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Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 40 (2015) 160–182

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Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

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Population and social aggregation in the Neolithic Chulmun villagesof Korea

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2015.08.0020278-4165/� 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author. Fax: +82 62 530 2699.E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Kim).

Minkoo Kim a,⇑, Heung-Nam Shin b, Shinhye Kimb, Dong-jung Lim c, Kyuhee Jo d, Ara Ryu d,Haesun Won d, Semi Oh a, Hyengsin Noh e

aDepartment of Anthropology, Chonnam National University, Republic of KoreabHonam Cultural Property Research Center, Republic of Koreac Jeollanam-do Culture & Arts Foundation, Republic of KoreadNaju National Museum, Republic of KoreaeNaju National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 18 March 2015Revision received 30 July 2015

Keywords:ChulmunNeolithicHunter–gathererFissionAggregationEgalitarianism

a b s t r a c t

This article reviews published excavation reports of the Chulmun settlements in South Korea andexplores the changes in demographic structure over the period of ca. 8000–1500 BC. The Chulmun peoplewere sedentary hunter–gatherer–fishers with an intensified use of marine resources, food storage, and alow level of plant cultivation. Archaeological evidence for social differentiation is very scarce in this per-iod and social relationships are assumed to have been egalitarian. In an attempt to explain the lack ofarticulated social differentiation, this study examines settlement patterns to reveal considerable tempo-ral variation. The number of settlements increased dramatically in 4000–3000 BC, presumably under theinfluence of plant cultivation and/or an intensified use of wild resources, but then decreased in3000–1500 BC. Even at the zenith of the hypothetical population growth, most settlements were smallscale with only a few pit houses and archaeological evidence for large population aggregation, whichwould have promoted interpersonal interactions, is rare. The uninterrupted presence of shell middensshows that coastal resources continued to be exploited until the end of the Chulmun period, while somesites were newly established in small remote islands. The current investigation suggests that althoughpopulation growth occurred at one point, a number of interrelated factors, including a low level of aggre-gation and the subsequent population decrease and/or relocation, acted against the institutionalization ofsocial inequality in the Chulmun period.

� 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

This article reviews the published excavation reports for theChulmun sites in South Korea and examines the temporal changein villages over the period of ca. 8000–1500 BC. The Chulmun cul-ture is a post-glacial prehistoric culture characterized by pottery ofgeometric designs, shell middens, and villages composed of multi-ple houses, hearths and storage pits. The name of this culture orig-inated from the term ‘‘chulmun,” which designates the comb-patterned linear decoration on clay vessels. The presence of thisculture was first noted by Torii Ryuzo in 1916 through the discov-ery of incised potsherds in Yongban-ri, Monggeumpo, and Si-do

(Ahn, 1988). The excavation of Jitap-ri in 1957 revealed that thisculture predated the Mumun-pottery culture, which is now knownto have started in the southern part of the Korean peninsulaaround 1500 BC. Due to the presence of pottery and ground stonetools as well as the presumed sedentary lifeways, the Chulmun cul-ture has been regarded as the ‘‘Korean Neolithic period” since the1960s.

The Chulmun people are commonly presented to have beensedentary hunter–gatherer–fishers with an intensified use of mar-ine resources, food storage, and a low level of plant cultivation(Korean Archaeological Society, 2012). Archaeobotanical researchin many sites, including Neunggok-dong, Tongsam-dong,Sangchon-ri, and Pyeonggeo-dong, has revealed the cultivation offoxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauvois) and broomcorn millet(Panicum miliaceum L.) during the Chulmun period (Ahn, 2013;Crawford and Lee, 2003; Lee, 2011). Munam-ri, where excavation

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crews from the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage(2013, 2014) discovered a tract of Chulmun-period dry fieldand carbonized crop grains, also indicates the presence of plantcultivation. Although the evidence for plant cultivation is accumu-lating, it is widely assumed among researchers that the contribu-tion of cultigens in the overall Chulmun subsistence would nothave been significant (Bae et al., 2013). The large number of shellmiddens and the preserved organic remains show that activitiesof hunting, gathering, and fishing were important throughout theChulmun period. Yet the storage practice and the presumed seden-tary lifestyles suggest that the Chulmun culture was different fromthe ethnographically documented egalitarian hunter–gatherers,which are characterized by the lack of food storage, high residen-tial mobility, fluid social organization, and an equal access toresources (Lee and DeVore, 1968). Rather, the Chulmun culture iscomparable with the so-called ‘‘complex hunter–gatherers,” whowere sedentary, had storage systems, and intensified the uses ofwild resources, as well as had high population density, occupa-tional specialty, and a marked social inequality (Ames, 1994;Ames and Maschner, 1999; Price and Brown, 1985).

Archaeological evidence for sociopolitical complexity duringthe Chulmun period is extremely meager. The prevalent view onthe sociopolitical developments in prehistoric Korea is thatrice-based agriculture intensified during the Bronze Age(1500–300 BC) and that this new form of agrarian economy stimu-lated the development of hierarchical social organizations and theformation of chiefdoms (Nelson, 1993; Rhee and Choi, 1992). Thegeneral treatment of the Chulmun culture, on the other hand,was to present it as ‘‘egalitarian” social units that generally con-form to ‘‘tribe” in evolutionary stages (Nelson, 1993). Efforts havebeen made to find material evidence for social inequality, and dif-ferences in site and house sizes, burial goods, and toolkits wereinterpreted to reflect some level of social differentiation duringthe Chulmun period (Im, 2003; Lee, 2000; Shin et al., 2012). Yetthe little evidence that might be interpreted along this line remainsmostly circumstantial. Furthermore, archaeological remainsindicative of vertical social differentiation are barely present,although a certain level of horizontal social differentiation mightbe acknowledged.

As an exploratory effort to explain this lack of articulated socialdifferentiation during the Chulmun period, the current studyinvestigates the temporal changes in settlements and addresses afew interrelated questions. First, the validity of the evidence forpopulation increase during the Chulmun period is assessed usingthe number, size and geographical locations of settlements asproxy data. Next, the settlement patterns evidenced by the archae-ological data are examined by focusing on the level of populationaggregation. It is hypothesized that the pressure of an increasingpopulation among the Chulmun people may have induced one oftwo possible settlement patterns: aggregation into large groupsto form a few large villages or, alternatively, organization intonumerous and minimal social units creating many small sites.These two contrasting patterns can be differentiated based on sitelocation, the number of pit houses per site, and the size of houses.People may have seasonally or periodically aggregated into largegroups in the latter cases of the dispersed settlement systems,which would also leave vestiges of large villages in the form ofmultiple dwelling structures. The aggregation into large villages,whether it was temporary or permanent, is of particular impor-tance as it would have intensified interpersonal interactions andcreated a new social milieu for ritual, feast, and competition. Inwhat follows, the temporal changes in the Chulmun settlementsover the period 8000–1500 BC are presented for the southern partof the Korean peninsula in order to examine and answer thesequestions.

2. The Chulmun culture and the current approach

The currently known Chulmun sites in the entire Korean penin-sula number 871, which includes both the excavated sites (n = 222)and the unexcavated sites where the presence of Chulmun remainshas been suggested only though surface survey (n = 649) (Ku andBae, 2009). Among the 871 sites, 148 are located in North Korea(120,540 km2) and 723 in South Korea (100,210 km2). The differ-ence in site density between North and South almost certainlyreflects the different research extent in each country. Naturally,more Chulmun sites continue to be found. Only 400 Chulmun siteswere known across the entire Korean peninsula until the mid-1990s, with the number having more than doubled over the lasttwo decades (Han, 1995). An important progress in the recentChulmun research is the excavation of settlements consisting ofmultiple pit houses. Nelson (1993) characterized the Chulmun per-iod as the ‘‘Early Villages” stage, although only a handful of sites,such as Osan-ri (or Osanni), Amsa-dong, and Jitap-ri (Chitamni),were known to have multiple houses at the time of her writing.In their comprehensive overview of the Chulmun period, Choeand Bale (2002) cited 40 sites, only half of which were settlementswith pit houses. The number of excavated Chulmun villages hasincreased drastically recently and a recent compilation counted97 excavated Chulmun village sites in the entire Korean peninsula(Ku and Bae, 2009).

The 222 excavated Chulmun sites mostly fall into the followingthree categories: shell middens, aggregations of hearths, stonepiles and/or pits, and settlements with pit houses. Other miscella-neous site types include rock shelters, caves, kilns, and burials.Shell middens are commonly found, but their function in the set-tlement systems is not always clearly understood. Some shell mid-dens are considered to have been the residential bases occupiedeither seasonally or continually, although only a few of them areassociated with pit houses (Im, 1998; Lee, 2002; Shin, 1994). Manyshell middens are believed to have been used only logistically forresource extraction, possibly by different social groups (Kim andYang, 2001). The sites represented only by hearths, stone piles orpits are presumably not residential bases but the locations logisti-cally used by a fraction of a social unit (sensu Binford, 1980). Thecurrent study primarily focuses on the settlements with pit housesas a means to assess population level and the degree of socialaggregation.

In what follows, the Chulmun period is arbitrarily divided intofive phases: Phase 1 (8000–5000 BC), Phase 2 (5000–4000 BC),Phase 3 (4000–3000 BC), Phase 4 (3000–2000 BC), and Phase 5(2000–1500 BC). A persistent tendency in the Chulmun researchis an attempt to build a regional chronology based on pottery dec-oration and styles with a focus on the sites of long-term spans, pri-marily shell middens. The studies in South Korea have centered ona few distinct regions, e.g., central-western, central-eastern andsoutheastern coasts, and the different regional pottery traditionshave been highlighted rather than synthesized. As a result, manyregional chronological frameworks, some mutually incompatible,have been proposed. For instance, the term ‘‘Middle Chulmun Per-iod” may imply different time spans, such as 4500–3500 BC, 4000–3000 BC, or 3500–3000 BC, depending on the researchers andregions (Ahn, 2011). In contrast with the traditional approaches,the current study primarily uses radiocarbon dates to assign thesettlements to different phases and facilitate comparison acrossthe regions. Most sites could be assigned to only one phase, whileradiocarbon dates from a few sites showed a wide temporal range,suggesting a long occupational span overlapping two or morephases.

Korean archaeological sites are traditionally named after theadministrative division of the site location. The site names with

162 M. Kim et al. / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 40 (2015) 160–182

‘‘-dong” imply an urban district, and those with ‘‘-ri” a rural village(cf. Amsa-dong and Munam-ri). Usually, only one site has beenfound in one administrative division, but in a few exceptionalcases, multiple sites were located widely separated from eachother. In the latter cases, the sites were considered as separate set-tlements and differentiated with ancillary names (cf. Jungsan-dongHangang and Jungsan-dong Jungang). The sites reported fromsmall islands (<50 km2) were considered as one site, regardless ofdifferent excavation localities, whereas sites on large islands(>50 km2) were considered as different entities depending on dis-tance. The sites on small islands are indicated by ‘‘-do” in the sitenames.

Unfortunately, not all radiocarbon dates were necessarily accu-rate and reliable. The dates measured before the 1990s were oftenunreliable and associated with wide error ranges of more than100 years, rendering the dates less precise. Although the dates ofthe excavated sites were determined primarily based on radiocar-bon dates, the correspondence of the dates with pottery chronologyand stratigraphy, as well as the presence of other time-sensitiveartifacts or features within the sites, was critically assessed in orderto eliminate unreliable dates. For example, it is widely acceptedamong Korean researchers that pottery of comb-patterned decora-tion (Chulmun) became prevalent after 3500 BC and was precededby a few other pottery types, such as archaic undecorated (Mumun-yang) pottery, raised-design (Yunggimun) pottery, and pressed- andpierced-design (Apinmun and Jadolmun) pottery, roughly in thistemporal order since the beginning of the Holocene (Ahn, 2011).The observation of pottery styles can therefore provide extensiveclues to the antiquity of the sites and a means to evaluate the reli-ability of radiocarbon dates.

3. Temporal changes in settlements

3.1. Phase 1 (8000–5000 BC)

Although sites of ca. 8000–5000 BC have been reported fromseveral locations, settlements with pit houses are scant and onlyfour sites may possibly belong to this phase: Kosan-ri, Osan-ri,Munam-ri, and Ojin-ri (Fig. 1). These sites contain Chulmun pot-sherds of archaic styles (Mumunyang and Yunggimun) generallyagreed to be older than 5000 BC. However, the absolute dates havenot yet been fully resolved for these sites and scholarly debate con-tinues (Ko and Hong, 2007; Park, 2012).

