there are no Americans involved in any actions inside Cuba The basic
issue in Cuba is not one between the United States and Cuba. It is between the
Cubans themselves.
2. Kennedy decided that nighttime landing at the Bay of Pigs would be
better than an early morning at landing Trinidad. The invading force learned at
the last minute that they were heading for the Bay of Pigs. They landed at
midnight as planned, but nothing else went right. They were exposed to Castro's
airforce, and no air cover from the U.S. came to rescue them. The invaders felt
betrayed, and they blamed Kennedy for not sending help. Although Kennedy had
never promised it, they believed that there was supposed to be back-up insurance
by the U.S. military. Kennedy blamed the CIA and asked how he could have been
so stupid. But publicly he took responsibility for the failure.
b. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to
hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Choose five words or
phrases and make up sentences using them.
to launch an attack to overthrow/topple a government a refugee an exile
substantial a defeat an initial objective inflammatory rhetoric to go
through with a venture to call off to bring smth under the public eye a
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rallying point citizenry rapid counterattack to refrain from an uprising to
capture to solidify ones power a missile to spark to come to blows to be
pilloried to unseat a stance to redeem a botched mission
c. Now listen to the recording. For questions 1-7, choose the best answer (A,
B or C) according to what you hear.
1. The Cuban government was supposed to
A be subverted by Cuban refugees.
B finance Cuban refugees.
C be supported by the United States.
2. The outcome of the attack was that
A Cubans joined American soldiers in their fight against Fidel Castro.
B the Cuban government was disrespected by many Cubans.
C more people in Cuba followed Fidel Castros concepts.
3. The American government considered Fidel Castro to be a threat
A because of his anti-American military campaigns.
B for his opposition to the American governments policy.
C since Soviet protection for Cuba was very strong.
4. Kennedy took the decision to launch an attack on Cuba
A to appear sympathetic towards the communistic movement.
B as he wanted to become popular with American people.
C since the affair could have been disclosed if it hadnt been put into practice.
5. The American mission wouldnt have failed
A only if Cuban residents hadnt joined the exiles.
B but for the absence of the necessary support from the USA.
C if the defense of Castros forces had been more active.
6. Casros power in Cuba became stronger after the attack,
A and consequently he had a chance to count on Soviet support.
B that is why the USA installed missile bases in Cuba.
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C which led to further controversies between the USA and the USSR.
7. Kennedys political objective after the military failure was
A the formation of sympathetic public opinion about its reasons.
B to atone for it by attributing the blame to his own maladministration.
C keeping his position of an irresolute person.
d. Discuss in groups.
What conclusions could the head of the Soviet government Nikita Khrushchev have made about the American military might after the Bay of Pigs
Invasion?
What were the consequences of the attack and what impact did it have on the situation in the world? Reading
2. a. You will read the text about Cuban Missile Crisis. Before you read,
think why it is regarded as one of the most critical moments in the Cold
War.
b. Read the text. Five paragraphs have been removed from it. Choose the
most suitable paragraph from the list (AG) for each part (15) of the text.
There one extra paragraph which you do not need to use. There is an
example at the beginning (0).
At the beginning of September 1962, U-2 spy planes discovered that the
Soviet Union was building surface-to-air missile (SAM) launch sites. There
was also an increase in the number of Soviet ships arriving in Cuba which the
United States government feared were carrying new supplies of weapons.
President Kennedy complained to the Soviet Union about these developments
and warned them that the United States would not accept offensive weapons
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(SAMs were considered to be defensive) in Cuba. As the Cubans now had SAM
installations they were in a position to shoot down U-2 spy-planes.
0 B
Kennedy feared that any trouble over Cuba would lose the Democratic Party
even more votes, as it would remind voters of the Bay of Pigs disaster where the
CIA had tried to oust Castro from power. One poll showed that over 62 per cent
of the population were unhappy with his policies on Cuba.
1
At the first meeting of the Executive Committee of the National Security
Council, the CIA and other military advisers explained the situation. After
hearing what they had to say, the general feeling of the meeting was for an air-
attack on the missile sites. Several of the men were having doubts about the
wisdom of a bombing raid, fearing that it would lead to a nuclear war with the
Soviet Union. The committee was now so divided that a firm decision could not
be made.
