2002.11.19- SLIDE 1IS 257 - Fall 2002 Object-Oriented, Intelligent and Object-Relational Database...
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Transcript of 2002.11.19- SLIDE 1IS 257 - Fall 2002 Object-Oriented, Intelligent and Object-Relational Database...
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 1
Object-Oriented, Intelligent and Object-Relational Database
ModelsUniversity of California, Berkeley
School of Information Management and Systems
SIMS 257: Database Management
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 2
Lecture Outline
• Review– Applications for Data Warehouses– Decision Support Systems (DSS)– OLAP (ROLAP, MOLAP)– Data Mining
• Thanks again to lecture notes from Joachim Hammer of the University of Florida
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 3
What is Decision Support?
• Technology that will help managers and planners make decisions regarding the organization and its operations based on data in the Data Warehouse.– What was the last two years of sales volume
for each product by state and city?– What effects will a 5% price discount have on
our future income for product X?
• Increasing common term is KDD– Knowledge Discovery in Databases
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 4
Conventional Query Tools
• Ad-hoc queries and reports using conventional database tools– E.g. Access queries.
• Typical database designs include fixed sets of reports and queries to support them– The end-user is often not given the ability to
do ad-hoc queries
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 5
OLAP
• Online Line Analytical Processing– Intended to provide multidimensional views of
the data– I.e., the “Data Cube”– The PivotTables in MS Excel are examples of
OLAP tools
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 6
Data Cube
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Operations on Data Cubes
• Slicing the cube– Extracts a 2d table from the multidimensional
data cube– Example…
• Drill-Down– Analyzing a given set of data at a finer level of
detail
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 8
Star Schema
• Typical design for the derived layer of a Data Warehouse or Mart for Decision Support– Particularly suited to ad-hoc queries– Dimensional data separate from fact or event
data• Fact tables contain factual or quantitative
data about the business• Dimension tables hold data about the
subjects of the business• Typically there is one Fact table with
multiple dimension tables
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 9
Star Schema for multidimensional data
OrderOrderNoOrderDate…
SalespersonSalespersonIDSalespersonNameCityQuota
Fact TableOrderNoSalespersonidCustomernoProdNoDatekeyCitynameQuantityTotalPrice City
CityNameStateCountry…
DateDateKeyDayMonthYear…
ProductProdNoProdNameCategoryDescription…
CustomerCustomerNameCustomerAddressCity…
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 10
Data Mining
• Data mining is knowledge discovery rather than question answering– May have no pre-formulated questions– Derived from
• Traditional Statistics• Artificial intelligence• Computer graphics (visualization)
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 11
Goals of Data Mining
• Explanatory – Explain some observed event or situation
• Why have the sales of SUVs increased in California but not in Oregon?
• Confirmatory– To confirm a hypothesis
• Whether 2-income families are more likely to buy family medical coverage
• Exploratory– To analyze data for new or unexpected relationships
• What spending patterns seem to indicate credit card fraud?
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 12
Data Mining Applications
• Profiling Populations
• Analysis of business trends
• Target marketing
• Usage Analysis
• Campaign effectiveness
• Product affinity
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Data Mining Algorithms
• Market Basket Analysis
• Memory-based reasoning
• Cluster detection
• Link analysis
• Decision trees and rule induction algorithms
• Neural Networks
• Genetic algorithms
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 14
Market Basket Analysis
• A type of clustering used to predict purchase patterns.
• Identify the products likely to be purchased in conjunction with other products– E.g., the famous (and apocryphal) story that
men who buy diapers on Friday nights also buy beer.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 15
Memory-based reasoning
• Use known instances of a model to make predictions about unknown instances.
• Could be used for sales forcasting or fraud detection by working from known cases to predict new cases
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Cluster detection
• Finds data records that are similar to each other.