Kosan-ri is widely believed to be the earliest Chulmun site(Korean Archaeological Society, 2012). The earliest pottery fromthis site is characterized by undecorated flat-bottomed bowlsmade of sandy clay and plant-based tempers (Kang, 2011). Theantiquity of this site was initially suggested during the excavationin 1994, as the potsherds were discovered beneath the Kikai-Akahoya ash layer dated to around 5300–4300 BC (Im, 1995). Thepotsherds were found in association with microblades and microb-lade cores, which were representative artifacts of the Late Pale-olithic period. No radiocarbon dates were available for the siteuntil 2000 due to the lack of charcoal, and four radiocarbon datesobtained directly from potsherds after 2000 showed widely sepa-rated dates (10,180 ± 65 BP [AA-38105], 6910 ± 60 BP [SNU02-584], 6230 ± 320 BP [SNU02-096], and 4480 ± 45 BP [AA-38106];uncalibrated dates) (Kuzmin, 2006). The excavation in 2012 dis-covered 10 pit houses and the 16 newly obtained radiocarbondates centered around ca. 8000 BC and 4000 BC (Jeju CulturalHeritage Institute, 2014). It appears that Kosan-ri was occupiedat different phases, the first of which is dated to almost10,000 years ago (Table 1).

Osan-ri consists of 17 houses and has a relatively long occupa-tional span. The site was first excavated in 1981–1987 (Localities Aand B) and later in 2006 (Locality C). Judging from the stratigraphicrelationship, Osan-ri went through three cultural stages, which arealso differentiated by representative pottery styles: the first stageof archaic undecorated and raised-design pottery, the second stageof pressed- and pierced-design pottery, and the third stage ofcomb-patterned pottery (Ko and Hong, 2007). Most Osan-ri housesbelong to Phases 2 and 3 (5000–3000 BC) while House #5 in thebottom layer of Locality C possibly belongs to Phase 1 with a radio-carbon date of 6599 ± 26 BP [lab # unknown] (Ko, 2012). Althoughno artifacts were found inside House #5, the remains of archaicundecorated pottery, microblades and microblade cores werefound in the layer contemporaneous to the house (Ko and Hong,2007).

Munam-ri is located 30 km north of Osan-ri and was excavatedthree times in 1998–1999, 2002, and 2010–2012 (NationalResearch Institute of Cultural Heritage, 2013, 2014). The excava-tions revealed that Munam-ri had gone through the same potterystages as Osan-ri. In total, 12 Chulmun-period houses were foundand one (#02-7), which contained the remains of undecoratedbowls, belongs to Phase 1 with radiocarbon dates of6595 ± 40 uncal. BP [TKa-13909] and 6030 ± 120 uncal. BP[SNU12-R195] (Kunikida and Yoshida, 2007; National ResearchInstitute of Cultural Heritage, 2014).

Finally, Ojin-ri is another site that possibly belongs to Phase 1(Fig. 1). This is a rock shelter site containing a pit house of a laterphase and is composed of four layers of approximately 2.5 mdepth. Layer III, the second layer from the bottom, contains Chul-mun potsherds of diverse styles while Layer IV, the bottom layer,is dominated by the remains of archaic undecorated pottery(Pusan National University Museum, 1994). Many researchersacknowledge the antiquity of the site, although the discovered pot-sherds are highly fragmentary and no absolute date is currentlyavailable for the bottom layer (Im, 1995).

3.2. Phase 2 (5000–4000 BC)

Houses of Phase 2 are reported from Osan-ri, Munam-ri, Song-do, and Tongsam-dong (Fig. 1). Among the 17 houses in Osan-ri,13 possibly belong to Phase 2. Houses of this phase containraised-design pottery and the so-called Osan-ri style pottery,which refers to the flat-bottomed bowls with pressed designs pop-ular along the eastern coast of the Korean peninsula. Radiocarbondates for these houses were obtained during the 1980s and2000s. Dates measured in the 1980s range between ca. 6000 and4400 BC but are mostly associated with large error ranges of afew hundred years, and the charcoal samples were collected notfrom the houses but from the layers (Nelson, 1993). The radiocar-bon dates measured in the 2000s are, on the other hand, associatedwith smaller error ranges of 20–30 years and range between ca.4800 and 4500 BC (Table 1). The 13 houses are considered to bePhase 2 based on the radiocarbon dates of the 2000s, but this doesnot mean that the houses were simultaneously occupied, as shownby their superimposed relationship (Ko, 2012).

Four Munam-ri houses excavated in 1998–1999 and 2002 aredated to Phase 2. These houses have the remains of Osan-ri stylepottery, and potsherds with comb-patterned decoration are com-pletely absent. Not all houses have been radiocarbon dated buttheir contemporaneity can be assessed from the stylistic similarityof pottery. In addition, pit houses discovered in Song-do andTongsam-dong are also dated to Phase 2. These houses containedthe remains of raised-design pottery with radiocarbon dates rang-ing between ca. 4400 and 4200 BC (Table 1).

Fig. 1. Settlements of Phases 1 and 2 (ca. 8000–4000 BC). ⁄ For Figs. 1, 2 and 8, the number for each site corresponds to the site number in Tables 1 and 2.


3.3. Phase 3 (4000–3000 BC)

The characteristic feature of this phase is the use of comb-patterned pottery, which bears geometric patterns incised on theouter surface of the vessels. The comb-patterned pottery is calledchulmun togi, jeulmun togi (in new Romanization system of Korean)or bitsalmuni togi in Korean and is often considered the definingartifact of the Chulmun period, even though the period actuallywitnessed the rise and fall of a diversity of pottery styles. It is gen-erally believed that the comb-patterned pottery first emerged inthe central-western part of the peninsula around 4000 BC and sub-sequently spread to the eastern and southern regions (Im, 2008).The clay vessels of this phase are V-shaped and three differentdesign motifs were applied to three parts (upper, middle, andlower) of the vessels. The early types had an incised decorationon the entire outer surface of the vessels while decoration on themiddle and lower parts gradually disappeared over time (Im,2008).

Archaeobotanical research suggests the presence of plant culti-vation in this phase. Lee (2011) reports the carbonized remains offoxtail and broomcorn millets from Neunggok-dong, which aredated to 4740 ± 26 uncal. BP [Beta-252973]. Crop remains of Phase

3, mostly of foxtail and broomcorn millets, were reported fromTongsam-dong, Munam-ri, Jangjae-ri and Seoggyo-ri (Table 2).Examination of pottery impressions of Osan-ri, Munam-ri, andSonggeon-ri also indicated the presence of millets in this phase(Jo et al., 2014). The remains of rice, barley, and wheat werereported from Daecheon-ri and Munam-ri, but the authenticity ofthe dates is contested (Ahn, 2008; Lee, 2014). Another importantfinding is a tract of dry field (ca. 400 m2) discovered in Munam-ri, which is dated to ca. 3000 BC (National Research Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2013, 2014).

The number of sites with pit houses increased drastically duringthis phase to 58 (Fig. 2). Three Osan-ri houses with potsherds ofcomb-patterned decoration are assigned to this phase althoughonly one of the houses has been radiocarbon dated (Table 1). SevenMunam-ri houses excavated in 2010–2012 have been radiocarbondated, six of which are dated to this phase with radiocarbon datesranging from ca. 3500 BC to 3100 BC (Table 1). As mentioned ear-lier, Osan-ri and Munam-ri were occupied intermittently over along period and have houses of multiple phases. However, mostother settlements of Phase 3 were newly occupied in this phaseand appear to have been used only during this phase. The settle-ments are found across the central-western, central-eastern and

Table 1Radiocarbon dates from the Chulmun pit houses.

No. Site Provenience Material Uncalibrated BP Calibrated BC(1 sigma)

Lab number Phase

1 Kosan-ri (n = 10) (JejuCultural Heritage Institute,2014)

House 1 (Grid N2W1) Charcoal 8570 ± 50 7594 ± 29 KGM-OWd-130233 1Hearth 1 (Grid N2W1) Charcoal 8610 ± 50 7642 ± 47 KGM-OWd-130235Hearth 1 (Grid N2W1) Charcoal 8700 ± 40 7699 ± 60 Beta-349640Pit 4 (Grid S1W1) Charcoal 8650 ± 50 7668 ± 54 KGM-OWd-130236Hearth 3, 4 (Grid S1W1) Charcoal 8660 ± 50 7674 ± 56 KGM-OWd-130237Hearth 5 (Grid S1W1) Charcoal 8540 ± 50 7571 ± 22 KGM-OWd-130238Hearth 5 (Grid S1W1) Charcoal 8480 ± 40 7551 ± 22 Beta-349641Hearth 1 (Grid S2W1) Charcoal 8600 ± 50 7633 ± 43 KGM-OWd-130241Hearth 1 (Grid S2W1) Charcoal 8650 ± 40 7660 ± 47 Beta-349642Pit 3 (Grid S3W1) Charcoal 8630 ± 50 7656 ± 51 KGM-OWd-130242Pit 14 (Grid S3W1) Charcoal 8560 ± 50 7582 ± 23 KGM-OWd-130243Pit 2 (Grid S2E1) Charcoal 8690 ± 50 7704 ± 71 KGM-OWd-130246Pit 11 (Grid S2E1) Charcoal 8660 ± 50 7674 ± 56 KGM-OWd-130247Pit 18 (Grid N2W1) Pottery 8310 ± 50 7380 ± 76 KGM-OPy-140001Ditch 1 (Grid N1E1) Charcoal 5610 ± 40 4435 ± 48 KGM-OWd-130245 2House 1 (Grid S4E2) Charcoal 5440 ± 40 4301 ± 34 KGM-OWd-130248Pit 18 (Grid N2W1) Pottery 5760 ± 40 4618 ± 56 KGM-OPy-140004Pit 4 (Grid S2W1) Pottery 5680 ± 40 4520 ± 43 KGM-OPy-140003Pit 14 (Grid N2W1) Charcoal 5040 ± 40 3856 ± 67 KGM-OWd-130234 3Pit 3 (Grid S2W1) Charcoal 4560 ± 40 3254 ± 105 KGM-OWd-130239Pit 5 (Grid S2W1) Charcoal 5070 ± 40 3875 ± 59 KGM-OWd-130240Pit 1 (Grid S4W1) Charcoal 5070 ± 40 3875 ± 59 KGM-OWd-130244Pit 1 (Grid S4W1) Charcoal 4930 ± 40 3715 ± 43 Beta-349643Pit 18 (Grid N2W1) Pottery 4710 ± 30 3504 ± 101 Beta-379044

2 Ggachisan (n = 1) Not available 33 Sammok-do III (n = 8)

(Seoul National UniversityMuseum, 2007)

House 1 Charcoal 4700 ± 40 3499 ± 97 Unknown 3Charcoal 4780 ± 40 3579 ± 46 Unknown

House 2 Charcoal 4800 ± 80 3551 ± 102 UnknownCharcoal 4670 ± 80 3478 ± 103 Unknown

House 3 Charcoal 4610 ± 40 3424 ± 64 UnknownHouse 4 Charcoal 4340 ± 50 2978 ± 58 Unknown

Charcoal 4310 ± 80 2967 ± 104 UnknownHouse 5 Charcoal 4540 ± 50 3242 ± 101 Unknown

Charcoal 4510 ± 50 3222 ± 97 UnknownHouse 8 Charcoal 4480 ± 60 3183 ± 121 UnknownHouse 9 Charcoal 4480 ± 50 3196 ± 108 SNU05-200

Charcoal 4460 ± 40 3176 ± 119 SNU05-202Charcoal 4620 ± 40 3430 ± 61 SNU05-201Charcoal 4740 ± 60 3513 ± 98 SNU05-203

House 11 Charcoal 4770 ± 60 3527 ± 96 SNU05-204Charcoal 4530 ± 50 3235 ± 99 SNU05-741

4 Neundeul (n = 1) (SeoulNational UniversityMuseum, 2001)

House 1 Charcoal 4270 ± 60 2869 ± 98 SNU00-137 3Charcoal 4790 ± 80 3540 ± 103 SNU00-138Charcoal 4480 ± 30 3212 ± 93 SNU00-139