2
As well as imposing a naval blockade, Kennedy also told the air-force to
prepare for attacks on Cuba and the Soviet Union. The army positioned 125,000
men in Florida and was told to wait for orders to invade Cuba. If the Soviet ships
carrying weapons for Cuba did not turn back or refused to be searched, a war
was likely to begin. Kennedy also promised his military advisers that if one of
the U-2 spy planes were fired upon he would give orders for an attack on the
Cuban SAM missile sites.
3
On October 24, President Kennedy was informed that Soviet ships had
stopped just before they reached the United States ships blockading Cuba. That
evening Nikita Khrushchev sent an angry note to Kennedy accusing him of
creating a crisis to help the Democratic Party win the forthcoming election.
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4
While the president and his advisers were analyzing Khrushchevs two
letters, news came through that a U-2 plane had been shot down over Cuba. The
leaders of the military, reminding Kennedy of the promise he had made, argued
that he should now give orders for the bombing of Cuba. Kennedy refused and
instead sent a letter to Khrushchev accepting the terms of his first letter.
Khrushchev agreed and gave orders for the missiles to be dismantled.
5
Eight days later the elections for Congress took place. The Democrats
increased their majority and it was estimated that Kennedy would now have an
extra twelve supporters in Congress for his policies.
A President Kennedys first reaction to the information about the missiles in
Cuba was to call a meeting to discuss what should be done. Fourteen men
attended the meeting and included military leaders, experts on Latin America,
representatives of the CIA, cabinet ministers and personal friends whose
advice Kennedy valued. This group became known as the Executive
Committee of the National Security Council.
B Kennedy was in a difficult situation. Elections were to take place for the United
States Congress in two month's time. The public opinion polls showed that his
own ratings had fallen to their lowest point since he became president. In his
first two years of office a combination of Republicans and conservative
southern Democrats in Congress had blocked much of Kennedys proposed
legislation.
C The world waited anxiously. A public opinion poll in the United States
revealed that three out of five people expected fighting to break out between
the two sides. There were angry demonstrations outside the American
Embassy in London as people protested about the possibility of nuclear war.
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Demonstrations also took place in other cities in Europe. However, in the
United States, polls suggested that the vast majority supported Kennedys
action.
D In September 1962, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution sanctioning the use of
force against Cuba should it be necessary to curb Cuban aggression and
subversion in Latin America, or to prevent the creation or use of an
externally supported offensive military capability endangering the security
of the United States.
E Taking everything into consideration Kennedy instructed Theodore Sorensen, a
member of the committee, to write a speech in which Kennedy would explain
to the world why it was necessary to impose a naval blockade of Cuba.
F Had the military men around Kennedy had their way a nuclear holocaust
might have followed. Kennedy and McNamara struggled to keep the military
from over-reacting and striking against the Russians, and the greatest of all
tragedies was averted.
G On October 26, Khrushchev sent Kennedy another letter. In this he proposed
that the Soviet Union would be willing to remove the missiles in Cuba in
exchange for a promise by the United States that they would not invade Cuba.
The next day a second letter from Khrushchev arrived demanding that the
United States remove their nuclear bases in Turkey. Vocabulary Practice
3. a. Choose the best variant, a, b, c, or d, to illustrate the meaning of the
words in italics.
1. The CIA had tried to oust Castro from power.
a. remove b. expel c. leave d. retain
2. Three out of five people expected fighting to break out between the two sides.
a. escape b. burst out c. develop d. put out
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3. It should be necessary to curb Cuban aggression.
a. conquer b. incite c. prohibit d. subdue
4. Kennedy would explain to the world why it was necessary to impose a naval
blockade of Cuba.
a. foist b. inflict c. accept d. assail
5. Several of the men were having doubts about the wisdom of a bombing raid.
a. indiscretion b. feat c. sense d. enlightenment
6. Nikita Khrushchev sent an angry note to Kennedy accusing him of creating a
crisis to help the Democratic Party win the forthcoming election.
a. impending b. responsive c. preceding d. up-to-date
7. The greatest of all tragedies was averted.
a. facilitated b. distracted c. effected d. prevented
b. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make
sentences using these collocations as in the example.