• K-nearest neighbors (where K represents the mathematical distance to the nearest similar record) is an example of one clustering algorithm
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Link analysis
• Follows relationships between records to discover patterns
• Link analysis can provide the basis for various affinity marketing programs
• Similar to Markov transition analysis methods where probabilities are calculated for each observed transition.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 18
Decision trees and rule induction algorithms
• Pulls rules out of a mass of data using classification and regression trees (CART) or Chi-Square automatic interaction detectors (CHAID)
• These algorithms produce explicit rules, which make understanding the results simpler
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 19
Neural Networks
• Attempt to model neurons in the brain
• Learn from a training set and then can be used to detect patterns inherent in that training set
• Neural nets are effective when the data is shapeless and lacking any apparent patterns
• May be hard to understand results
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 20
Genetic algorithms
• Imitate natural selection processes to evolve models using– Selection– Crossover– Mutation
• Each new generation inherits traits from the previous ones until only the most predictive survive.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 21
Today
• Object-Oriented Database Systems
• Inverted File and Flat File DBMS
• Object-Relational DBMS– OR features in Oracle– OR features in PostgreSQL
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 22
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• Each real-world entity is modeled by an object. Each object is associated with a unique identifier (sometimes call the object ID or OID)
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 23
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• Each object has a set of instance attributes (or instance variables) and methods.– The value of an attribute can be an object or
set of objects. Thus complex object can be constructed from aggregations of other objects.
– The set of attributes of the object and the set of methods represent the object structure and behavior, respectively
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 24
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• The attribute values of an object represent the object’s status. – Status is accessed or modified by sending
messages to the object to invoke the corresponding methods
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 25
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• Objects sharing the same structure and behavior are grouped into classes.– A class represents a template for a set of
similar objects.– Each object is an instance of some class.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 26
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• A class can be defined as a specialization of of one or more classes. – A class defined as a specialization is called a
subclass and inherits attributes and methods from its superclass(es).
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 27
Object-Oriented DBMS Basic Concepts
• An OODBMS is a DBMS that directly supports a model based on the object-oriented paradigm. – Like any DBMS it must provide persistent
storage for objects and their descriptions (schema).
– The system must also provide a language for schema definition and and for manipulation of objects and their schema
– It will usually include a query language, indexing capabilities, etc.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 28
Generalization Hierarchy
Employee NoName
AddressDate hired
Date of Birth
employee
Contract No.Date Hired
consultant
Annual SalaryStock Option
Salaried
Hourly Rate
Hourly
calculateAge
AllocateToContractcalculateStockBenefitcalculateWage
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 29
Inverted File DBMS
• Usually similar to Hierarchic DBMS in record structure– Support for repeating groups of fields and
multiple value fields
• All access is via inverted file indexes to DBS specified fields.
• Examples: ADABAS DBMS from Software AG -- used in the MELVYL system
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 30
Flat File DBMS
• Data is stored as a simple file of records. – Records usually have a simple structure
• May support indexing of fields in the records.– May also support scanning of the data
• No mechanisms for relating data between files.
• Usually easy to use and simple to set up
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 31
Intelligent Database Systems
• Intelligent DBS are intended to handle more than just data, and may be used in tasks involving large amounts of information where analysis and “discovery” are needed.
The following is based on “Intelligent Databases” by Kamran Parsaye, Mark Chignell, Setrag Khoshafian and Harry WongAI Expert, March 1990, v. 5 no. 3. Pp 38-47
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Intelligent Database Systems
• They represent the evolution and merging of several technologies:– Automatic Information Discovery– Hypermedia– Object Orientation– Expert Systems– Conventional DBMS
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 33
Intelligent Database Systems
IntelligentDatabases
ExpertSystems
TraditionalDatabases
Hypermedia
Automaticdiscovery
ObjectOrientation
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 34
Intelligent Database Architecture
Intelligent DatabaseEngine
High-LevelUser Interface
High-LevelTools
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 35
Environment Components
Data Dictionary
Concept Dictionary
Flexible queries
Error detection
Automatic Discovery
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 36
Intelligent Databases
• Data Dictionary contains the system metadata
• Concept Dictionary defines ‘virtual fields’ based on approximate definitions
• Data Analysis and discovery– Find patterns– detect errors– Process queries
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 37
Intelligent Databases
• Automatic Discovery– Data comprehension– Form Hypotheses– Make queries– View results and perhaps modify hypotheses– Repeat
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 38
Intelligent Databases
• Automatic Error Detection– Integrity Constraints– Rule systems– Analysis of data for anomalies
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 39
Intelligent Databases
• Flexible Query Processing– Approximate and “fuzzy” queries
• SELECT NAME, AGE, TELEPHONE FROM PERSONEL WHERE NAME = ‘Dovid Smith’ and AGE IS-CLOSE-TO 19;
• confidence factors
– Ranked query results
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 40
Intelligent Databases
• Intelligent User Interfaces– Hyperlinked data in the data/knowledge base– Multimedia presentations– Dynamic linking of related information
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 41
Intelligent Databases
• Intelligent Database Engine– OO support– Inference features– Global optimization– Rule manager– Explanation manager– Transaction manager– Metadata manager– Access module– Multimedia manager
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 42
Object Relational Databases
• Background• Object Definitions
– inheritance• User-defined datatypes• User-defined functions
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 43
Object Relational Databases
• Began with UniSQL/X unified object-oriented and relational system
• Some systems (like OpenODB from HP) were Object systems built on top of Relational databases.