5 Unseo-dong (n = 66)(Jungang Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2010)

House 1-3 Charcoal 5040 ± 50 3849 ± 74 SNU09-R209 3House 2-14 Charcoal 4560 ± 50 3256 ± 107 OSa090036House 2-14 Charcoal 4930 ± 50 3721 ± 49 OSa090037House 2-16 Charcoal 4550 ± 80 3253 ± 129 SNU09-R210House 2-18 Charcoal 4390 ± 70 3097 ± 146 OWd090008House 2-21 Charcoal 4920 ± 80 3739 ± 84 SNU09-R211House 2-25 Charcoal 4870 ± 50 3663 ± 41 OWd090009House 2-26 Charcoal 4910 ± 50 3708 ± 46 OWd090010House 2-30 Charcoal 4990 ± 60 3808 ± 92 SNU09-R212House 2-40 Charcoal 4680 ± 50 3485 ± 85 OWd090011House 2-42 Charcoal 4750 ± 70 3517 ± 99 OWd090012House 2-45 Charcoal 4680 ± 50 3485 ± 85 OWd090013House 2-48 Charcoal 4780 ± 50 3570 ± 56 OWd090014House 2-56 Charcoal 4630 ± 50 3433 ± 64 OWd090015House 2-57 Charcoal 3360 ± 60 1648 ± 80 SNU09-R213 5

6 Unseo-dong Jeotgae (n = 3) Not available 37 Ulwang-dong (n = 11)

(Jungang Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2006)

House III-1 Charcoal 4510 ± 90 3200 ± 140 SNU04-789 3House III-3 Charcoal 4220 ± 70 2789 ± 100 SNU04-790 4

8 Unbuk-dong (n = 18)(Hangang Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2012b)

House 1-1 Charcoal 4500 ± 60 3208 ± 107 SNU10-708 3House 6-10 Charcoal 4430 ± 60 3130 ± 144 SNU10-722House 2-3 Charcoal 4240 ± 50 2816 ± 82 SNU10-709 4House 6-3 Charcoal 4380 ± 50 3015 ± 73 SNU10-720House 6-7 Charcoal 3480 ± 50 1812 ± 63 SNU10-721 5

9 Jungsan-dong Hangang(n = 31) (Hangang Instituteof Cultural Heritage, 2012a)

House 23-1 Charcoal 4160 ± 25 2772 ± 75 PLD-11555 4House 23-4 Charcoal 3990 ± 50 2520 ± 51 SNU10-822House 23-5 Charcoal 4180 ± 50 2770 ± 88 SNU10-823House 23-6 Charcoal 4410 ± 50 3103 ± 139 SNU10-824House 23-10 Charcoal 4083 ± 23 2706 ± 115 PLD-11556


Table 1 (continued)


Lab number Phase

House 23-12 Charcoal 4190 ± 50 2778 ± 87 SNU10-825House 23-22 Charcoal 3740 ± 50 2148 ± 81 SNU10-834House 21-24 Charcoal 4030 ± 50 2575 ± 72 SNU10-835House 21-25 Charcoal 4260 ± 50 2844 ± 71 SNU10-836House 21-27 Charcoal 3690 ± 50 2082 ± 72 SNU10-838House 21-27 Charcoal 4140 ± 50 2740 ± 97 SNU10-837House 21-29 Charcoal 4240 ± 50 2816 ± 82 SNU10-840House 21-30 Charcoal 4330 ± 50 2968 ± 54 SNU10-841House 21-31 Charcoal 4460 ± 50 3170 ± 124 SNU10-842

Jungsan-dong Jungang(n = 4) (Jungang Institute ofCultural heritage, 2011)

House 2-1 Charcoal 3730 ± 80 2151 ± 118 SNU08-774House 2-2 Charcoal 3650 ± 60 2037 ± 84 SNU08-R014House 2-2 Charcoal 3670 ± 50 2057 ± 72 SNU08-R015House 2-3 Charcoal 4260 ± 60 2843 ± 91 SNU08-R016House 7-1 Charcoal 3690 ± 50 2082 ± 72 OWd090964House 7-1 Charcoal 3710 ± 50 2112 ± 72 OWd091140

Jungsan-dong (n = 3) (KoreaInstitute of Heritage, 2009b)

House 2-1 Charcoal 4250 ± 60 2821 ± 92 SNU08-191House 2-1 Charcoal 4220 ± 50 2799 ± 86 SNU08-192House 7-1 Charcoal 4140 ± 50 2740 ± 97 SNU08-197

10 Samgeo-ri Ganghwa (n = 6) Not available 311 Gurae-ri (n = 6) (Korea

Institute of Heritage, 2013)House 2-1-9 Charcoal 4020 ± 50 2558 ± 63 SNU10-550 4House 2-1-4 Charcoal 4530 ± 50 3235 ± 99 SNU11-196 3House 2-1-5 Charcoal 4550 ± 50 3248 ± 104 SNU11-197

12 Samgeo-ri Yeoncheon(n = 1)

Not available 3

13 Dangdong-ri (n = 4)(Gyeonggi institute ofCultural Property, 2009)

House 1 Charcoal 3390 ± 100 1704 ± 133 SNU07-525 5

14 Deoksong-ri (n = 3)(Hanbaek Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage, 2012)

House 1-1 Charcoal 4040 ± 50 2592 ± 84 OWd110109 4House 1-2 Charcoal 4000 ± 50 2531 ± 51 OWd110110House 2 Charcoal 3940 ± 50 2439 ± 84 OWd110002House 2 Charcoal 3640 ± 40 2029 ± 70 OWd110111House 3 Charcoal 4080 ± 50 2692 ± 126 OWd110112

15 Hwajeop-ri (n = 1)(Hanbaek Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage, 2012)

House 1 Charcoal 4030 ± 50 2575 ± 72 OWd110102 4

16 Hopyeong-dong (n = 3)(Gijeon Cultural PropertyResearch Center, 2007)

House 1 Charcoal 3930 ± 60 2419 ± 89 SUN06-173 4House 2 Charcoal 3860 ± 50 2339 ± 89 SUN06-176House 3 Charcoal 4040 ± 60 2619 ± 113 SUN06-177House 3 Charcoal 4050 ± 60 2634 ± 119 SNU06-178House 3 Charcoal 3990 ± 60 2511 ± 79 SNU06-179

17 Misa-ri (n = 1) Not available 318 Amsa-dong (n = 30)

(National Museum of Korea,1994, 1999, 2006, 2007)

House 74-5 Charcoal 4610 ± 200 3317 ± 260 Unknown 3House 75-1 Charcoal 4660 ± 70 3469 ± 92 KCP-135House 75-2 Charcoal 5000 ± 70 3814 ± 94 KAERI-189House 75-4 Charcoal 4730 ± 200 3442 ± 259 UnknownHouse 75-10 Charcoal 5510 ± 100 4356 ± 98 KAERI-188

19 Neunggok-dong (n = 24)(Gyeonggi Institute ofCultural Property, 2010)

House 2 Charcoal 4598 ± 31 3421 ± 64 PLD-10630 3House 2 Charcoal 4730 ± 50 3511 ± 98 SNU08-238House 4 Charcoal 4659 ± 30 3447 ± 52 PLD-10631House 4 Charcoal 4690 ± 70 3495 ± 98 SNU08-239House 5 Charcoal 4638 ± 30 3437 ± 56 PLD-10632House 6 Charcoal 4870 ± 50 3663 ± 41 SNU08-240House 7 Charcoal 4650 ± 32 3443 ± 54 PLD-10633House 7 Charcoal 4830 ± 50 3606 ± 58 SNU08-241House 9 Charcoal 4667 ± 31 3450 ± 53 PLD-10634House 9 Charcoal 4580 ± 60 3312 ± 154 SNU08-242House 10 Charcoal 4583 ± 24 3411 ± 63 PLD-10635House 11 Charcoal 4671 ± 23 3450 ± 51 PLD-10636House 11 Charcoal 4750 ± 60 3517 ± 97 SNU08-243House 12 Charcoal 4730 ± 23 3514 ± 102 PLD-10637House 12 Charcoal 4520 ± 80 3217 ± 124 SNU08-244House 13 Charcoal 4970 ± 50 3786 ± 85 SNU08-245House 15 Charcoal 4666 ± 24 3449 ± 51 PLD-10639House 16 Charcoal 4740 ± 25 3522 ± 95 PLD-10640House 16 Charcoal 4900 ± 50 3702 ± 44 SNU08-247House 18 Charcoal 4636 ± 24 3436 ± 56 PLD-10641House 18 Charcoal 4840 ± 50 3616 ± 63 SNU08-248House 18 Charcoal 4780 ± 50 3570 ± 56 SNU08-249House 19 Charcoal 4606 ± 24 3426 ± 60 PLD-10642House 19 Charcoal 4860 ± 50 3633 ± 64 SNU08-250House 20 Charcoal 4629 ± 23 3433 ± 57 PLD-10643House 20 Charcoal 4800 ± 50 3586 ± 52 SNU08-251House 21 Charcoal 4544 ± 24 3249 ± 101 PLD-10644House 23 Charcoal 4815 ± 26 3596 ± 47 PLD-10645

(continued on next page)


Table 1 (continued)


Lab number Phase

House 23 Charcoal 4620 ± 70 3358 ± 142 SNU08-25320 Singil-dong (n = 24) (Korea

Institute of Heritage, 2009c)House 1 Charcoal 4720 ± 50 3508 ± 98 SNU07-107 3House 2 Charcoal 4700 ± 50 3501 ± 96 SNU07-108House 4 Charcoal 4710 ± 50 3504 ± 98 SNU07-109House 5 Charcoal 4760 ± 50 3523 ± 94 SNU07-110House 6 Charcoal 4620 ± 50 3425 ± 68 SNU07-111House 7 Charcoal 4600 ± 50 3344 ± 140 SNU07-112House 10 Charcoal 4710 ± 50 3504 ± 98 SNU07-113House 11 Charcoal 4530 ± 50 3235 ± 99 SNU07-114House 21 Charcoal 4610 ± 50 3385 ± 103 SNU07-115House 22 Charcoal 4650 ± 50 3447 ± 62 SNU07-116

21 Oi-do (n = 4) Not available 422 Sasong-dong (n = 1) (Korea

Institute of Heritage, 2009a)House 10 Charcoal 4140 ± 50 2740 ± 97 SUN08-363 4

23 Pangyo-dong (n = 1) Not available 424 Nongseo-ri (n = 8) (Giho

Institute of CulturalHeritage, 2009)

House 1 Charcoal 4670 ± 50 3463 ± 66 SNU-07-466 3House 2 Charcoal 4360 ± 50 3000 ± 69 SNU-07-463House 2 Charcoal 4340 ± 50 2978 ± 58 SNU-07-462House 2 Charcoal 4190 ± 60 2770 ± 94 SNU-07-464House 2 Charcoal 4270 ± 60 2869 ± 98 SNU-07-465House 3 Charcoal 4830 ± 50 3606 ± 58 SNU-07-467House 5 Charcoal 4390 ± 60 3083 ± 132 SNU-07-461House 5 Charcoal 4530 ± 60 3233 ± 105 SNU-07-468House 5 Charcoal 4480 ± 60 3183 ± 121 SNU-07-469House 5 Charcoal 4370 ± 50 3008 ± 70 SNU-07-470House 8 Charcoal 4400 ± 60 3100 ± 142 SNU-07-475House 8 Charcoal 4370 ± 50 3008 ± 70 SNU-07-474House 8 Charcoal 4590 ± 60 3325 ± 152 SNU-07-471House 8 Charcoal 4350 ± 50 2992 ± 66 SNU-07-473House 8 Charcoal 4360 ± 50 3000 ± 69 SNU-07-472

25 Gajae-ri (n = 1) Not available 426 Sindae-ri (n = 1) Not available 427 Yanggwi-ri (n = 1) (Jungbu

Institute for Archaeology,2012)

House Charcoal 3580 ± 50 1933 ± 73 OWd110198 5

28 Bangok-dong (n = 3)(Hangang Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2013)

House 1-1 Charcoal 4240 ± 50 2816 ± 82 OWd090639 4House 1-1 Charcoal 3690 ± 50 2082 ± 72 OWd090640House 1-1 Charcoal 2910 ± 50 1117 ± 81 OWd090641House 1-1 Charcoal 4540 ± 50 3242 ± 101 OWd090642House 2-1 Charcoal 3540 ± 60 1875 ± 83 SNU10-060House 2-1 Charcoal 3790 ± 21 2225 ± 48 PLD-16110

29 Udu-ri (n = 2) Not available 330 Gojaemigol (n = 1) Not available 331 Giji-ri (n = 4) Not available 332 Songwol-ri (n = 1)

(Chungcheong Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2007)

House 1 Charcoal 4360 ± 40 2985 ± 53 KR06-008 3House 1 Charcoal 4580 ± 50 3315 ± 152 KR06-007