A B
to call polls
attend a meeting
vast a resolution
firm majority
pass the meeting
public opinion decision
Finance ministers from many countries will attend the meeting.
c. Explain the highlighted words and phrases from the text.
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Discussion
4. a. Discuss in groups.
What does the presidents rating depend on? How far do you agree with the following judgment about the influence of the Cuban Missile Crisis on
Kennedys reputation as a political leader? Do you think Kennedy acted as a
peacekeeper in case of Cuban Missile Crisis?
Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy's status rose in the eyes of
his countrymen and many others around the world. Just 18 months after the
bungled invasion of Cuba, the missile crisis had become a showcase for
Kennedy's diplomatic savvy and bravado.
A: I suppose Kennedys actions in the Cuban Missile crisis were protective
as
B: I see what you mean. On the other hand, many people would say that he
acted this way just to gain votes before the elections...
Read an abstract about Kennedys meeting with Khrushchev in 1961 and explain Kennedys statement.
In May 1961 Kennedy met with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in
Vienna. Kennedy was hoping that he and Khrushchev could find a solution to
avoid confrontation. Khrushchev moved to close off the flow of refugees from
Communism in Berlin. He threatened that if Kennedy intervened, there would be
war. The summit ended without resolution. Kennedy met Khrushchev's challenge
with a force of his own, increasing the size of America's combat forces and
obtaining billions of dollars for nuclear and conventional weapons. That summer,
the Russians built the Berlin Wall. The crisis eased. A wall is better than a war,
Kennedy said.
Read an abstract about Kennedys policy towards promoting human rights. How revolutionary do you think such policy was for those times?
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In the 1960 presidential election campaign John F. Kennedy argued for a
new Civil Rights Act. During the first two years of his presidency, Kennedy
failed to put forward his promised legislation. However, Kennedy's civil rights
bill was eventually brought before Congress in 1963 and in a speech on television
on 11th June, Kennedy pointed out that: The Negro baby born in America today,
regardless of the section of the nation in which he is born, has about one-half as
much chance of completing high school as a white baby born in the same place
on the same day; one third as much chance of completing college; one third as
much chance of becoming a professional man; twice as much chance of
becoming unemployed; about one-seventh as much chance of earning $10,000 a
year; a life expectancy which is seven years shorter; and the prospects of earning
only half as much.
b. Comment on the statements.
Ask not what your country can do for you, but rather what you can do for your country (John F. Kennedy).
Kennedys role as a peacekeeper proved to transform the history of mankind (Daniel C. Stowers).
Use of English
5. For questions 15, read the following text and choose from the list (AG)
given below the best of the phrases to fit each gap. There is one phrase which
does not fit in any gap. There is an example (0).
Newly elected President John F. Kennedy issued an executive order
establishing the Peace Corps. It proved to be one of the most innovative
0) F
During the course of his campaign for the presidency in 1960, Kennedy
floated the idea that a new army should be created by the United States. This
force would be made up of civilians who would volunteer their time 1)
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Kennedy sent a message to Congress asking for its support 2) to
the United States. The people of these nations were struggling for economic and
social progress. Our own freedom, Kennedy continued, 3) ,
depend, in a very real sense, on their ability to build growing and independent
nations where men can live in dignity, liberated from the bonds of hunger,
ignorance, and poverty. Many in Congress, and the U.S. public, were skeptical
about the program's costs 4) , but Kennedy's warning about the dangers
in the underdeveloped world could not be ignored. Revolutions were breaking out
around the globe 5) were in danger of becoming Cold War
battlefields. Several months later, Congress voted to make the Corps permanent.
Overall, the program was judged a success in terms of helping to win the hearts
and minds of people in the underdeveloped world.
A and many of these conflicts such as in Laos, the Congo, and elsewhere
B and they were not always welcomed by foreign people suspicious of
American motives
C and made clear the significance of underdeveloped nations
D and the effectiveness of American aid to what were perceived to be
"backward" nations
E and the future of freedom around the world
F and highly publicized Cold War programs set up by the United States.
G and skills to travel to underdeveloped nations to assist them in any way they
could.
