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Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (2006) 10, 276–286

Bodywork and

Journal of

Movement Therapies

PILOT STUDY

Yoga and distractibility

Lee N. Burkett, Ph.D.a,, Megan A. Todd, M.S.a, Troy Adams, Ph.D.b

aDepartment of Exercise and Wellness, Arizona State University, 7001 E. Williams Field Road, Mesa,

AZ 85212-0180, USAbRocky Mountain University of Health Professions, Provo, UT, USA

Received 11 May 2005; received in revised form 20 August 2005; accepted 24 August 2005

Summary Performers have used many approaches to regulate arousal levels. Yogaclaims to regulate arousal; however the claim has not been evaluated. This studyinvestigated non-directive somatic arousal, utilizing heart-rate data, of trained andnovice yoga practitioners before, during and following an auditory distraction insavasana. No difference was noted between trained and novice yoga practitioners.& 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Introduction

Whether in sports, the performing arts, or otherperformance-related tasks, the ability to focus iscritically important and can often delineate elitefrom average performers. After sound mechanicalskills are learned in any discipline, the mentalability to focus on a performance related taskwithout becoming distracted is paramount. Perfor-mers have used many approaches to cultivate theability to focus and regulate their arousal levels.Yoga is a practice that purportedly enhances focus;however, this claim has not been scientificallyevaluated. The purpose of this paper is to evaluatethe use of yoga as a means for regulatingphysiological arousal. The paper is organized asfollows. First, important definitions are providedfrom the literature, where available, or operation-

ally defined by the researcher. Second, a discussionof key concepts is presented. Third, theoreticalconstructs pertinent to arousal and performanceare discussed. Fourth, research literature specificto the physiological aspects of the arousal–perfor-mance relationship are reviewed. Fifth, a review of pertinent yoga research is discussed. Finally, theyoga and distractibility study will be presented.

Definitions

Arousal—

‘‘nondirective generalized bodily activa-tionyconsidered an energizing function responsi-ble for harnessing the body’s resources for intenseand vigorous activity’’ (Arent and Landers, 2003,p. 437).

Anxiety—‘‘an emotional state or reaction oftencharacterized by unpleasant feelings of intensity,preoccupation, disturbance, and apprehension’’(Arent and Landers, 2003, p. 437).

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www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/jbmt

KEYWORDSYoga;Distractibility;Stress;Arousal

1360-8592/$ - see front matter & 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2005.08.007

Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (L.N. Burkett).

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Focus—one pointed attention of the body’sresources on a singular task.

Distractibility—the ability to be aroused eitherphysiologically or cognitively by an auditory, visual,or kinesthetic stimulus, while performing a task,usually with negative consequence to the perfor-mance task.

Yoga—

the practice of physical postures (asana)and controlled breathing techniques (pranyama).

Key concepts

Arousal

In exploring the arousal–performance relationshiptwo important terms to define clearly are the termsarousal and anxiety, which are often used inter-

changeably within the research, but as Arent andLanders (2003) state, they are conceptually andoperationally different. Behavior can best bedescribed in terms of two dimensions, intensityand direction (Neiss, 1988). Arousal is a ‘‘nondir-ective generalized bodily activationyconsideredan energizing function responsible for harnessingthe body’s resources for intense and vigorousactivity’’ (Arent and Landers, 2003, p. 437). Itrefers to intensity level, existing along a continuumfrom a coma like state to a state of extremeexcitation (Landers, 1980). It is also referred to asactivation. Anxiety, however, is ‘‘an emotional

state or reaction often characterized by unpleasantfeelings of intensity, preoccupation, disturbance,and apprehension’’ (Arent and Landers, 2003, p.437). Anxiety, or stress, occurs when intensity orarousal levels are high and perceived as negative(Landers, 1980). It deals with the direction of theintensity, whereas arousal refers only to intensity.Although different, these two constructs of anxietyand arousal are often related, particularly at timesof elevated intensity, as in performance situations.