33 Sangjeong-ri (n = 1)(Chungcheong Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2005)

House 1 Charcoal 4490 ± 110 3183 ± 157 CCPRI-94 3House 1 Charcoal 4260 ± 40 2852 ± 56 CCPRI-95House 1 Charcoal 4390 ± 40 3014 ± 66 CCPRI-97

34 Gwanchang-ri (n = 4) (Ku,2011)

House 2 Charcoal 4690 ± 90 3487 ± 108 Unknown 3House 2 Charcoal 4450 ± 70 3151 ± 139 UnknownHouse 2 Charcoal 4420 ± 70 3122 ± 148 UnknownHouse 2 Charcoal 4360 ± 50 3000 ± 69 UnknownHouse 47 Charcoal 4620 ± 90 3349 ± 162 UnknownHouse 47 Charcoal 4140 ± 110 2712 ± 139 Unknown

35 Jangam (n = 2) (ChungnamNational UniversityMuseum, 2008)

House 1 Charcoal 5000 ± 60 3814 ± 91 Beta-85257 3House 2 Charcoal 4810 ± 80 3567 ± 99 Beta-85258

36 Seoku-ri (n = 1) Not available 337 Seongnae-ri (n = 4)

(Chungnam Institute ofHistory and Culture, 2007)

House 2 Charcoal 4640 ± 60 3439 ± 71 SNU06-1133 3House 4 Charcoal 4660 ± 50 3454 ± 62 SNU06-1135

38 Punggi-dong (n = 2) Not available 439 Geumseok-ri (n = 1)

(Jungwon Cultural PropertyResearch Center, 2008)

House Charcoal 4510 ± 50 3222 ± 97 SNU06-623 3House Charcoal 4300 ± 60 2949 ± 61 SNU06-624

40 Ssangcheong-ri (n = 1) Not available 341 Hakam-ri (n = 1) (Gongju

National UniversityMuseum, 2002)

House 1 Charcoal 4415 ± 54 3111 ± 143 AA1970 3House 1 Charcoal 4409 ± 47 3096 ± 133 AA1972

42 Singwan-dong (n = 1) Not available 343 Gwanpyeong-dong (n = 1) Not available 344 Daecheon-ri (n = 1) House 1 Charcoal 4400 ± 60 3100 ± 142 Unknown 3


Table 1 (continued)


Lab number Phase

(Hannam UniversityMuseum, 2003)

House 1 Charcoal 4240 ± 110 2831 ± 162 UnknownHouse 1 Charcoal 4590 ± 70 3320 ± 157 UnknownHouse 1 Charcoal 4490 ± 40 3213 ± 95 Unknown

45 Ga-do (n = 4) Not available 346 Noraeseom (n = 1) Not available 447 Hyoja-dong (n = 1) Not available 348 Ungpo-ri (n = 1) Not available 349 Jingeuneul (n = 3) (Chosun

University Museum, 2005)House Charcoal 4500 ± 120 3194 ± 167 SNU01-183 3

50 Galmeori (n = 3) (HonamCultural Property ResearchCenter, 2003)

House 1 Charcoal 4510 ± 40 3226 ± 91 SNU01-132 3House 1 Charcoal 4560 ± 40 3254 ± 105 SNU01-133House 2 Charcoal 4540 ± 80 3239 ± 124 SNU01-141House 2 Acorn 4700 ± 80 3497 ± 102 SNU01-138

51 Song-do (Gwangju NationalMuseum, 1989)

Layer III-C Charcoal 5440 ± 170 4263 ± 185 NUTA-1334 2Layer IV Charcoal 5430 ± 170 4255 ± 184 NUTA-1335

52 Jijwa-ri (n = 9) (DaedongCultural Property ResearchCenter, 2012; SamgangInstitute of CulturalProperty, 2012)


53 Songjuk-ri (n = 10)(Keimyung UniversityMuseum, 2006)

House 3 Charcoal 4380 ± 60 3053 ± 109 Beta-70663 3House 6 Sediment 3990 ± 70 2512 ± 105 Beta-70664 4

54 Imbul-ri (n = 4) Not available 455 Bonggye-ri (n = 11) (Kang

et al., 1993)House 9 Walnut 4060 ± 150 2608 ± 214 NUTA-1034 4

56 Sonam-ri (n = 2) Not available 457 Sangchon-ri A (n = 4)

(Dong-Eui UniversityMuseum, 2002)


Sangchon-ri B (n = 23) (Ahn,2008)

House 22 Charcoal 4030 ± 40 2558 ± 55 Unknown

58 Pyeonggeo-dong (n = 10)(Gyeongnam DevelopmentInstitute, 2011, 2012)

House 5 Charcoal 4450 ± 50 3160 ± 128 SNU12-R022 4House 2 Charcoal 3620 ± 60 2005 ± 88 SNU09-R130

59 Mok-do (n = 2) Not available 360 Yucheon-dong (n = 2) Not available 361 Seobyeon-dong (n = 1) Not available 462 Daebong-dong (n = 2) Not available 463 Daecheong-dong (n = 1) Not available 464 Ojin-ri (n = 1) (Im, 1995) House Charcoal 3480 ± 100 1809 ± 124 Beta-65988 5

House Charcoal 2970 ± 60 1199 ± 96 Beta-65989Not available 1

65 Bonggil-ri (n = 3) Not available 366 Geumcheon-ri (n = 2) Not available 467 Bibong-ri (n = 2) Not available 368 Tongsam-dong Jeonghwa

(n = 3) (Busan Museum,2007)

House 1 Charcoal 4360 ± 60 3010 ± 77 SNU 01-144 3House 1 Bone 4680 ± 60 3490 ± 93 SNU 01-145-1House 1 Foxtail millet 4590 ± 100 3314 ± 173 TO-8783House 2 Bone 4300 ± 40 2944 ± 44 SNU 01-146 4House 3 Bone 5640 ± 90 4496 ± 99 SNU 01-147-1 2House 3 Bone 5540 ± 40 4398 ± 39 SNU 01-148

69 Auraji (n = 3) Not available 370 Jucheon-ri (n = 2) (Yemaek

Cultural Property ResearchCenter, 2010)

House 1 Charcoal 4670 ± 50 3463 ± 66 OWd090049 3House 2 Charcoal 4840 ± 50 3616 ± 63 OWd090045

71 Sinwol-dong (n = 1) (KoreaCultural HeritageFoundation, 2003)

House Charcoal 3670 ± 50 2057 ± 72 SNU02-074 4

72 Sinmae-ri (n = 1) Not available 373 Naepyeong-ri (n = 1) Not available 374 Geodu-ri (n = 1) Not available 375 Cheonjeon-ri (n = 1)

(Gangwon ResearchInstitute of CulturalProperty, 2008)

House 74 Charcoal 3730 ± 60 2141 ± 90 Unknown 4

76 Yeoknae-ri (n = 3) Not available 377 Cheoltong-ri (n = 7)

(Yemaek Cultural PropertyResearch Center, 2009)

House 3 Charcoal 4400 ± 50 3069 ± 114 SNU07-133 4House 3 Charcoal 4238 ± 30 2842 ± 54 PLD-7636House 4 Charcoal 4380 ± 60 3053 ± 109 SNU07-135House 4 Charcoal 4380 ± 60 3053 ± 109 SNU07-135House 5 Charcoal 4210 ± 60 2786 ± 92 SNU07-136House 5 Charcoal 4260 ± 27 2895 ± 9 PLD-7639House 6 Charcoal 4290 ± 60 2930 ± 71 SNU07-137



Table 1 (continued)


Lab number Phase

House 6 Charcoal 4232 ± 28 2840 ± 54 PLD-764078 Munam-ri (n = 12) (National

Research Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2014;Kunikida and Yoshida,2007)

House 02-3 Charcoal 6200 ± 70 5158 ± 96 SNU12-R193 2House 02-6 Charcoal 5920 ± 70 4811 ± 83 SNU12-R194House 02-7 Charcoal 6030 ± 120 4962 ± 161 SNU12-R195 1House 02-7 Charcoal 6595 ± 40 5553 ± 43 TKa-13909House 13-1 Charcoal 3780 ± 50 2216 ± 75 SNU12-R008 4House 13-2 Charcoal 4120 ± 40 2730 ± 100 SNU12-R009 3House 13-2 Charcoal 4480 ± 40 3205 ± 99 SNU12-R201House 13-3 Charcoal 4450 ± 40 3165 ± 123 SNU12-R010House 13-3 Charcoal 4480 ± 50 3196 ± 108 SNU12-R202House 13-4 Charcoal 4600 ± 50 3344 ± 140 SNU12-R203House 13-7 Charcoal 4660 ± 40 3450 ± 56 Beta-288909House 13-7 Charcoal 4690 ± 40 3488 ± 87 Beta-284063

79 Gapyeong-ri (n = 2)(National Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage, 1999)

House 1 Charcoal 4570 ± 60 3296 ± 145 KCP-145 3House 1 Charcoal 4390 ± 60 3083 ± 132 KCP-151

80 Songjeon-ri (n = 2) (YemaekCultural Property ResearchCenter, 2008)

House 1 Charcoal 4467 ± 26 3201 ± 99 PLD-7647 3House 1 Charcoal 4600 ± 60 3338 ± 145 KR06-129House 2 Acorn 4425 ± 28 3067 ± 66 PLD-7648House 2 Acorn 4660 ± 60 3460 ± 74 KR06-130

81 Osan-ri (Localities A and B,n = 11) (Seoul NationalUniversity Museum, 1988a)

House B-2 Charcoal 4360 ± 50 3000 ± 69 Unknown 3

Osan-ri (Locality C, n = 6)(Ko, 2012)

House 1 Charcoal 5751 ± 24 4613 ± 48 Unknown 2House 2 Charcoal 5758 ± 24 4618 ± 48 UnknownHouse 3 Charcoal 5770 ± 24 4629 ± 45 UnknownHouse 4 Charcoal 5851 ± 27 4735 ± 31 UnknownHouse 5 Charcoal 6599 ± 26 5555 ± 38 Unknown 1Layer Charcoal 6151 ± 26 5123 ± 65 Unknown

82 Jigyeong-ri (n = 10)(Gangneung NationalUniversity Museum, 2002)

House 4 Charcoal 4590 ± 70 3320 ± 157 Beta-120738 3House 6 Charcoal 4420 ± 60 3119 ± 145 Beta-120739House 7 Charcoal 4600 ± 80 3328 ± 160 Beta-120740

83 Chodang-dong (n = 7)(Gangwon ResearchInstitute of CulturalProperty, 2005)


84 Hasi-dong (n = 1) Not available 385 Jangjae-ri Anganggol (n = 6)

(Chungcheong Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2008)

House 2 Charcoal 4550 ± 50 3248 ± 104 KR06-059 3House 4 Charcoal 4500 ± 80 3192 ± 132 KR06-100

86 Baekam-ri Jeombaekgol(n = 3) (Korea Institute forArchaeology andEnvironment, 2010)

House 2 Charcoal 4470 ± 60 3174 ± 125 SNU08-452 3House 3 Charcoal 4610 ± 80 3341 ± 155 SNU08-453

87 Seoggyo-ri (n = 26) (JungbuInstitute for Archaeology,2013)

House 2 Charcoal 4400 ± 70 3106 ± 147 SNU11-503 3House 5 Charcoal 4970 ± 50 3786 ± 85 SNU11-531House 6 Charcoal 4630 ± 40 3434 ± 59 SNU11-532House 4 Charcoal 4650 ± 50 3447 ± 62 SNU11-533House 13 Charcoal 4540 ± 50 3242 ± 101 SNU11-534House 15 Charcoal 4720 ± 50 3508 ± 98 SNU11-542House 18 Charcoal 4730 ± 50 3511 ± 98 SNU11-536House 19 Charcoal 4650 ± 40 3445 ± 56 SNU11-537House 23 Charcoal 4700 ± 50 3501 ± 96 SNU11-538House 23 Charcoal 4620 ± 50 3425 ± 68 SNU11-543House 24 Charcoal 4700 ± 50 3501 ± 96 SNU11-539House 24 Charcoal 4780 ± 50 3570 ± 56 SNU11-544House 25 Charcoal 4690 ± 50 3496 ± 93 SNU11-540

1 The number for each site corresponds to the site number in Figs. 1, 2 and 8.2 n = number of Chulmun-period pit houses discovered at each site.3 Radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the CalPal_2007_HULU calibration curve.


southern regions, and are most densely distributed in the central-western region (Fig. 2).