Speaking Activity
7. Get ready to discuss the problem of the role of a politician in resolving a
conflict at a round-table talk. Make sure you remember the scenario of a
round-table talk (See Unit 1).
Read the list of participants. Chose the part you are going to play.
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Study your role card and think of a number of arguments, examples
and illustrations to prove your stance. Get ready to defend it against
criticism. Make use of the conversational patterns given in Functional Bank.
List of participants Chairperson, politician, clergyman, diplomat, pacifist, NGO representative, warmonger, sociologist, historian, psychologist
Psychologist Warmonger Conflicts are so commonplace in the world today, most people take for granted that thats the way life is supposed to be. It seems we are content to solve political conflicts with brutal force. As a society, we are numb to the horrors of warfare. But unless we simply refuse war and violence as the status quo, we further human suffering by perpetuating violence in the name of nation or in the name of fighting terrorism, or in the name of defending a country, etc. Leaders can not change peoples mentality and psychology.
The 21st century is doing its part to keep the drums of war beating. Nothing can help diplomatic efforts more than military success. A politician should not forget about the great destiny of his nation. The role of a leader is to show how powerful and influential his nation is. In this case any conflict is resolved by persuading other nations to accept the countrys might.
Sociologist
We should not underestimate the role of public nowadays. Public opinion polls are everywhere. Politicians devote substantial time, effort and money to tracking public opinion, not for the purposes of policymaking. Polling has turned leaders into followers. Therefore, common people are the only force that can impact the solution to the conflict.
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NGO Representative Pacifist Public institutions can agree, disagree, or intervene to achieve a desirable culmination or comprehensive process result. In addition to politicians, religious groups, journalists and special interest groups may all have influence on decisions in conflicts. Thus, the role of a politician in solving conflicts nowadays is of secondary importance.
The quickest way of ending a war is to lose it. Thus, instead of shooting bullets on civilian population politicians should act as mediators to create conversations across battle lines. Without vain political ambitions and the fear of defeat, mediators would have an impact on the willingness of embittered and intransigent opponents.
Politician The role of a leader is to
bring about a social as well as political change. It is an open secret that a wise politician with a strong will can decide on a viable tool to minimize civilian casualties, prevent humanitarian catastrophe and solve a conflict. Only a proper decision of a politician shapes the political settlement of a conflict.
Clergyman Historian
Politicians can not help people in non-violent solutions to the conflicts because it isnt easy to change age-old mental habits and persuade mankind to live without war. Moreover, some leaders can fanatically support conflicts. It is the Holy Bible that is the source of meekness and wisdom which teaches us that the only way to change anything is to change it on a personal level, treat everyone the way you want to be treated.
Throughout the history the role of leaders was crucial. They implemented necessary policy, waged wars and solved conflicts. Their role in turning points in history has always been paramount. People are not mature enough to make wise political decisions. History has proved that everybody should do what they are destined to: render to Caesar the things that are Caesars. Thus, we need a leader to avoid chaos.
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Diplomat A real leader should be a
genuine diplomat to be able to establish connections between religions and cultures because we have a world in which an unprecedented number of people are running back to religion and tradition as a source of identity. Leaders need new strategies to reach those people who have lost faith with modernity. Diplomacy needs to catch up with the idea that it is not just persuasion of the enemy sitting across the table from you but persuasion of large populations so that they become involved into a constructive change.
Chairperson
Stage 1 Ladies and Gentlemen, I now declare open the round table devoted to the subject The role of a politician in resolving a conflict. On behalf of the University allow me to express our great appreciation for your presence here today and for the contributions you are ready to make to the coming discussion. The questions to be debated today are highly controversial and allow for a variety of opinions. The issues on the agenda today can be seen from various angles and the attitudes to them are ambivalent. Yet, all those who assembled here today feel that the young generation needs to know the answers. The questions are as follows:
4. Are political conflicts inevitable in the present day world?
5. What is the role of a political leader in solving conflicts?
6. Are there any other forces which can help to resolve a conflict?
I propose a time limit on statement of position of 2 minutes and one minute for all other speakers during the debate. Is that agreed? Thank you. For Stage 2 and Stage 3 use necessary phrases in the Chairpersons card (See Unit 1)
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Unit 4
General Charles de Gaulle and his Politics of Grandeur
Lead-in
1. a. In groups brainstorm the main events in French domestic and foreign
policy at the end of 1950s. Were there any problems and challenges France
had to overcome?
b. Read an abstract from famous War Memoirs by Charles de Gaulle about
his vision of France and think why foreign observers named his politics the
politics of grandeur (politique de grandeur).