Arousal itself is considered a multifaceted con-struct comprised of both cognitive and physiologi-

cal aspects and as such Gould and Udry contendthat it is important to utilize both physiological andcognitive methods of arousal measurement (1994).Physiological arousal can be measured in variousways. Brain functioning can be monitored utilizingan Electroencephalograph (EEG). Blood pressure,skin conductance, heart rate, and muscular activitycan all be used as a means of monitoring physio-logical arousal. Epinephrine, nor epinephrine, andcortisol, measured via blood and urine, can all beused to detect changes in physiological arousal atthe biochemical level. Research has shown that not

all people manifest physiological arousal in thesame way (Gould and Udry, 1994). Some experienceelevated heart rate, with no increase in bloodpressure or skin resistance while others may showan increase in skin resistance and no increase inheart rate or blood pressure (Gould and Udry,1994). Since people manifest physiological arousal

in various ways it may be important to use variousmeans of physiological measurement to develop amore accurate assessment of the physiologicalarousal state. Accounting for the cognitive compo-nent of arousal utilizing self-report measures is alsoimportant. Thayer’s Activation-Deactivation Adjec-tive Checklist (AD-ACL, Thayer, 1967) and theSomatic Perception Questionnaire (SPQ, Landyand Stern, 1971) are the only self-report ques-tionnaires that separate arousal from anxiety(Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Accounting forboth the cognitive and physiological components of

arousal is imperative to develop a more completeunderstanding of arousal. However, in this study welimited our parameters to the evaluation of a singlemeasurement of physiological arousal.

Anxiety

Anxiety is also considered a multifaceted constructcomprised of both cognitive and somatic elements.Cognitive anxiety in a performance setting involves‘‘negative concerns about performance, an inabilityto concentrate, and disrupted attention before and

during performance evaluation’’ (Arent and Landers,2003, p. 437). Somatic anxiety involves the ‘‘percep-tion of bodily symptoms of autonomic reactivity,often characterized by feelings of butterflies in thestomach, racing heart, and shakiness’’ (Arent andLanders, 2003, p. 437). For this study, anxiety wasnot a primary concern and as such the theoreticalconstructs of the arousal–performance relationshipthat rely on the concept of anxiety as a mediatingfactor will be discussed briefly but not utilized asguiding theoretical constructs for the literaturereview or the study design.

Focus

Focus is defined by Webster’s Encyclopedia Dic-tionary as the ‘‘central point, as of attraction,attention, or activityyto concentrateyto beadjusted to a clear image’’ (Kellerman, 1977,p. 378). In the performance setting, focus can bedefined as the ability to direct one’s attentionsolely to the activity at hand. Focus can be internalor external and operationally defined in multipleways. Internal focus can be operationally defined as

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directing one’s attention to one’s own breath andheart rate (Fillingim and Fine, 1986) or to theaction itself (Wulf et al., 1999). Two means of operationally defining external focus are: listeningto a target word throughout performance (Fillingimand Fine, 1986) or directing one’s attention to theoutcome of the action (Wulf et al., 1999). Research

has shown different performance related outcomesbetween internal and external focus techniques(Clingman and Hilliard, 1990; Gill and Strom, 1985;Fillingim and Fine, 1987; Radlo et al., 2002; Sheaand Wulf, 1999; Wulf et al., 1999, 2003).

Distractibility

Distraction is defined by Webster’s EncyclopediaDictionary as ‘‘confusion from the multiplicity of objects crowding on the mind and calling theattention different ways’’ (Kellerman, 1977, p.

291). Hence, the term distractibility then refers tothe ability of a person to be distracted. It is a termgenerally used in psychology literature dealing withmental difficulties of attention. In performance it isof paramount importance to be able to devote themind singularly to the performance act. Thus, theconcept of distractibility within the performancesetting relates to the ability to be aroused eitherphysiologically or cognitively with negative conse-quence to performance.