Most sites consist of 1–5 pit houses and relatively many housesare found in Unseo-dong (n = 66), Amsa-dong (n = 30), Seoggyo-ri(n = 26), Neunggok-dong (n = 24), and Singil-dong (n = 24) (Fig. 3and Table 1). Not all pit houses discovered in one site are necessar-ily contemporaneous as the superimposition among the housesindicates. Of the 30 pit houses at Amsa-dong, one of the mostfamous Chulmun sites, the superimposition of many suggests sometemporal differences. Except for such cases, the relatively numer-

ous pit houses that appear to be contemporaneous in a single siteneeds special attention as they may indicate the presence of per-manent or periodic aggregation of many people. In this regard,the sites of Unseo-dong, Neuggok-dong, and Singil-dong are note-worthy because of the numerous discovered houses, numbering66, 24, and 24, respectively, and because the houses rarely overlap,which is suggestive of simultaneous occupation in a large village.

Unseo-dong is currently the largest known Chulmun settlementmeasured by the number of pit houses. The houses are densely dis-tributed over two hills and are rarely superimposed, suggesting

Fig. 2. Settlements of Phase 3 (ca. 4000–3000 BC).

Table 2Summary of carbonized crops from Chulmun pit houses.

No. Site Provenience Carbonized grains Phase Reference

19 Neunggok-dong Houses 15 and 19 Foxtail and broomcorn millets 3 Gyeonggi Institute of Cultural Property (2010)44 Daecheon-ri House 1 Rice, barley, wheat, and foxtail millet 3 Ahn (2008)68 Tongsam-dong Jeonghwa House 1 Foxtail and broomcorn millets 3 Lee (2011)78 Munam-ri Hearths Rice, foxtail millet, broomcorn millet 3 Lee (2014)85 Jangjae-ri Anganggol House 6 Foxtail millet 3 Lee (2011)87 Seoggyo-ri Houses 3, 6, 22, 23, and 25 Foxtail and broomcorn millets 3 Jungbu Institute for Archaeology (2013)9 Jungsan-dong Hangang Houses 9, 22, and 25 Foxtail and broomcorn millets 4 Hangang Institute of Cultural Heritage (2012a)

57 Sangchon-ri Pits Foxtail and broomcorn millets 4 Lee (2011)58 Pyeonggeo-dong House 2 (Area 3-1),

Houses 1, 2, 3, and 5 (Area 4-1)Foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, red bean,and soybean

4 Lee (2011)

1 The number for each site corresponds to the site number in Figs. 2 and 8 and Table 1.2 Dates of rice, barley and wheat from Daecheon-ri and Munam-ri are contested (Ahn, 2008; Lee, 2014).


some contemporaneity of the occupation (Fig. 4). The sites ofSeoggyo-ri, Neunggok-dong and Singil-dong can be divided into afew residential units that consist of a plaza and associated houses

(Figs. 5–7). Some researchers have hypothesized temporal differ-ences among the houses. Lee (2012), for instance, argued that theUnseo-dong houses could be grouped into four residential units

Fig. 3. Number of pit houses for Phase 3 settlements.


that were occupied with some temporal difference and that thedifference is also reflected in the radiocarbon dates. Although thesubtle temporal differences among the houses should be acknowl-edged and require further investigation, the prevailing view amongresearchers is that these sites represent large communities andthat most houses, if not all, would have been contemporaneous(Lim, 2010).

The evidence from settlement patterns suggests that the transi-tion to vertically and horizontally organized social differentiationmight have commenced during this phase. This phase witnessedthe emergence of large villages, which are envisioned as the‘‘mothers” and centers for the adjacent smaller villages (Shinet al., 2012). As mentioned earlier, some large villages consist ofa few distinctive residential units that would reflect intra-villagedifferentiation. In noting the presence of one or two large buildings

Fig. 4. Distribution of Unseo-dong Chulmun houses (reprinted and

centered among several smaller ones, Shin et al. (2012) furtherargued that inequality emerged within each residential unit. Theemerging social inequality and craft specialization are alsoreflected in such remains as differentiated burials, luxury items,and specialized toolkits (Ahn, 2005; Shin et al., 2012). It is not clear,however, whether the social status during this phases wasacquired or ascribed. The evidence for status difference and craftspecialization is too limited to support any detailed discussion onthe institutionalization of social inequality.

3.4. Phase 4 (3000–2000 BC)

Phase 4 is characterized by an overall decrease in site numberand restricted site distribution (Fig. 8). In total, 35 sites belong tothis phase, although this number may increase because somePhase 3 sites have relatively late radiocarbon dates with wide errorranges and may have been occupied in Phase 4. The sites ofNongseo-ri, Sanjeong-ri, Gwanchang-ri, Hakam-ri and Gapyeong-ri produced radiocarbon dates that were close to 3000 BC, and itis conceivable that these sites may have also been occupied inthe beginning of Phase 4 (Table 1). The maximum site numberfor Phase 4 may increase up to 40 when the sites with uncertaindates are included. Despite some uncertainty around the dates,the decrease in settlement number in the transition from Phase 3to 4 is noteworthy. Furthermore, the sites are highly restricted indistribution and are found almost exclusively in the upper partof the central-western region and the southeastern region, withonly a few being found in the southwestern and eastern regions.

Most Phase 4 sites are small scale and consist of less than 5 pithouses, while relatively numerous houses are found in Jungsan-dong (n = 38), Sangchon-ri (n = 25), and Bonggye-ri (n = 10)(Table 1). Although Jungsan-dong has many pit houses, they arescattered across a wide area of 0.24 km2 and do not represent a sin-gle community. The sites of Sangchon-ri and Bonggye-ri presum-ably represent single villages, Sangchon-ri being the largest

modified from Jungang Institute of Cultural Heritage, 2010).


community in Phase 4 (Figs. 9 and 10). The details of the Sangchon-ri site are unfortunately not well known because the site excava-tion report has not yet been published. The general observation

Fig. 5. Distribution of Seoggyo-ri Chulmun houses (reprinted a

Fig. 6. Distribution of Neunggok-dong Chulmun houses (reprinted an

Fig. 7. Distribution of Singil-dong Chulmun houses (reprinte

for Phase 4 is that a large settlement comparable with Unseo-dong in Phase 3 is no longer present and the settlements are hardlyseparable into multiple residential units.

nd modified from Jungbu Institute for Archaeology, 2013).

d modified from Gyeonggi Institute of Cultural Property, 2010).

d and modified from Korea Institute of Heritage, 2009c).

Fig. 8. Settlements of Phases 4 and 5 (ca. 3000–1500 BC). Phase 5 settlements are indicated by arrows.


3.5. Phase 5 (2000–1500 BC)

Finally, only five settlements (Unseo-dong, Unbuk-dong,Dangdong-ri, Yanggwi-ri, and Ojin-ri) are dated to Phase 5, or havea pit house dated to this phase (Fig. 8). The important change inPhase 5 is obviously the drastic decrease in settlement numberand size, although it should be noted that this phase has a shortertime span than the previous phases. Dangdong-ri is the largest set-tlement in Phase 5 but is composed only of four pit houses(Table 1).

4. Discussion

4.1. Reviewing Chulmun sequence

The presented pattern of increase and decrease in settlementnumber over the five phases may be misleading for a number ofreasons. Most importantly, the global warming trend and the

resultant sea-level rise in the early Holocene inundated extensiveareas, which are likely to have contained coastal sites, leading tothe scarcity of settlements in Phases 1 and 2. The sea level aroundthe Korean peninsula was approximately 25 m lower than the cur-rent sea level in 8000 BC, and then rose rapidly almost to the cur-rent level by 4000 BC (Ahn, 2011). It has not been fully resolvedwhether the sea level at its maximum height was higher thanthe present sea level. One group of scholars argue that the sea levelduring the Holocene was up to 2 m higher than the current levelwith some minor oscillations, while others contend that the sealevel during the Holocene only rose continuously to reach the pre-sent level (Ahn, 2011). Because the coastal topography around theKorean peninsula ascends steeply on the eastern side and gently onthe southern and western sides, the hypothetical inundation ofearly Chulmun sites, if happened, would have been severe on thesouthern and western coasts. The presumed destruction of earlysites makes it difficult to conclude whether the population hadincreased before Phase 3, during which the evidence for plant cul-tivation starts to appear.


The paucity and imprecision of radiocarbon dates cause anotherproblem. There has been a tendency among Korean archaeologiststo rely primarily on pottery typology as a means to build chronol-ogy and to regard radiocarbon dates as a secondary data set. Thistendency originated from the research tradition in the 1970s and1980s during which radiocarbon dates were associated with largeerror ranges and were of little help in building fine-grainedchronology. The application of radiocarbon dating has becomeincreasingly common in recent excavations, yet remains in limiteduse. Furthermore, some sites are associated with only a few sam-ples with widely different dates, making it difficult to assess theabsolute site dates. Wide date ranges were possibly caused by anumber of factors, such as the long occupational span of the settle-

Fig. 9. Distribution of Sangchon-ri Chulmun houses (reprinted and modified fromKu and Bae, 2009).

Fig. 10. Distribution of Bonggye-ri Chulmun houses (

ments, sample contamination, and errors and mistakes made dur-ing lab analysis. As noted earlier, some Phase 3 and 4 sites are notclearly differentiated based solely on the radiocarbon dates.

Despite these few limitations, some conclusions can be reachedwith regard to the temporal changes in the Chulmun settlementpatterns. There was a burgeoning of new settlements in Phase 3,which implies population increase and/or population relocationdirected inland. Many sites were located along the coastlines andit is likely that the utilization of littoral resources continued tobe important. Many sites were newly established further inland,however, and the subsistence activities in these sites could havebeen radically different (Fig. 2). Previous research has uncoveredarchaeological evidence for plant cultivation from both coastaland inland settlements of Phase 3 (Table 2). It is presumed thatplant cultivation is closely related to the increased number of set-tlements in Phase 3, although it is difficult with the present data todetermine which one came first and to confirm whether they werein a causal relationship, as well as to assess the importance of culti-gens in the overall subsistence economy.

The majority of the sites in Phase 3 are small scale with 1–5houses. There are a few settlements with more than 20 houses,such as Unseo-dong, Seoggyo-ri, Neunggok-dong, and Singil-dong, and these settlements reflect the aggregation of relativelymany people. Most sites were excavated as salvation projectsand the excavations were limited to the areas that were to bedirectly affected by the subsequent land works. It is reasonableto assume, accordingly, that more large settlements will be discov-ered in the future depending on the scale of the excavations. Thegeneral impression for Phase 3 is that this phase witnessed theburgeoning of a few large settlements while numerous smaller set-tlements were widely scattered across the landscape, especially inthe central-western region. Some large settlements were dividedinto multiple residential units, which suggests an articulation ofhorizontal social differentiation within each village.

The number of settlements decreases in subsequent phases andsocial differentiation within villages becomes less clear. Approxi-mately 58 settlements are dated to Phase 3, whereas only 35 and5 are dated to Phases 4 and 5, respectively. The decreasing numberof sites in the last two phases is not explained by coastal inunda-tion as the sea level had almost attained the present level by4000 BC despite some subsequent fluctuations. As mentioned ear-lier, there may have been more Phase 4 settlements than appear inFig. 3 because some Phase 3 settlements produced relatively late

reprinted and modified from Ku and Bae, 2009).

Table 3Radiocarbon dates from the Chulmun shell middens.