All my life I had a certain idea of France. This is inspired by sentiment as
much as by reason. The emotional side of me naturally imagines France, like the
princess in the fairy stories or the Madonna in the frescoes, as dedicated to an
exalted and exceptional destiny. Instinctively I have the feeling that Providence
has created her either for complete successes or for exemplary misfortunes. If, in
spite of this, mediocrity shows in her acts and deeds, it strikes me as an absurd
anomaly, to be imputed to the faults of Frenchmen, not to the genius of the land.
But the positive side of my mind also assures me that France is not really
herself unless in the front rank; In short, to my mind, France cannot be France
without greatness.
c. French policy that de Gaulle thought would provide a path for France to
regaining her glory is called Gaullism. According to Philip H. Gordon, there
are five characteristics of it. Read the following quotations from de Gaulles
speeches and guess what these characteristics are.
1. What is independence? Certainly not isolationism or narrow nationalism. A
country can be a member of an alliance, such as the Atlantic Alliance, and
remain independentto be independent means that one is not at the mercy ( la
discrtion) of any foreign power.
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2. No nation has friends only interests.
You may be sure that the Americans will commit all the stupidities they can
think of, plus some that are beyond imagination. 3. France cannot be France without greatness.
Once upon a time there was an old country, wrapped up in habit and caution.
We have to transform our old France into a new country and marry it to its
time.
4. The state provides the legitimate representation and is the only way to make
real achievement in the world.
The state is the only unit that can act with sufficient power, authority, and
skill. 5. There is no defense except national defense.
No country without an atom bomb could properly consider itself independent.
d. Discuss in pairs what the reasons for de Gaulle to develop a strategy to
regain Frances proper place in the world were. Read the passage and
compare your ideas with the opinion of a researcher Marcus R. Young. First, de Gaulle was born in the late 1800s at the time the decline of French
power began. He also served in WWI and WWII, which saw Frances influence
further diminish. From those experiences, he learned valuable lessons; perhaps
the most prominent was the strong development of his realist approach to world
politics and the inability to trust the US.
Listening
2. a. Study the abstract below about the creation of the European
Community. Following de Gaulles idea of politics of grandeur, what do you
think the role of France in the European Community was supposed to be? The political climate after the end of World War II favoured Western
European unity, seen by many as an escape from the extreme forms of
nationalism which had devastated the continent. One of the first successful
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proposals for European cooperation came in 1951 with the European Coal and
Steel Community. This had the aim of bringing together control of the coal and
steel industries of its member states, principally France and West Germany. This
was with the aim that war between them would not then be possible, as coal and
steel were the principal resources for waging war. The other founding members
were Italy, and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg. Two additional communities were created in 1957 in Rome: the
European Economic Community (EEC) establishing a customs union, and the
European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for cooperation in developing
nuclear energy.
b. The following words and phrases appear in the passage you are going to
hear. Explain their meaning in your own words. Then make up sentences
using them.
a clear vision to affirm a supranational school an architectonic political
direction essential pillars eminently abundant advantages a cohesive
political configuration ambivalence a means to approximate
c. Listen to a historian talking about de Gaulles idea of Europe, and decide
if the statements (19) are true (T) or false (F).
1. De Gaulle stood by the process of European collaboration.
2. According to De Gaulles point of view, a federation should be ruled
by all members of the organization.
3. European states should become homogeneous in their character.
4. De Gaulle believed that supra-national organizations help nations to
coordinate their activities.
5. The European Community should become independent from
American influence.
6. For de Gaulle free trade benefits were essential.
7. De Gaulle strived to avoid the process of standardization and
depoliticization of France.
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8. Britain was not permitted in the Community because of its pro-
American visions.
9. The role of France was to assist the process of European integration.
d. Discuss in groups.