Theoretical constructs

There are many theoretical constructs thatattempt to explain and describe the arousal–

performance relationship. The catastrophe cupmodel (Fazey and Hardy, 1987), Hanin’s optimalzones of functioning hypothesis (1978), and multi-dimensional anxiety theory are all theories pre-dicated on the impact of anxiety levels onperformance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). How-ever, as the scope of this study attempted to look at

only non-directive somatic arousal, the threetheories predicated on anxiety levels will not bepart of the guiding framework for discussion in thesubsequent study. The drive theory (Hull, 1943;Spence, 1951), and the inverted U hypothesis(Yerkes and Dodson, 1908) are then discussed toexplore differing explanations of the role of physiological arousal and its impact on perfor-mance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Ultimately,the inverted U hypothesis provides the strongesttheoretical rationale for this study. See Fig. 1.

Catastrophe theory

The catastrophe theory asserts that cognitiveanxiety levels interact with and mediate arousalin performance (Gould and Udry, 1994). In states of low cognitive anxiety and worry, the catastrophetheory functions as an inverted U. However, whencognitive anxiety is high there are increases inperformance to a point after which a catastrophe,or rapid deterioration in performance occurs(Gould and Udry, 1994). Central to the catastrophe

theory is that the performer’s physiological arousaland performance are mediated by their level of cognitive anxiety (Gould and Udry, 1994). For thisanalysis, cognitive anxiety is not being evaluated

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Figure 1 The inverted U hypothesis suggests that physiological arousal and performance are mediated by the levelof cognitive anxiety. Modified from: Williams, J.M., Landers, D.M., Boutcher, S.H. (1993). Arousal–performancerelationships, Applied Sport Psychology; personal growth to peak performance.

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and thus this theory is not the most appropriateframework.

Individual zone of optimal functioning

Hanin’s individual zone of optimal functioning(IZOF) is another theory that explains performanceas dependent on anxiety levels. IZOF is founded onthe concept of an individual optimal range of anxiety level necessary for optimal performance(Davis and Cox, 2002). The term optimal, referringto performance, is defined as the most favorable orsuccessful outcome possible. Optimal arousal oranxiety is defined as the best level for eliciting themost successful outcome possible. According tothe IZOF, the best performance will occur when theperformer perceives their anxiety level as facil-itating performance (Davis and Cox, 2002). Againfor this study no attempt was made to account for

anxiety levels, only for physiological arousal andtherefore this theory was not applied.

Multi-dimensional anxiety theory

Multi-dimensional anxiety theory is based on thedifference between cognitive and somatic anxiety.It predicts a negative linear association betweencognitive anxiety and performance and an invertedU relationship between somatic anxiety and per-formance (Swain and Jones, 1996). The multi-dimensional anxiety theory also predicts a decline

in somatic anxiety at the onset of performance withcognitive anxiety levels continuing to be mediatedby self-confidence levels in an inverse relationship.If self-confidence is low cognitive anxiety remainshigh during performance, and if confidence is highcognitive anxiety levels will tend to decline inperformance. Again this theory did not influencethe current study as anxiety was not the dependentvariable under investigation.

Drive theory

The drive theory describes the arousal–

perfor-mance relationship in linear terms, as the resultof habit and drive. Habit is defined as the‘‘hierarchical order or dominance of correct orincorrect responses’’ while drive is used almostinterchangeably with physiological arousal (Landers,1980, p. 78). The relationship can be described asP ¼ H D. In performance, as drive or physiologicalarousal increases if the habit is correct, perfor-mance will be enhanced; if the habit is incorrectperformance will deteriorate (Landers, 1980). Thistheory may function well in explaining situations

where high arousal is important for performancesuch as for a football player, but may be too simplein attempting to explain performance involving finemotor skills, such as golf putting.