• Miro/Montage/Illustra built on Postgres.
• Informix Buys Illustra. (DataBlades)
• Oracle Hires away Informix Programmers. (Cartridges)
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 44
Object Relational Data Model
• Class, instance, attribute, method, and integrity constraints
• OID per instance• Encapsulation• Multiple inheritance hierarchy of classes• Class references via OID object
references• Set-Valued attributes• Abstract Data Types
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 45
Object Relational Extended SQL (Illustra)
• CREATE TABLE tablename {OF TYPE Typename}|{OF NEW TYPE typename} (attr1 type1, attr2 type2,…,attrn typen) {UNDER parent_table_name};
• CREATE TYPE typename (attribute_name type_desc, attribute2 type2, …, attrn typen);
• CREATE FUNCTION functionname (type_name, type_name) RETURNS type_name AS sql_statement
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 46
Object-Relational SQL in ORACLE
• CREATE (OR REPLACE) TYPE typename AS OBJECT (attr_name, attr_type, …);
• CREATE TABLE OF typename;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 47
Example
• CREATE TYPE ANIMAL_TY AS OBJECT (Breed VARCHAR2(25), Name VARCHAR2(25), Birthdate DATE);
• Creates a new type
• CREATE TABLE Animal of Animal_ty;
• Creates “Object Table”
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 48
Constructor Functions
• INSERT INTO Animal values (ANIMAL_TY(‘Mule’, ‘Frances’, TO_DATE(‘01-APR-1997’, ‘DD-MM-YYYY’)));
• Insert a new ANIMAL_TY object into the table
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 49
Selecting from an Object Table
• Just use the columns in the object…
• SELECT Name from Animal;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 50
More Complex Objects
• CREATE TYPE Address_TY as object (Street VARCHAR2(50), City VARCHAR2(25), State CHAR(2), zip NUMBER);
• CREATE TYPE Person_TY as object (Name VARCHAR2(25), Address ADDRESS_TY);
• CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER (Customer_ID NUMBER, Person PERSON_TY);
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 51
What Does the Table Look like?
• DESCRIBE CUSTOMER;
• NAME TYPE
• -----------------------------------------------------
• CUSTOMER_ID NUMBER
• PERSON NAMED TYPE
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 52
Inserting
• INSERT INTO CUSTOMER VALUES (1, PERSON_TY(‘John Smith’, ADDRESS_TY(‘57 Mt Pleasant St.’, ‘Finn’, ‘NH’, 111111)));
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 53
Selecting from Abstract Datatypes
• SELECT Customer_ID from CUSTOMER;
• SELECT * from CUSTOMER;
CUSTOMER_ID PERSON(NAME, ADDRESS(STREET, CITY, STATE ZIP))---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 PERSON_TY(‘JOHN SMITH’, ADDRESS_TY(‘57...