No. Site Provenience Material Uncalibrated BP Calibrated BC Lab number Phase

1 Daeyeonpyeong-do(National Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage, 2005)

Trench B3 Shell 5060 ± 110 3853 ± 114 SNU05-A020 3Trench B6 Shell 5020 ± 40 3833 ± 80 SNU05-A017 3Trench D3 Shell 5090 ± 50 3882 ± 65 SNU05-A021 3Trench B4 Shell 5370 ± 70 4199 ± 102 SNU05-A019 2Trench B5 Shell 5250 ± 70 4104 ± 99 SNU05-A018 2

2 Moi-do (National ResearchInstitute of CulturalHeritage, 2003)

House 1 Shell 2790 ± 60 951 ± 73 KCP592 5

3 Soyeonpyeong-do (NationalResearch Institute ofCultural Heritage, 2002)

Midden 2 Shell 4030 ± 60 2594 ± 96 KCP539 4Midden 1 Shell 3980 ± 60 2488 ± 85 KCP540 4

4 Yongyu-do (Seoul NationalUniversity Museum, 2006)

Hearth 5 Charcoal 3810 ± 40 2266 ± 65 SNU02-462 4Trench NS-II Shell 4010 ± 60 2556 ± 76 SNU02-463 4Trench NS-IV Shell 4080 ± 60 2685 ± 132 SNU02-464 4

5 Si-do (Kang et al., 1993;National Museum of Korea,1970)

Area 3 Charcoal 3040 ± 60 1294 ± 84 Unknown 5Unknown Charcoal 3100 ± 60 1363 ± 66 Unknown 5Unknown Charcoal 3040 ± 60 1294 ± 84 Unknown 5Unknown Charcoal 2870 ± 60 1064 ± 93 Unknown 5

6 Yeongjong-do (JungangInstitute of CulturalHeritage, 2008)

Unknown Charcoal 3600 ± 50 1966 ± 61 OWd090016 5

7 Janggeum-do Not available8 Somuncheom-do (Jungang

Institute of CulturalHeritage, 2008)

Trench S2E1 Charcoal 3640 ± 60 2027 ± 85 SNU07-R110 4Trench N5E2 Charcoal 2920 ± 50 1130 ± 81 SNU07-R102 5Trench N3E1 Charcoal 3340 ± 50 1624 ± 66 SNU07-R103 5Trench N3E1 Charcoal 2820 ± 50 989 ± 64 SNU07-R104 5Trench N1E2 Charcoal 2750 ± 50 907 ± 57 SNU07-R105 5Trench N1E1 Charcoal 2950 ± 60 1170 ± 95 SNU07-R106 5Trench N1E1 Charcoal 3450 ± 50 1782 ± 76 SNU07-R107 5Trench S2E1 Charcoal 2920 ± 60 1133 ± 95 SNU07-R108 5Trench S2E1 Charcoal 3250 ± 60 1537 ± 69 SNU07-R109 5Trench S3E1 Charcoal 2720 ± 50 878 ± 44 SNU07-R111 5Trench S3E2 Charcoal 2550 ± 50 681 ± 99 SNU07-R112 5Trench S5E1 Charcoal 3170 ± 50 1453 ± 42 SNU07-R113 5Trench S1E1 Charcoal 3490 ± 60 1820 ± 72 SNU07-R114 5Trench S1E2 Charcoal 3410 ± 50 1723 ± 70 SNU07-R115 5Trench S1E2 Charcoal 3270 ± 50 1555 ± 57 SNU07-R116 5Trench N1E2 Charcoal 3350 ± 50 1635 ± 69 SNU07-R147 5

9 Yeongheung-do (HanyangUniversity Museum, 2005)

Midden 1 Shell 5630 ± 30 4453 ± 44 SNU07-k049 2Midden 1 Shell 5680 ± 60 4532 ± 71 SNU03-k050 2Midden 1 Shell 5680 ± 40 4520 ± 43 SNU03-k051 2Midden 1 Shell 5200 ± 50 4024 ± 47 SNU03-k052 2Midden 1 Shell 5310 ± 120 4146 ± 131 SNU03-k054 2Midden 1 Shell 5280 ± 80 4124 ± 101 SNU03-k055 2Midden 1 Shell 5570 ± 60 4417 ± 49 SNU03-k056 2Midden 1 Shell 5540 ± 80 4397 ± 66 SNU03-k058 2Midden 1 Shell 5100 ± 120 3903 ± 135 SNU03-k057 3Midden 1 Shell 4260 ± 60 2843 ± 91 SNU03-k053 4

10 Daebu-do (Gijeon CulturalProperty Research Center,2004)

Not available

11 Oi-do North (Kang et al.,1993)

Unknown Charcoal 3900 ± 50 2382 ± 72 KSU-617 4

12 Oi-do Gaundesalmak (SeoulNational UniversityMuseum, 2001)

Trench N2E1 Soil 4270 ± 60 2869 ± 98 SNU99-128 4Hearth 1 Charcoal 4790 ± 80 3540 ± 103 SNU00-143 3

13 Oi-do Sinpo-dong (SeoulNational UniversityMuseum, 1988b)

Unknown Shell 4080 ± 45 2695 ± 123 Unknown 4

14 Byeolmang Not available15 Daejuk-ri (Baekje Cultural

Property Research Center,2010; ChungcheongInstitute of CulturalHeritage, 2000; HanseoUniversity Museum, 2001)

Unknown Charcoal 4530 ± 60 3233 ± 105 Unknown 3Unknown Charcoal 5150 ± 150 3979 ± 183 Unknown 3Midden 1 Charcoal 4480 ± 60 3183 ± 121 KR08-219 3Midden 1 Charcoal 4460 ± 60 3165 ± 129 KR08-220 3Unknown Charcoal 3960 ± 170 2478 ± 252 Unknown 4Layer 3 Shell 4170 ± 60 2756 ± 96 KCP527 4Layer 5 Shell 4140 ± 60 2734 ± 103 KCP530 4

16 Gonam-ri (HanyangUniversity Museum, 1993)

Trench B-1 Shell 4150 ± 250 2728 ± 352 UCL-235 4Trench B-2 Shell 3200 ± 200 1465 ± 252 Unknown 5Trench B-3 Shell 3130 ± 60 1397 ± 69 Unknown 5Trench A-2 Shell 3150 ± 200 1399 ± 252 Unknown 5

17 Songhak-ri (HangangInstitute of CulturalHeritage, 2014)

Midden 1 Charcoal 4540 ± 40 3243 ± 99 SNU12-201 3Midden 3 Charcoal 4470 ± 40 3193 ± 107 SNU12-204 3Midden 3 Charcoal 4940 ± 50 3728 ± 51 SNU12-205 3


Table 3 (continued)


Midden 1 Charcoal 4240 ± 40 2832 ± 65 SNU12-197 4Midden 1 Charcoal 4120 ± 50 2725 ± 105 SNU12-198 4Midden 1 Charcoal 4340 ± 60 2994 ± 75 SNU12-200 4Midden 3 Charcoal 4290 ± 40 2931 ± 36 SNU12-202 4Midden 3 Charcoal 4340 ± 50 2978 ± 58 SNU12-203 4

18 Jangam (ChungnamNational UniversityMuseum, 2008)

Feature 1 Charcoal 5030 ± 60 3834 ± 86 BETA-85257 3Feature 2 Charcoal 4860 ± 80 3644 ± 94 BETA-85258 3Trench C1-D1 Shell 4170 ± 70 2750 ± 103 BETA-85259 4Trench C3-D3 Shell 3800 ± 70 2260 ± 115 BETA-85260 4

19 Ga-do (Chungnam NationalUniversity Museum, 2001)

Trench 2 Charcoal 5460 ± 60 4309 ± 49 Beta-92374 2Trench 2 Charcoal 4830 ± 50 3606 ± 58 Beta-92372 3Trench S6-S7W3 Shell 4640 ± 70 3432 ± 87 KCP 116 3Trench S4W4 Charcoal 4060 ± 60 2654 ± 132 Beta-92371 4Trench S5W5 Charcoal 4160 ± 60 2748 ± 98 Beta-92373 4Trench S6-S7W2 Shell 3840 ± 70 2312 ± 108 KCP 115 4Trench S5-S6W2 Shell 3830 ± 70 2298 ± 113 KCP 150 4Trench S1W4 Shell 3160 ± 60 1435 ± 60 KCP 117 5

20 Bieung-do Not available21 Osik-do Not available22 Noraeseom (Wonkwang

University Museum, 2002)Trench C2 Shell 5180 ± 70 3990 ± 114 KCP 128 3Trench C4 Shell 4541 ± 60 3241 ± 107 KCP 237 3Trench B4, C4 Shell 5046 ± 63 3846 ± 81 KCP 238 3Trench C2, C3 Shell 4976 ± 64 3798 ± 95 KCP 240 3Midden A Shell 4380 ± 40 3007 ± 64 SNU00-244 3Trench C2, C3 Shell 4090 ± 58 2699 ± 122 KCP 239 4Midden A Shell 4245 ± 25 2889 ± 10 NUTA2-1993 4Midden B Shell 3930 ± 40 2417 ± 60 SNU00-245 4Midden B Shell 3895 ± 25 2395 ± 49 NUTA2-1994 4

23 Ddiseom (WonkwangUniversity Museum, 2001)

Trench N1W1 Shell 4280 ± 60 2889 ± 100 KCP 111 4

24 Seonyu-do (Kim, 1971) Unknown Charcoal 4810 ± 40 3593 ± 48 Unknown 325 Daeheuksan-do (Kang et al.,

1993)Unknown Unknown 3420 ± 120 1737 ± 149 Unknown 5

26 Hatae-do Not available27 Gageo-do Not available28 Yeoseo-do (Mokpo National

University Museum, 2007)Unknown Shell 5460 ± 60 4309 ± 49 SNU06-AOO6 2Unknown Shell 5480 ± 80 4334 ± 83 SNU06-AOO10 2Unknown Shell 5600 ± 60 4439 ± 57 SNU06-AOO13 2Unknown Shell 5610 ± 80 4459 ± 77 SNU06-AOO9 2Unknown Shell 5630 ± 80 4478 ± 86 SNU06-AOO12 2Unknown Shell 5650 ± 60 4483 ± 71 SNU06-AOO11 2Unknown Shell 5760 ± 80 4613 ± 88 SNU06-AOO8 2Unknown Shell 6050 ± 60 4957 ± 83 SNU06-AOO7 2

29 Sobu-do (Kang et al., 1993) Unknown Shell 3750 ± 40 2154 ± 75 KSU-442 430 An-do (Gwangju National

Museum, 2009)Trench 5 Bone 7410 ± 60 6301 ± 65 SNU07-633 1Trench 5 Bone 7430 ± 60 6315 ± 63 SNU07-634 1Trench 2 Shell 6660 ± 80 5589 ± 59 SNU07-A025 1Hearth 1 Shell 6780 ± 60 5684 ± 39 SNU07-A027 1Trench 2 Bone 6620 ± 110 5562 ± 78 SNU07-635 1Hearth 1 Shell 5370 ± 60 4201 ± 99 SNU07-A026 2Trench 2 Shell 4490 ± 60 3196 ± 113 SNU07-A024 3

31 Song-do (Gwangju NationalMuseum, 1989)

Layer III-C Charcoal 5440 ± 170 4263 ± 185 NUTA-1334 2Layer IV Charcoal 5430 ± 170 4255 ± 184 NUTA-1335 2

32 Gyeong-do Not available33 Dontak (Mokpo National

University Museum, 2012)Grid 2 Shell 5270 ± 80 4117 ± 102 SNU11-A019 2Grid 4 Shell 5010 ± 50 3822 ± 87 SNU11-A020 3Grid 2 Shell 3760 ± 50 2176 ± 91 SNU11-A016 4Grid 2 Shell 3910 ± 50 2391 ± 71 SNU11-A017 4Grid 2 Shell 3690 ± 70 2087 ± 99 SNU11-A018 4

34 Mok-do (Jinju NationalMuseum, 1999)

Layer IV Shell 4910 ± 130 3718 ± 161 Unknown 3Layer III Shell 4210 ± 120 2789 ± 159 Unknown 4

35 Gupyeong-ri Not available36 Neuk-do Not available37 Sangnodae-do (Son, 1982) Layer V Charcoal 6430 ± 180 5354 ± 183 Unknown 1

Unknown Shell 3370 ± 40 1670 ± 51 KCP-29 538 Yokji-do (Jinju National

Museum, 1989)Hearth 1 Charcoal 3850 ± 20 2339 ± 56 PLD-24965 4

39 Sandeung (Busan MaritimeUniversity Museum, 1989)

Layer VI Shell 4660 ± 110 3397 ± 179 NUTA-678 3Layer VI Shell 4360 ± 110 3078 ± 171 NUTA-679 3

40 Yeondae-do (Jinju NationalMuseum, 1993)

Trench S Shell 6090 ± 160 5017 ± 193 NUTA-2314 1Trench T1 Shell 6010 ± 160 4936 ± 204 NUTA-2315 2

41 Bibong-ri (Gimhae NationalMuseum, 2008, 2012)

Unknown Charcoal 6710 ± 50 5625 ± 45 Beta-219086 1Unknown Charcoal 6490 ± 50 5444 ± 51 Beta-219089 1Layer 3 Charcoal 6270 ± 60 5223 ± 83 SNU06-203 1Layer 4 Charcoal 6390 ± 60 5386 ± 61 SNU06-210 1



Table 3 (continued)