Inverted U hypothesis

Unlike the drive theory, the inverted U hypothesisposits a curvilinear relationship between arousaland performance, with increases in arousal improv-ing performance up to an optimal level after whichfurther increases in arousal lead to deterioration inperformance (Neiss, 1988). The optimal range forarousal is variable according to the task as well asthe person. The inverted U is a correlational andnot causal hypothesis that states there is a curvi-linear relationship, but does not explain theinternal states or processes that underlie andproduce it (Landers, 1980). Although, as Neiss

states, there has not been a single study that hasfully supported the inverted U hypothesis, ‘‘it canbe said to be supported by the totality of evidence’’(1988, p. 355). The foundational concept of thisstudy, yoga as a possible means to regulate arousal,was evaluated within the framework of theinverted U hypothesis. The inverted U hypothesiswas the best theoretical framework to evaluate anddescribe yoga as a possible arousal regulationtechnique and not an anxiety mediation technique.See Fig. 1.

Physiological arousal and performance

The correlational relationship between physiologi-cal arousal and performance, as hypothesized bythe inverted U hypothesis, will be used to guide thereview of studies on arousal–performance andyoga. The inverted U hypothesis, although regardedby some as overly simplistic, does provide a usefulmodel to explore the arousal–performance rela-tionship, as generally the concept of an optimalarousal level for performance is well accepted

(Kerr, 1985).The relevant literature was located throughcomputerized searchers on Medline and PsychInfo,as well as in an unpublished pilot study on the acuteaffects of yoga on physiological arousal and per-formance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Studiesinvolving various physiological arousal assessmentswill be reviewed as research has shown that peoplemanifest physiological arousal in different ways(Gould and Udry, 1994). The scope of the yoga anddistractibility study was limited to physiologicalarousal assessment through heart-rate monitoring.

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This limitation was due to available equipment andas such, although various physiological arousalliteratures will be reviewed, the focus will be onstudies that utilized heart rate as a measurementof physiological arousal.

Crews and Landers (1993) reviewed brain activityin highly skilled golfers to determine patterns of

attentional focus and physiological arousal duringgolf putting performance. They found that duringthe last second prior to the putt there was anincrease in the right-HS alpha activity and this bothcorrelated and predicted better performance(Crews and Landers, 1993). According to theinverted U hypothesis, a fine motor skill like golf putting would require relatively low physiologicalarousal for successful performance. This optimalphysiological performance state, of increasedalpha activity, indicates an increased ability toconcentrate.

The shift from theta to alpha dominance preced-ing performance is also reflected in anotherphysiological arousal measurement, heart rate.Hatfield et al. (1987) examined the patterning of EEG alpha states and heart-rate activity in thebaseline and performance conditions of 15 adultrifle marksmen. They found an increase in the righthemisphere of the brain to be associated with heartrate and EEG during the final preparation phaseprior to performance. This pattern is corroboratedby the research of Crews and Landers (1993) andalso affirms the physiological relationship andpatterning of brain activity and heart rate in

performance with highly skilled performers of different sports.

Robazza et al. (1998), in a study of elite femalearchers, found that a deceleration in heart rateoccurred during shooting and that it was associatedwith optimal performance outcomes. Researchersindicated that heart-rate deceleration, a physiolo-gical marker, could be used to evaluate modifica-tions made through mental rehearsal and skillsimulation (Robazza et al., 1998). These studieslend credence to the use of heart-rate measure-ment as a means to assess physiological arousal

states, and the ability to draw implications from itregarding the ability to focus.Two studies involving firefighters’ heart-rate

response to an alarm indicated that due toindividual differences, baseline measures may bequite different and therefore it is appropriate tomeasure the increase of each individual over theirown baseline (Barnard and Duncan, 1975; Blimkieet al., 1977). Therefore, this study reviewed theheart-rate rise of an individual over their ownbaseline. According to a study of firefighters duringa real alarm, 82.9% of their heart-rate rise was

accounted for by the intense physical activitynecessary to respond the alarm; however, 17.1%was suggested to be from emotional factors, suchas anxiety (Blimkie et al., 1977). Since participantsin the yoga and distractibility study were lyingsupine on the floor, the necessity to separatephysical or psychological factors was not necessary.