What kind of political Europe should Europe aim to establish, according to Charles de Gaulle?
Can the priority of intergovernmental relations to supranational ones be justified?
Reading
3. a. You will read an article about French foreign policy towards NATO.
Before you read, comment on the history of relations between France and
the USA.
b. Read the quotation from de Gaulles speech given in 1961 and discuss the
role of NATO according to de Gaulle:
Europe can have no political existence if it does not exist at the level of
defense What is NATO?... It is not the defense of Europe by Europe, it is the
defense of Europe by the Americans. We need another NATO. Above all, we
need a Europe which has its own defense. That Europe must be allied to the
United States. I propose that our joint commission put in a train of proposals for a
European defense: command structure, action plans, means.
c. Read the text and choose the most suitable heading (AI) for each
paragraph (17). There is one extra heading which is not needed. There is an
example (0).
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De Gaulle and NATO After WWII, France was no longer a great power, not only because of her
war-weakened economy, but also as a result of her quick military defeat at the hands of the Nazis, which tarnished her image to the others in the world. As the leader of the Free French in WWII, Charles de Gaulle refused to let France go quietly into that good night of political insignificants.
0 Shift in French attitude
In 1947 Charles de Gaulle supported the Marshall Plan's contribution to the
reconstruction of a Europe sheltering under the US nuclear umbrella from the threat of the Soviet bloc. He accepted the creation of the Atlantic Pact in April
1949 to counter that threat, but the subsequent establishment of NATO with its regime of integrated forces created a situation of subordination that France could no longer accept.
1
On his return to power in 1958, General de Gaulle judged it time for France
to reclaim its independence: the country was now in a position to act alone in
Europe and worldwide, and would develop a nuclear force such that none shall
dare attack us without fear of suffering the most terrible injuries. He decided to
pull France out of the integrated structure set up by NATO under US command,
in a phased withdrawal designed to smooth relations with our allies.
2
In September 1958, he set out his views in a memorandum addressed to
President Eisenhower and Prime Minister Macmillan: in essence, NATO's
geographical coverage should be extended to the whole world, and the Alliance
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should be led by three countries, no longer exclusively by the US and UK. The
response he received was unsatisfactory, so General de Gaulle set about making
his dispositions: France's Mediterranean fleet was withdrawn from NATO
command in March 1959; the stationing of American nuclear weapons on French soil was banned, and French air defense forces were returned to national command; an annual application would have to be made for authorisation for
Allied aircraft to overfly French territory; units returning from Algeria would not
be incorporated into NATO. An offer of US nuclear weapons, which would not
be under France's exclusive control, was turned down. Finally the nuclear
programme launched under the Fourth Republic was made a national priority and
culminated in the explosion of the first French atomic bomb on 13 February
1960, at Reagane in the Sahara. His objective was essentially political: to restore
France's greatness by making her directly and fully responsible for her own
defense against any major aggression threatening her vital interests.
3
These decisions were bitterly resented by the USA and criticised by the
other allies. General de Gaulle assured them that France's solidarity was
unchanged. The Berlin crisis in 1961 and then the Cuban missile crisis in 1962
provided him with an opportunity to assure President Kennedy that, in the event
of war, France would fight alongside the USA.
4
After Kennedys assassination, relations deteriorated with the Johnson administration which was preparing to reinforce the integration of NATO and had
adopted the doctrine of graduated response, which in turn cast doubts on the guarantee provided by the US nuclear umbrella. This added to General de
Gaulle's unwillingness to accept integration, which deprived France of its own
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independent resources and risked embroiling the country in conflicts that it did
not wish to fight in. He also thoroughly disapproved of the increasing
involvement of America in Vietnam.
5
On 7 March 1966, General de Gaulle announced to President Johnson that
France was withdrawing from the integrated military organisation. On 1 July
1966, French representatives stepped down from positions in the military
organisation. NATO moved out of its headquarters in Versailles and
Fontainebleau on 1 April 1967. General de Gaulle nonetheless maintained French
participation in the Atlantic Council. France remained a member of NATO and
all its structures except the integrated military command. Instructions were given
to prepare for co-operation between French and NATO forces in the event of war,
subject to France's decision to participate. With this final move, de Gaulle had
achieved his aim of seeing France reclaim her full sovereignty.