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 54
Selecting from Abstract Datatypes
• SELECT Customer_id, person.name from Customer;
• SELECT Customer_id, person.address.street from Customer;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 55
Updating
• UPDATE Customer SET person.address.city = ‘HART’ where person.address.city = ‘Briant’;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 56
Functions
• CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION funcname (argname [IN | OUT | IN OUT] datatype …) RETURN datatype (IS | AS) {block | external body}
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 57
Example
Create Function BALANCE_CHECK (Person_name IN Varchar2) RETURN NUMBER is BALANCE NUMBER(10,2) BEGIN
SELECT sum(decode(Action, ‘BOUGHT’, Amount, 0)) - sum(decode(Action, ‘SOLD’, amount, 0)) INTO BALANCE FROM LEDGER where Person = PERSON_NAME;
RETURN BALANCE;
END;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 58
Example
• Select NAME, BALANCE_CHECK(NAME) from Worker;
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 59
TRIGGERS
• Create TRIGGER UPDATE_LODGING INSTEAD OF UPDATE on WORKER_LODGING for each row BEGIN
if :old.name <> :new.name then update worker set name = :new.name where name = :old.name;
end if;
if :old.lodging <> … etc...
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 60
PostgreSQL
• Derived from POSTGRES– Developed at Berkeley by Mike Stonebraker
and his students (EECS) starting in 1986
• Postgres95– Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen adapted
POSTGRES to SQL and greatly improved the code base
• PostgreSQL– Name changed in 1996, and since that time
the system has been expanded to support most SQL92 features
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 61
PostgreSQL Classes
• The fundamental notion in Postgres is that of a class, which is a named collection of object instances. Each instance has the same collection of named attributes, and each attribute is of a specific type. Furthermore, each instance has a permanent object identifier (OID) that is unique throughout the installation. Because SQL syntax refers to tables, we will use the terms table and class interchangeably. Likewise, an SQL row is an instance and SQL columns are attributes.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 62
Creating a Class
• You can create a new class by specifying the class name, along with all attribute names and their types:
CREATE TABLE weather ( city varchar(80), temp_lo int, -- low temperature temp_hi int, -- high temperature prcp real, -- precipitation date date);
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 63
PostgreSQL
• Postgres can be customized with an arbitrary number of user-defined data types. Consequently, type names are not syntactical keywords, except where required to support special cases in the SQL92 standard.
• So far, the Postgres CREATE command looks exactly like the command used to create a table in a traditional relational system. However, we will presently see that classes have properties that are extensions of the relational model.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 64
PostgreSQL
• All of the usual SQL commands for creation, searching and modifying classes (tables) are available. With some additions…
• Inheritance
• Non-Atomic Values
• User defined functions and operators
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 65
Inheritance
CREATE TABLE cities ( name text, population float, altitude int -- (in ft));
CREATE TABLE capitals ( state char(2)) INHERITS (cities);
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 66
Inheritance
• In Postgres, a class can inherit from zero or more other classes.
• A query can reference either – all instances of a class – or all instances of a class plus all of its
descendants
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Inheritance
• For example, the following query finds all the cities that are situated at an attitude of 500ft or higher:
SELECT name, altitude FROM cities WHERE altitude > 500;+----------+----------+|name | altitude |+----------+----------+|Las Vegas | 2174 |+----------+----------+|Mariposa | 1953 |+----------+----------+
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 68
Inheritance
• On the other hand, to find the names of all cities, including state capitals, that are located at an altitude over 500ft, the query is:
SELECT c.name, c.altitude FROM cities* c WHERE c.altitude > 500;which returns: +----------+----------+|name | altitude |+----------+----------+|Las Vegas | 2174 |+----------+----------+|Mariposa | 1953 |+----------+----------+|Madison | 845 |+----------+----------+
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 69
Inheritance
• The "*" after cities in the preceding query indicates that the query should be run over cities and all classes below cities in the inheritance hierarchy
• Many of the PostgreSQL commands (SELECT, UPDATE and DELETE, etc.) support this inheritance notation using "*"
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 70
Non-Atomic Values
• One of the tenets of the relational model is that the attributes of a relation are atomic– I.e. only a single value for a given row and
column
• Postgres does not have this restriction: attributes can themselves contain sub-values that can be accessed from the query language– Examples include arrays and other complex
data types.
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Non-Atomic Values - Arrays
• Postgres allows attributes of an instance to be defined as fixed-length or variable-length multi-dimensional arrays. Arrays of any base type or user-defined type can be created. To illustrate their use, we first create a class with arrays of base types.