Layer 5 Charcoal 6550 ± 50 5521 ± 35 SNU06-204 1Layer 44 Charcoal 6670 ± 60 5593 ± 46 SNU06-208 1Wood Charcoal 6800 ± 50 5694 ± 34 SNU06-306 1Unknown Charcoal 5970 ± 40 4863 ± 53 Beta-219088 2Unknown Charcoal 5230 ± 40 4068 ± 72 Beta-219091 2Layer 1 Charcoal 5330 ± 40 4161 ± 72 SNU05-343 2Pit 17 Shell 5420 ± 150 4243 ± 165 SNU06-A002 2Layer 2 Charcoal 5970 ± 60 4864 ± 73 SNU06-209 2Layer 1 Bone 5640 ± 25 4481 ± 23 PLD-19845 2Unknown Charcoal 4500 ± 50 3214 99 Beta-219090 3Pit 1 Charcoal 4650 ± 60 3449 ± 70 SNU06-201 3Pit 2 Charcoal 4420 ± 50 3116 ± 141 SNU06-205 3Pit 9 Charcoal 4900 ± 50 3702 ± 44 SNU06-206 3Pit 11 Charcoal 4530 ± 40 3237 ± 96 SNU05-345 3Pit 12 Charcoal 4680 ± 50 3485 ± 85 SNU05-346 3Layer 1 Shell 4550 ± 120 3267 ± 190 SNU06-A001 3Layer 1 Bone 5070 ± 25 3878 ± 55 PLD-19843 3Layer 1 Bone 4940 ± 20 3715 ± 36 PLD-19844 3Layer 1 Bone 4935 ± 25 3712 ± 37 PLD-19846 3Pit 1 Charcoal 4340 ± 40 2967 ± 47 SNU05-344 4Unknown Charcoal 3450 ± 40 1784 ± 71 Beta-219087 5Trench II Charcoal 2810 ± 60 981 ± 77 SNU05-348 5Hearth 2 Charcoal 3560 ± 60 1900 ± 90 SNU06-202 5Hearth 2 Charcoal 3600 ± 50 1966 ± 61 SNU05-347 5Hearth 4 Charcoal 3540 ± 60 1875 ± 83 SNU06-207 5Wood Wood 2470 ± 50 606 ± 117 OWd090554 5Wood Wood 2610 ± 50 752 ± 70 OWd090555 5Wood Wood 2630 ± 50 815 ± 32 OWd090556 5

42 Nongso-ri (Kang et al.,1993)

Unknown Shell 3440 ± 120 1762 ± 148 TH-1000 5

43 Ga-dong (Ulsan CulturalProperty Research Center,2014)

Hearth 1 Charcoal 3850 ± 20 2339 ± 56 PLD-24965 4Trench B2 Charcoal 3110 ± 20 1382 ± 35 PLD-24966 5Trench C3 Charcoal 3205 ± 20 1475 ± 21 PLD-24967 5Trench C3 Seed 3240 ± 20 1501 ± 23 PLD-24968 5

44 Suga-ri (Pusan NationalUniversity Museum, 1981,2011)

Trench E1 Shell 4360 ± 70 3038 ± 106 N-3448b 3Trench E1 Charcoal 4380 ± 100 3096 ± 162 N-3448a 3Trench B1 Shell 4250 ± 70 2821 ± 106 N-3457 4Trench C1 Shell 4160 ± 90 2734 ± 119 N-3456 4Trench D1 Shell 4200 ± 90 2766 ± 117 N-3452 4Trench E2 Shell 3040 ± 80 1276 ± 110 N-3451 5Trench A1 Shell 3290 ± 70 1582 ± 79 N-3453 5

45 Beombang (BusanMetropolitan City Museum,1993, 1996)

Layer 11 Shell 4590 ± 70 3320 ± 157 KCP127 3Unknown Unknown 3900 ± 70 2373 ± 95 Unknown 4

46 Bukjeong Not available47 Yul-ri (Pusan National

University Museum, 1980)Unknown Unknown 3687 ± 75 2085 ± 104 Unknown 4

48 Tongsam-dong (BusanMuseum, 2007; Kang et al.,1993; Lee, 1975; NationalMuseum of Korea, 2005;Sample, 1974)

Trench D Bone 6400 ± 50 5394 55 SNU00-092 1Layer 8 Bone 6740 ± 40 5663 ± 31 SNU 01-160 1Layer 9 Bone 6910 ± 60 5806 62 SNU 01-162 1Trench E Charcoal 5890 ± 140 4775 ± 172 GX-0378 2Layer 5 Shell 5820 ± 140 4695 ± 162 GAK-6666 2Layer 5 Shell 5500 ± 100 4345 ± 101 GAK-6667 2Layer 5 Shell 5190 ± 130 4016 ± 173 GAK-6669 2Unknown Charcoal 5180 ± 130 4006 ± 172 N-1132 2Trench F Bone 5800 ± 70 4653 ± 83 SNU00-090 2Trench F Bone 5580 ± 70 4430 ± 60 SNU00-091 2House 3 Bone 5640 ± 90 4496 ± 99 SNU 01-147-1 2House 3 Bone 5540 ± 40 4398 ± 39 SNU 01-148 2Layer 7 Bone 5650 ± 70 4492 ± 84 SNU 01-158 2Layer 9 Charcoal 5910 ± 50 4790 ± 54 SNU 01-163 2Layer III Charcoal 4400 ± 90 3111 ± 156 AERIK-27 3Layer C Charcoal 5090 ± 130 3896 ± 144 GX-0379 3Layer 5 Shell 5160 ± 120 3985 ± 162 GAK-6668 3Layer 4 Shell 4490 ± 110 3183 ± 157 GAK-6665 3Layer 3 Shell 4490 ± 110 3183 ± 157 GAK-6664 3Layer 3 Shell 4510 ± 120 3205 ± 168 GAK-6662 3Unknown Charcoal 4880 ± 160 3671 ± 199 N-1213 3Unknown Charcoal 4950 ± 100 3779 ± 114 Unknown 3Trench F Bone 4650 ± 50 3447 ± 62 SNU00-089 3Trench H Bone 4600 ± 100 3323 ± 173 SNU00-094 3House 1 Charcoal 4360 ± 60 3010 ± 77 SNU 01-144 3House 1 Bone 4680 ± 60 3490 ± 93 SNU 01-145-1 3Layer 2 Bone 4360 ± 50 3000 ± 69 SNU 01-149-1 3Layer 4 Bone 4550 ± 50 3248 ± 104 SNU 01-152 3


Table 3 (continued)


Layer 5-1 Bone 4470 ± 50 3180 ± 119 SNU 01-153 3Layer 5-2 Bone 5180 ± 60 3988 ± 69 SNU 01-154 3Layer 5-3 Bone 4380 ± 50 3015 ± 73 SNU 01-155 3Layer 5-4 Bone 4430 ± 50 3129 ± 140 SNU 01-156-1 3Layer 5C Bone 4600 ± 50 3344 ± 140 SNU 01-157-1 3Layer 7 Bone 5180 ± 70 3990 ± 114 SNU 01-159 3Layer 8 Bone 4400 ± 40 3023 ± 69 SNU 01-161 3House 1 Millet 4590 ± 100 3314 ± 173 TO-8783 3Layer III Charcoal 4020 ± 100 2584 ± 168 AERIK-23 4Layer III Charcoal 3980 ± 100 2508 ± 160 AERIK-24 4Layer III Charcoal 3930 ± 100 2419 ± 144 AERIK-25 4Layer III Charcoal 3880 ± 100 2346 ± 135 AERIK-26 4Layer II Charcoal 4170 ± 100 2739 ± 127 AERIK-22 4Layer 3 Shell 4140 ± 120 2707 ± 151 GAK-6663 4Layer 3 Shell 3800 ± 110 2245 ± 165 GAK-6661 4Layer IV Bone 3800 ± 60 2256 ± 100 SNU00-086-1 4Layer IV Bone 4360 ± 40 2985 ± 53 SNU00-087 4Layer IV Bone 4300 ± 40 2944 ± 44 SNU00-088 4Trench H Bone 4200 ± 40 2793 ± 81 SNU00-093 4House 2 Bone 4300 ± 40 2944 ± 44 SNU 01-146 4Layer 2 Charcoal 3910 ± 40 2397 ± 60 SNU 01-150 4Layer 3 Bone 4120 ± 40 2730 ± 100 SNU 01-151 4Trench C Charcoal 3400 ± 120 1717 ± 150 GX-0493 5Trench B Charcoal 3400 ± 220 1742 ± 269 GX-0492 5Layer 2 Shell 3470 ± 100 1796 ± 124 GAK-6660 5

49 Sejuk (Dongkook University,2007)

Trench B2 Potsherd 6280 ± 40 5267 ± 36 SNU00-393 1Trench B2 Potsherd 6260 ± 40 5254 ± 39 SNU00-394 1Trench A2 Potsherd 6110 ± 80 5058 ± 119 SNU00-395 1Trench B2 Potsherd 6420 ± 110 5185 ± 130 SNU00-397 1Trench B2 Potsherd 6480 ± 120 5439 ± 104 SNU00-385 1Trench B4 Potsherd 6260 ± 250 5164 ± 270 SNU00-386 1Trench B3 Potsherd 6740 ± 30 5660 ± 23 SNU00-403 1Trench B3 Potsherd 6440 ± 90 5407 ± 74 SNU00-403-1 1Trench A8 Potsherd 6260 ± 40 5254 ± 39 SNU00-387 1Trench A8 Potsherd 6330 ± 40 5305 ± 50 SNU00-388 1Trench B5 Wood 6240 ± 50 5197 ± 87 Beta-119435 1Trench B2 Potsherd 5700 ± 60 4559 ± 77 SNU00-398 2Trench C1 Acorn 5930 ± 110 4823 ± 134 SNU00-390 2Trench B5 Wood 6040 ± 80 4958 ± 107 Beta-119433 2Trench B5 Wood 6020 ± 70 4925 ± 87 Beta-119434 2Trench C3 Wood 4390 ± 60 3083 ± 132 Beta-119436 3

1 The number for each site corresponds to the site number in Fig. 11.2 Radiocarbon dates were calibrated using the CalPal_2007_HULU calibration curve.


radiocarbon dates and could have been occupied in Phase 4. Yetthis does not alter the general pattern of decreasing settlementnumber in Phases 4 and 5. Sangchon-ri is the only Phase 4 settle-ment that represents a single village with more than 20 pit houses,but there is no indication that the site was divided into multipleresidential units (Fig. 9).

The decrease of settlement number in Phases 4 and 5 mayreflect the conflation of population decrease and relocation. Thepaucity of settlements in Phase 5 is intriguing because there aremany shell middens for this phase. Of the 313 Chulmun-periodshell middens across the Korean peninsula, most have not beenexcavated and only 38 are associated with radiocarbon dates(Table 3; Korea Cultural Property Investigation and ResearchInstitute Association, 2010). The excavations of shell middens areoften limited to a few trenches and do not necessarily provide datacomparable in quality with those of full-scale excavations of settle-ments. Nonetheless, an examination of the distributional changesof datable shell middens suggests that despite the scarcity of set-tlements, shell middens continued to be made during Phases 4and 5, while some were newly made in remote small islands(Fig. 11; Table 4). This suggests an increase in the relative impor-tance of coastal resources and the possible relocation of residentialbases toward the coastlines, although shell middens are typicallynot associated with pit house remains. The continued use of shellmiddens and the paucity of villages suggest that the land use pat-

tern may have changed significantly toward the end of the Chul-mun period.

The specific reasons for the presumed population decrease and/or relocation in the last two phases require further research forbetter elucidation. Such research should include a comparativeperspective across the Far East Asian region, because similar trendshave been noted for the Jomon period (ca. 14,000–300 BC) of Japan.Koyama (1978) argued that the population continued to increaseduring the first half of the Jomon period to a maximum in the Mid-dle Jomon period of ca. 3000–2000 BC, and then decreased after-ward. Imamura (1996) noted that in the Chubu and Kantoregions of Japan, 70% of all the excavated Jomon pit houses belongto the Middle Jomon period despite the extremely long time spanof the Jomon period. Yasuda (2003) further insisted that thechanges in site number were related to the cooling and drier cli-matic trend that started around 3500 BC across Asia and the subse-quent relocation of the Jomon people toward inlands.