The concept of external versus internal focus hasbeen evaluated in performance situations. Wulf etal. (1999) explored skill acquisition and retention ingolf performance of novice players utilizing twostrategies of external and internal focus. Theinternal focus group was directed to bring theirattention to their arm motion and body movementand the external group was directed to bring theirattention toward the movement of the golf club.The rest of the instructions and tasks were thesame. The external focus group performed andretained their improvement better than the inter-

nal focus group. Similar results have been shown inother studies (Clingman and Hilliard, 1990; Gill andStrom, 1985; Fillingim and Fine, 1986; Radlo et al.,2002; Shea and Wulf, 1999; Wulf et al., 2003).

Fillingim and Fine (1986) reported that exter-nally focused individuals experienced less sympto-malogy than internally focused individuals orcontrols in an exercise setting. Participants in thisstudy were assigned to three groups; an internalfocus group, an external focus group, and a controlgroup. All participants ran 1 mile, utilizing theirassigned technique. The externally focused grouplistened to headphones for a target word to be

repeated. The internal group focused on their ownbreathing and heart rate and the control groupreceived no special instructions. This finding sup-ports the concept of an external focus of controlbenefiting performance. One possible explanationfor the success of the external focus conditions isthat external focus may help to facilitate themediation of physiological arousal levels, by redu-cing the attention one pays to extraneous details of feeling, such as pain, muscle fatigue, or nervous-ness when in a performance situation.

Yoga review

Yoga, a Sanskrit word meaning to join or to bringtogether is a system that comes to the UnitedStates of America from India and claims to beeffective at cultivating focus (Iyengar, 1966). It isthrough this joining of the mind and body, thathatha yoga seeks to create dynamic equilibrium(Gharote, 1999). Within the eight limbs (practices)of yoga, two that assist in creating this equilibriumare the practice of asana (physical postures) and

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pranayama (controlled breathing techniques).Working with breath and movement, to alternatelystimulate and relax, yoga aims to ‘‘calm the chaosof conflicting impulses’’ in both the mind and body,thus presumably assisting in arousal regulation andenhancing focus (Telles et al., 2000; Iyengar, 2001,p. 15).

In the United States the word yoga commonlyrefers to the practices of physical postures, breath-ing techniques, and sometimes includes medita-tion. However, it is important to note that yoga, inthe traditional sense, is comprised of all eight limbsand not only breathing and movement practices ascommonly construed in the United States of America. Traditionally the eight yoga practicesare separated into three aspects; the ethical andphysical disciplines, the emotional or mentaldisciplines, and finally attainment of successtoward enlightenment (Iyengar, 2001). The initial

ethical discipline includes the practice of theyamas and the niyamas, ethical and self-restraints,and the physical practices of asana and pranyama,postural and breathing practices (Iyengar, 1966).The mental discipline of pratyahara, withdrawl of the senses or mental non-attachment is assisted bythe practice of pranyama (Iyengar, 1966). However,the pranyama practice at this point becomes onlythe tool to access the state of pratyahara. The finalarea of discipline includes dharana, the focus of attention on one point, dhyana, sustained concen-tration, and samadhi, complete absorption withgod (Iyengar, 1966). It is out of this holistic practice

that many of the beneficial claims of yoga aremade. However, there may be a distinct differencein the efficacy of a yoga practice to produce thepurported benefits dependent on the integration ordelineation of these various practices.