6
Reactions abroad were strong, especially in the USA where anti-French
demonstrations were held, but also in Great Britain and the Netherlands. The
Germans were anxious. The over-riding feeling was one of incomprehension. The Soviets applauded and some voices were keen to exaggerate the importance
of the General's visit to the Soviet Union in June 1966.
7
For two years the strategic debate between France and America remained
lively, but General de Gaulle fully intended to stand by the alliance with the
USA. Tension eased at the end of 1968 with the election of President Nixon, who
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was well-disposed towards France. He and de Gaulle developed a relationship of mutual trust. The General decided to continue France's membership of the
Atlantic Pact when it came up for renewal in 1969.
General de Gaulle's strategic doctrine largely continued to be followed until
the collapse of the Soviet bloc.
A. The world responses
B. Unity of Franco-American interests
C. Gaining the right for autonomous actions
D. The growing role of France
E. Shift in French attitude
F. Necessity for independence
G. Further development of relations
H. Impaired ties
I. Steps to achieve the desired objective
Vocabulary Practice
4. a. Match the two parts of the sentences and fill in a necessary preposition.
The example is given. Then make up a story with the words in italics.
1. The minister addressed his remarks a . their research program.
2. They incorporated the ministers
suggestions
b . our most basic rights
3. A series of minor clashes culminated c the arms race policy.
4. The decision to buy this weapon adds
5,000
d . ministerial approval.
5. This law will deprive us e . the elections
6. The top brass rejected getting embroiled f a full-scale war
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7. The Congress strongly disapproved g the defence budget.
8. The politician withdrew his candidacy h the head of the committee
9. All military operations are subject i the peacekeeping mission.
The Prime Minister addressed his remarks to the head of the committee.
b. Match the words in columns A and B to form collocations. Then make
sentences using these collocations as in the example.
A B
to tarnish umbrella
nuclear relations
to launch bitterly
vital doubts
to deteriorate importance
to cast image
to exaggerate programme
to resent interests
The perjury accusation tarnished the Presidents image.
c. Replace the underlined words and expressions with the phrasal verbs
given below using the correct form. Reproduce the situations in which they
were used in the text.
to go into to pull sth out of sth to set sth up to set sth out to turn sth down
to step down to stand by to come up for
1. The Prime Minister has confirmed that he will leave his post shortly.
2. Once a president is elected, he rarely remains faithful to his promises.
3. The general caused his troops to leave the area.
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4. The President will try to push the legislation through Congress before he
nominates his candidacy for the re-election.
5. She plans to enter politics when she leaves university.
6. There are still those who would advocate establishing a separate Parliament.
7. The resolution offered by the opposition was rejected.
8. The reasons for this political decision are explained in the Prime Ministers
report.
d. Explain the highlighted words and phrases.
Discussion
5. a. Discuss in groups.
How did de Gaulles policy influence the situation in the world? Which of the following statements made by de Gaulle do you think best
describes his political outlook?
1. In politics it is necessary either to betray one's country or the electorate. I
prefer to betray the electorate.
2. In order to become the master, the politician poses as the servant.
Read an abstract about the Empty Chair Crisis in the European Community. Comment on de Gaulles Empty Chair Policy in relation to the
members of the European Community. How can you characterise the style of de
Gaulle response to the crisis? Was it a political tool to suppress the opponents?
During the establishment of the European Community, de Gaulle
precipitated one of the greatest crises in the history of the EC, the Empty Chair Crisis. The constitutional crisis began with the reason that Commission President Walter Hallstein suggested a plan to find additional sources of revenue for
Common Agricultural Policy. The other five members were ready to accept it but
de Gaulle would never agree to a majority vote decision mechanism in the
European Community. He was bitterly opposed to give such powers to the
community and to the European Parliament in particular. In 1965, the French
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government withdrew its permanent representatives from the communities and
boycotted community activities for the next seven months. The policy of the
Empty Chair began. The absence of French representatives left the organization
essentially unable to run its affairs. The crisis was only resolved in January 1966
when, at the meeting in Luxembourg, the council agreed that in the future, an
individual government could ve