CREATE TABLE SAL_EMP ( name text, pay_by_quarter int4[], schedule text[][]);
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 72
Non-Atomic Values - Arrays
• The preceding SQL command will create a class named SAL_EMP with a text string (name), a one-dimensional array of int4 (pay_by_quarter), which represents the employee's salary by quarter and a two-dimensional array of text (schedule), which represents the employee's weekly schedule
• Now we do some INSERTSs; note that when appending to an array, we enclose the values within braces and separate them by commas.
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 73
Inserting into Arrays
INSERT INTO SAL_EMP VALUES ('Bill', '{10000, 10000, 10000, 10000}', '{{"meeting", "lunch"}, {}}');
INSERT INTO SAL_EMP VALUES ('Carol', '{20000, 25000, 25000, 25000}', '{{"talk", "consult"}, {"meeting"}}');
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 74
Querying Arrays
• This query retrieves the names of the employees whose pay changed in the second quarter:
SELECT name
FROM SAL_EMP
WHERE SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[1] <>
SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[2];+------+|name |+------+|Carol |+------+
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 75
Querying Arrays
• This query retrieves the third quarter pay of all employees:
SELECT SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[3] FROM SAL_EMP;
+---------------+|pay_by_quarter |+---------------+|10000 |+---------------+|25000 |+---------------+
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 76
Querying Arrays
• We can also access arbitrary slices of an array, or subarrays. This query retrieves the first item on Bill's schedule for the first two days of the week.
SELECT SAL_EMP.schedule[1:2][1:1] FROM SAL_EMP WHERE SAL_EMP.name = 'Bill';+-------------------+|schedule |+-------------------+|{{"meeting"},{""}} |+-------------------+
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 77
User Defined Functions
• CREATE FUNCTION allows a Postgres user to register a function with a database. Subsequently, this user is considered the owner of the function
CREATE FUNCTION name ( [ ftype [, ...] ] ) RETURNS rtype AS {SQLdefinition} LANGUAGE 'langname' [ WITH ( attribute [, ...] ) ]CREATE FUNCTION name ( [ ftype [, ...] ] ) RETURNS rtype AS obj_file , link_symbol LANGUAGE 'C' [ WITH ( attribute [, ...] ) ]
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 78
Simple SQL Function
• CREATE FUNCTION one() RETURNS int4
AS 'SELECT 1 AS RESULT'
LANGUAGE 'sql';
SELECT one() AS answer;
answer
--------
1
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 79
External Functions
• This example creates a C function by calling a routine from a user-created shared library. This particular routine calculates a check digit and returns TRUE if the check digit in the function parameters is correct. It is intended for use in a CHECK contraint.
CREATE FUNCTION ean_checkdigit(bpchar, bpchar) RETURNS bool
AS '/usr1/proj/bray/sql/funcs.so' LANGUAGE 'c';CREATE TABLE product ( id char(8) PRIMARY KEY, eanprefix char(8) CHECK (eanprefix ~ '[0-9]{2} [0-9]{5}') REFERENCES brandname(ean_prefix), eancode char(6) CHECK (eancode ~ '[0-9]{6}'), CONSTRAINT ean CHECK (ean_checkdigit(eanprefix,
eancode)));
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 80
Creating new Types
• CREATE TYPE allows the user to register a new user data type with Postgres for use in the current data base. The user who defines a type becomes its owner. typename is the name of the new type and must be unique within the types defined for this database.
CREATE TYPE typename ( INPUT = input_function, OUTPUT = output_function
, INTERNALLENGTH = { internallength | VARIABLE } [ , EXTERNALLENGTH = { externallength | VARIABLE } ]
[ , DEFAULT = "default" ] [ , ELEMENT = element ] [ , DELIMITER = delimiter ] [ , SEND = send_function ] [ , RECEIVE = receive_function ] [ , PASSEDBYVALUE ] )
IS 257 - Fall 2002 2002.11.19- SLIDE 81
New Type Definition
• This command creates the box data type and then uses the type in a class definition:
CREATE TYPE box (INTERNALLENGTH = 8,
INPUT = my_procedure_1, OUTPUT = my_procedure_2);
CREATE TABLE myboxes (id INT4, description box);
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Rules System
• CREATE RULE name AS ON event
TO object [ WHERE condition ]
DO [ INSTEAD ] [ action | NOTHING ]
• Rules can be triggered by any event (select, update, delete, etc.)