Also, important to note is the wide array of styleswithin yoga practices in the United States of America. Most yoga styles exported to this countryemerged from the lineage of one man, Krishnama-charya. His students developed various approachesand integrations of the system of yoga from histeachings. Pattabi Jois developed Ashtanga yoga, a

particularly vigorous style of yoga, where the focusis on regulating the breath through challengingpostural sequences. B.K.S. Iyengar developed Iyen-gar yoga with a focus on alignment and therapeuticpractices. Indra Devi, the first person to open ayoga studio in the United States of Americadeveloped a comparatively gentle approach. Todaymany practices have cross-pollinated and it hasbecome much more difficult to identify particularlineages of yoga. However, styles can be groupedrelative to their major approaches to the system.For purposes of this study we operationally defined

yoga as the practice of asana and pranyama andfollowed an Ashtanga-based approach.

The concept of yoga as a possible system formediating physiological arousal levels has itsgrounding in research literature and popularculture. Utilizing the physical practices of asanaand pranyama, the aim of practicing yoga is to

cultivate awareness of and the ability to transcendthe fluctuations of the physical body and themonkey mind. The development of non-attachmentto the fluctuations of the mind and body allows aperson to act freely and clearly with attention towhat must be done, without being distracted. Froma yogic perspective the favorability of an externalversus an internal focus during performance makessense. A golfer ought to focus on what is makingcontact with the golf ball, by extending their focusfrom the center out. This is the same with yogapostures. A posture has a center point from which

to extend out to the extremities of the body. Also,different than Fillingim and Fine’s experiment of focusing on the breath (1987), is that yoga utilizesthe awareness and regulation of the breath, whilemaintaining focus on the activity. The breath maybring more awareness to symptomology, however inyoga the practice is to not be distracted by thoseawarenesses.

One challenge faced in studying yoga is that bynature, it is a multidisciplinary practice. Many yogastudies have various methodological shortcomingsand as such, it is important to review some resultswith caution. For example, one common aspect of

yoga interventions is the use of multiple treatmentssuch as asana, pranyama, prayer, devotional lec-tures, and meditation, among others, occurringsimultaneously (Santha Joseph, et al., 1981; Telleset al., 1993a, b; Vempati and Telles, 2002). Thismultiple treatment approach makes it difficult todetermine what is affecting the outcome(s) beingmeasured. Also, in other studies participants didnot receive the same test batteries, making itdifficult to compare results (Vempati and Telles,2002; Ray et al., 2001). Control groups and baselinemeasures also tend to be inconsistently utilized.

(Birkel and Edgren, 2000; Raghuaj and Telles,1997).Another limitation of the literature on yoga is

that much of it involves people with illnesses suchas hypertension (Sim and Ratnam, 1982), epilepsy(Yardi, 2001), asthma (Vedanthan, et al., 1998),osteoarthritis (Garfinkel et al., 1994) and is notmeasured on people who are well. However, manyof these studies do suggest effective applicationsfor the practice of hatha yoga on well populations.For example, a study by Sim and Ratnam found thatby combining mental and physical approaches

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regular weekly practice. The term trained yogapractitioners encompassed both intermediate andadvanced practitioners.

Procedures

Upon recruitment, participants were screenedusing the PAR-Q and were not eligible to participateif they took medications which affected heart rate.They were also instructed not to use caffeinewithin four hours prior to the yoga session on theday of testing. All participants were given informedconsent documents and issued Polar heart-ratemonitors and given instructions on how to usethem. During the entire yoga session, participantsremained at least 3 feet away from each other toavoid interference with the heart-rate monitors.

The yoga class consisted of a one and a half hour

yoga sequence. The yoga session was an Ashtangainspired class. This style of yoga was selectedbecause of its attention to breath regulation, whilemoving through challenging postural sequences.Breath regulation is thought to be an importantaspect in the ability to regulate arousal (Telleset al., 1997).

During savasana, the relaxation posture, a pre-planned auditory disruption occurred. The distrac-tion consisted of a song suddenly playing from thestudio sound system for approximately 3 s. Audiolevels were controlled so that the sound was no

louder than during a typical class and so that itwould not cause pain or hearing damage. Heart-rate data was collected and analyzed to identifydifferences in heart-rate response and heartrecovery between groups.

Savasana lasted for a total of ten minutes butdata were not collected during the first threeminutes. Minutes 3–4 were averaged to yield abaseline heart-rate score. The distraction occurredbetween minutes 4–5. A 15s heart-rate averagewas taken, during and immediately following thenoise, to assess acute heart-rate response. Exactly,3 min from the acute distraction, a long-term

recovery heart rate was assessed using a oneminute heart rate.

Design

A repeated measures analysis was used to examinethe mean heart rate during savasana prior to thetime of distraction (baseline) compared to theheart rate immediately at the time of distraction(acute response) and the heart rate at 3–4min

after distraction (long-term recovery). It washypothesized that trained yoga practitioners wouldshow a significantly smaller change in heart rateduring the distraction compared to novice practi-tioners. The null hypothesis stated that therewould be no difference in the heart-rate responseof beginner versus trained practitioners.

The design was a 2 3 mixed model repeatedmeasures. Many experimental designs include anarbitrary alpha level of .05 to minimize Type I error.This essentially results in falsely concluding thatthere are group differences when in reality noneexist. Minimizing Type I error is important whentesting drugs and products that could potentiallyharm participants; however, because the yoga classposed no threat of harm, it was more important tominimize the Type II error. This would reduce thechance of falsely concluding there were no differ-ences when in reality there were. Thus, results

were reviewed with relevance to effect size first,followed by power, then significance. If a significantoverall F was found, Bonferonni tests were pro-posed for post hoc analysis.

Results

Owing to late arrival of a few participants and timeconstraints of the studio, the class was shortenedfrom one and a half hours to an hour and 15 min.Data from two of the twelve participants, one

experienced and one beginner were eliminatedfrom analysis due to technical difficulties with theheart-rate monitors. The test of within subjecteffects showed that there were clear differences inthe three heart-rate conditions, with a power of 1.00, an effect size of .90, and a significance levelof less than .0001. This was substantiated by using aBonferonni post hoc analysis to review pairwisecomparisons of the three heart-rate conditions.Baseline versus acute were different with asignificance of .001, baseline versus recoverywith a significance of .0001, and acute versus

recovery with a significance of .0001. However,there were no differences on any of the heart-rate measures between trained versus beginningparticipants.

Although no significance was found, it is inter-esting to note that the mean heart rates for thetrained versus novice yoga participants in the threeseparate conditions of baseline, acute, and recov-ery show a trend with the novice participant’smean heart rate consistently higher: 90.37 versus98.91, 97.31 versus 106.09, and 80.72 versus 85.08.The standard deviations for all conditions were

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between 16.85 and 17.72. This drop in heart ratefrom baseline to recovery in both groups from 90.37to 80.72 in the trained group and 98.91 to 85.08 inthe novice group indicates that after the distrac-tion all participants were more relaxed than atbaseline. The reasons for this are not clear butwarrant future consideration and study.

Discussion

The results suggest that the auditory distractionduring savasana was physiologically arousing fortrained and novice yoga participants alike. It isimportant to note that although not statisticallysignificant, there was a trend for the trained yogaparticipants to be less physiologically aroused thanthe novice participants. The reasons for this trendsuggest more research needs to be done to identifythe variable(s) responsible for creating the differ-

ence. In this study, all participants were morerelaxed the longer the time spent in savasana evenwith an auditory distraction. Since no control groupwas used it is impossible to tell if the magnitude of relaxation was less than, equal to, or greater thanwhat might have occurred with no auditorydistraction. As such, further research is suggestedto elucidate the impact of time in savasana onarousal regulation and distractibility.

In savasana yogis and yoginis are practicing oneof the foundational/fundamental aspects of yogawhich is the ‘‘withdrawal of the senses’’. Wepractice closing our eyes to block out visual stimuli,

use our attention to block out smells, tastes, andsounds, as well as utilize different techniques suchas different types of imagery, floating, or completeclearing of the mind to withdraw from the sense of touch. In a practiced/experienced yogi/yogini wewould expect to see an ability to consciously relaxand maintain a state of low arousal regardless of the setting, i.e. regardless of ‘‘distractions’’.

One strength of this study is that it is the firstknown attempt to evaluate the effect of yogapractice on distractibility. There was good power,indicating that the test results were trustworthy,

and the effect size indicated that 90% of thevariance was attributable to the three treatmentconditions. This interpretation of effect size aspartial Z2 is calculated using the total sum of squares divided by the between sum of squares tointerpret the amount of variance that can beaccounted for by the treatment, thus indicatingthe efficacy of the treatment.

The major limitation of this study was that onlyone aspect of arousal was measured. One methodof measuring the multifaceted construct of arousalis through the physiological measurement of heart

rate. A rise in heart rate, as a marker of physiological arousal indicates a fracturing of resources from the singular task of (consciousrelaxation) savasana, which requires a low stateof physiological arousal, thus indicating the abilityto be distracted. We do not have scores forcognitive arousal.

Even without that data this question is whollydependent on how distractibility is defined. If distractibility is the ability to be aroused eitherphysiologically or psychologically then a rise inheart rate appears to indicate a distraction.

Because no cognitive measure was included it isnot known whether a yoga practice may altercognitive levels of arousal. Also, a technicaldifficulty did not allow data to be collected on allparticipants. Baseline measures of fitness were alsonot taken and therefore it was not possible to knowthe mediating role of fitness in the results. Finally,

because there was no attempt to control for styleof yoga practiced, it is impossible to know if onespecific style may be more influential than anotherin affecting arousal regulation and the ability tofocus during distraction.

The necessity to include a control group in futurestudies is paramount as it would allow for a moresuccinct evaluation of the dose–response relation-ship of yoga and arousal regulation. In this study,we evaluated the impact of a minimal amount of yoga experience in novice practitioners of less thantwo months, versus four or more years of experi-ence in trained practitioners. It is possible that

there is a greater difference in people who havenever practiced yoga versus those with someexperience, but not a great difference betweenthose with some versus more experience, suggest-ing that after a certain point there are diminishingreturns in the effort to benefit ratio. Utilizing acontrol group could account for this dose–responserelationship. Fitness measures should also beincluded to account for any differences in fitnesslevels which could impact the results.

Going back to the data sets to see whether therewas a difference anywhere between the two

groups, even though their means were not sig-nificant, would be possible but not academicallyhonest. We chose to use statistical analysis, notcase study for this project, thus reexamination of the data as case studies did not seem ethical.

It is recommended that future studies bedesigned to take into account both physiologicaland cognitive aspects of arousal. This would allowfor a more complete understanding of the impact of yoga practice on the multidimensional arousalrelationship. It may also be important to includemeasurements of cognitive and somatic based

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anxiety levels, as various arousal–performancetheories have been advanced that are predicatedon individual anxiety traits and performanceanxiety states as mediating factors in attainingoptimal arousal states. Since there has been someevidence that a yoga practice can be physiologi-cally arousing, the benefits claimed in yoga

literature may originate more from the ability tomediate the direction of intensity rather than formthe intensity level itself. This idea would lendcredence to assessing the impact of yoga withintheoretical contexts predicated on the mediatingrole of anxiety states in performance. Within theseframeworks assessing individual anxiety traitswould also be important.

More research is indicated to determine whethera certain style of yoga or practice within it, may beeffective at mediating physiological or cognitivearousal, and/or cognitive and somatic anxiety.

Since the current study was observational and didnot attempt to control for the styles of yogapracticed it is not known if the efficacy of yoga tocultivate focus may vary with style. The approachesof various schools of yoga as they are taught in theUnited States of America differ greatly and as suchcomparing them, or controlling for them mightyield more informative results. Also, yoga is asystem encompassing eight different limbs of practice, controlling for the practice of thesevarious limbs may be important in delineatingrelevant practices affecting arousal and/ or anxietyregulation and the ability to focus.

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