If climatic deterioration across Asia influenced the Jomon periodin Japan, it is likely to have had a similar influence on the Chulmunperiod in Korea. The period of drastic increase in site number, how-ever, is not contemporaneous in Korea and Japan: ca. 4000–3000 BC for the Chulmun period compared to ca. 3000–2000 BCfor the Jomon period, respectively. Furthermore, the changes insettlement number are not necessarily consistent across differentregions of the Japanese archipelago. Most importantly, although

Fig. 11. Excavated shell middens in South Korea (the number for each site corresponds to the site number in Tables 3 and 4; see Korea Cultural Property Investigation andResearch Institute Association (2010) for the details of each shell midden).


the overall settlement number decreased in Phase 4 of the Chul-mun period, the patterns are rather regionalized and the upperpart of the central-western region and the southeastern regionactually witnessed the establishment of new settlements (Fig. 8).The different patterns between the Chulmun and Jomon periods,as well as among different regions in each culture, suggest thatpan-Asiatic climatic deterioration can only partly explain thechanges in settlement patterns.

The current investigation shows that the Chulmun culture didnot go through unilinear changes in population and social com-plexity, such as small to large or simple to complex. It is possiblethat the increase in settlement number in Phase 3 reflects popula-tion growth supported by plant cultivation. Yet the hypotheticalpopulation increase did not continue beyond the millennium ofPhase 3 and the population started to decrease no later than3000 BC. Most settlements were small scale with 1–5 pit houseseven when the site number peaked. Although plant cultivation

and subsistence intensification are likely to have stimulated popu-lation growth, this change did not necessarily induce social crowd-ing that would have provided an environment conducive forinterpersonal and inter-lineage interactions. Except for the casesof a few settlements with more than 20 pit houses, people weresparsely distributed across the landscape even during the time ofhypothetical maximum population.

4.2. Leveling mechanisms, fission, and social differentiation

Social inequality (and equality) has been a central researchtopic in anthropology. This topic, however, has rarely been dis-cussed in the context of Chulmun archaeology. Many theoreticalstudies in anthropology concern the transformation in social struc-tures and attempt to understand the emergence of hierarchicalsocial orders, while others have focused more on the maintenanceof egalitarianism and the so-called ‘‘leveling mechanisms,” i.e.,

Table 4Phase of each shell midden represented by radiocarbon dates.

No. Site Phase

1 2 3 4 5

1 Daeyeonpyeong-do s s

2 Moi-do s

3 Soyeonpyeong-do s

4 Yongyu-do s

5 Si-do s

6 Yeongjong-do s s

7 Janggeum-do s s

8 Somuncheom-do s s

9 Yeongheung-do s s s

10 Daebu-do s s

11 Oi-do North s

12 Oi-do Gaundesalmak s s

13 Oi-do Sinpo-dong s

14 Byeolmang s s

15 Daejuk-ri s s

16 Gonam-ri s

17 Songhak-ri s s

18 Jangam s s

19 Ga-do s s s s

20 Bieung-do s s

21 Osik-do s

22 Noraeseom s s

23 Ddiseom s

24 Seonyu-do s

25 Daeheuksan-do s

26 Hatae-do s

27 Gageo-do s s s s

28 Yeoseo-do s

29 Sobu-do s

30 An-do s s s

31 Song-do s

32 Gyeong-do s s s s

33 Dontak s s s

34 Mok-do s s

35 Gupyeong-ri s

36 Neuk-do s

37 Sangnodae-do s s

38 Yokji-do s

39 Sandeung s

40 Yeondae-do s s

41 Bibong-ri s s s s s

42 Nongso-ri s

43 Ga-dong s s

44 Suga-ri s s s

45 Beombang s s

46 Bukjeong s

47 Yul-ri s s

48 Tongsam-dong s s s s s

49 Sejuk s s s

Number of sites 6 14 22 32 20

1 The number for each site corresponds to the site number in Fig. 11.


environmental, demographic, and social factors that suppress thegrowth of authoritative leadership and ensure egalitarian relation-ships. The classical examples of the power-curbing mechanismsinclude the Ju/’hoansi practice of shaming meat providers (Lee,1969), as well as high residential mobility, flexible social composi-tion and sharing (Woodburn, 1982). The leveling mechanisms canbe external to a society and ‘‘operate independently of people’sintentions” such as scattered and unpredictable resources, or theycan be intentional and deliberate actions aimed at curbing emer-gent powers, such as criticism, disobedience, desertion and assas-sination (Boehm, 1993). Researchers have highlighted thategalitarianism was hardly a default status of social relationshipupon which various forces acted to create inequality. Rather, peo-ple in both foraging and agricultural communities implementedcomplex codes of leveling behaviors to maintain egalitarian socialstructures (Ames, 2010; Boehm, 1993; Wiessner, 2002).

The entire Chulmun period spanned almost 6500 years fromca.8000 to 1500 BC, which is a sufficiently long time for the devel-opment of complex society. Seen in this light, the lack of sociopo-litical complexity in the Chulmun period is remarkable anddemands an explanation. The previous archaeological studies havefocused on the subsequent Korean Bronze Age (ca. 1500–300 BC)and attempted to understand how and why sociological complex-ity emerged during this period. Such a research tradition is under-standable because archaeological evidence for elites only appearsin the Bronze Age. The intention of this paper, on the other hand,is to approach the same questions from a different angle by inquir-ing the question of how the Chulmun people were able to maintainan egalitarian social relationship for over several millennia andcontributed to the relatively late articulation of social inequalityin Korean prehistory.

The absence of leadership is strongly correlated with the small-ness of group scale, and the data presented in this study suggestthat group size is an important avenue of research for understand-ing the Chulmun social structure. Boehm (1993) posits a causativerelationship between egalitarian behaviors and community size,and argues that the successful operation of leveling mechanismswill restrict community size because leadership will be weak insuch societies and fission will thus readily occur. Yet fission isnot simply a side effect of successful leveling behaviors but isone of them, because fission, whether induced by human agencyor by environmental conditions, will ultimately restrict the domi-nation of aspiring leaders (Bandy, 2004). Lee and Daly (2004) notethat mobility is an important element in the politics of band soci-eties because people ‘‘vote with their feet” by moving away froman unpopular leader. Efforts have been made in anthropology tounderstand the relationship between group size and differenttypes of social organization (Alberti, 2014; Johnson, 1982;Rappaport, 1968). Researchers rely on different concepts such as‘‘scalar stress” (Johnson, 1982) and ‘‘irritation coefficient”(Rappaport, 1968), but basically agree that the expansion in groupsize beyond a certain threshold causes problems and that theseproblems should be socially mitigated. As the Chulmun communi-ties grew, the power of a few individuals may have begun toextend beyond the boundaries of households. Under such condi-tions, splitting the group into multiple units and maintaining thesmallness of each unit could have been an effective power-curbing behavior that prevented excessive power concentrationin aspiring leaders and hindered the establishment of hierarchicalsocial orders.

At the times of increasing levels of intra-group conflict inexpanding communities, fission will be attempted when the costof fissioning is lower than that of remaining in large aggregation.Factors that increase the fissioning cost and thus induce peopleto remain in large agglomeration include high levels of externalthreats, high levels of investment in non-portable capital, andsocial and environmental circumscription (Bandy, 2004; Carneiro,1988). Many people may decide to remain under a unified leader-ship for safety in times of external conflicts. Investment in non-potable capital, such as irrigation facilities and agricultural fields,may similarly discourage fissioning. Finally, circumscription,whether induced by environmental constraints or by other socialfactors such as high population density, may also restrict the pro-cess of fissioning (Carneiro, 1988). In the absence of these factors,communities with an increasing population are expected todemonstrate a high rate of fissioning that, intended or not, func-tions as a leveling behavior and restricts the articulation of socialdifferentiation.

The currently available archaeological information suggeststhat the fissioning cost was considerably low during the Chulmunperiod and that people could readily split into smaller units intimes of conflicts and other scale-related problems. The landscape


before 4000 BC was largely unpopulated and the degree of socialand environmental circumscription that would have discouragedemigration appears to have been extremely low. Millet cultivationnewly incorporated into the preexisting foraging economy islikely to have contributed to the dispersion, rather than to theaggregation, of people. Unlike rice cultivation of the subsequentKorean Bronze age, which requires large amounts of water,investments in labor-intensive paddy fields and sophisticatedmanagement, millet grows with very little water and adapts wellto a wide variety of temperatures, soils and elevations with min-imal labor requirements (Fuller and Qin, 2009; Weber and Fuller,2008; Weber et al., 2010). Millet cultivation can be practiced withfew people, and the dry fields do not necessarily need to belocated close to the irrigation facilities. It is likely that an unpop-ulated landscape and a low level of agricultural investmentsallowed the Chulmun groups to fission at a very low thresholdvalue.

The present data sets, seen against the backdrop of theoreticalconsiderations summarized herein, offer an opportunity to criti-cally evaluate some views and interpretations on the Chulmun cul-ture. Shin et al. (2012) envisioned the Chulmun period as affluenthunter–gather–fishers favorably located in a rich environment,and argued that the adoption of millet cultivation fueled the soci-etal elaboration throughout the Chulmun period, leading to theemergence of ‘‘local elite family lineages” in the Late Chulmun(2500–1500 BC) and eventually the appearance of a hierarchicalsociety in the Korean Bronze Age. The development of social com-plexity during the Chulmun period and afterward was presented asa unilinear and stepwise process. As demonstrated in this paper,however, such a presentation is not supported by the archaeolog-ical evidence. The asserted emergence of local elites in2500–1500 BC is archaeologically unsupported because this periodis characterized by a drastic decrease in site number and an almostcomplete lack of any material evidence indicative of social differ-entiation. In the same light, it is difficult to construe the transitionto the Bronze Age as an extension and culmination of the Chulmunsocial evolution.

The present study nonetheless affords some support to the pre-vious arguments shedding light on the nature of the Chulmunsocial developments. Shin et al. (2012) argued that during the Mid-dle Chulmun period (4000–2500 BC) when ‘‘community growthreached a saturation point,” Chulmun villages ‘‘began to split offinto smaller hamlets,” ‘‘fanned out to various parts of the penin-sula, and ‘‘relocated at considerable distances from one another.”The adoption of plant cultivation could have expanded the humancarrying capacity of each region and hence encouraged the forma-tion of large aggregate villages. The demographic changes in eachsocial unit would then have increased interpersonal tensions andinformation load, requiring some social adjustments at the individ-ual, household, and community levels. One possible adaptive solu-tion for such changes would have been the operation ofhierarchical and heterarchical social organizations (Cohen, 1985;Johnson, 1982). The currently available archaeological data, how-ever, suggest a different story. The Chulmun lifeways when thepopulation was probably at the maximum in ca. 4000–3000 BCcan be visualized as a dispersal into small hamlets scatteredaround the landscape. Permanent population aggregation, animportant condition for the emergence of new social arrange-ments, does not appear to have intensified in 4000–3000 BC, andthe articulation of social differentiation revealed in multiple resi-dential units in some large villages of the previous era did not con-tinue after ca. 3000 BC. The Chulmun settlement patterns at themaximum population level generally reflect the decentralization,fission and coexistence of autonomous minimal social units withwide intervening distances, rather than centralization and theemergence of powerful individuals or lineages.

5. Conclusion

This paper has reviewed the temporal changes in Chulmun vil-lages over the period of 8000–1500 BC in an attempt to examinehow the relationship between population and social differentiationwas revealed in the archaeological data. Although the Chulmunpeople are generally presented as having relied on hunting, gather-ing and fishing, they differed from ethnographically documentedegalitarian hunter–gatherers in a number of aspects, such as anintensified use of marine resources, use of storage, and sedentarylifeways. Recent archaeobotanical research has revealed that mil-lets were cultivated in the Chulmun period, although the impor-tance of cultigens in the overall subsistence economy is assumedlow. The Chulmun case is comparable with the so-called complexhunter–gatherers on the Northwest Coast and California of NorthAmerica and other incipient agricultural societies in prehistory.The current study commenced with the recognition that despitethe increasing evidence for cultural complexity and plant cultiva-tion, the archaeological remains suggestive of hierarchical socialorganization are extremely rare for the Chulmun period. This papersearched for answers in the demographic structures, while simul-taneously acknowledging that other social and ecological factorsshould be addressed further in future research.

The current investigation has demonstrated that the number ofsettlements increased greatly in the millennium 4000–3000 BC,presumably under the influence of millet cultivation and/or anintensified use of wild resources. Among the 87 Chulmun settle-ments in South Korea, 58 are dated to this phase, some of whichhad a long occupation span and continued to be used in the follow-ing phases. The site number decreased in 3000–1500 BC, which isattributed to the conflation of population decrease and relocation.This suggests that although a change in subsistence economy couldhave triggered population growth, its impact did not lead to a con-tinuous population growth that persisted until the end of the Chul-mun period. This study further highlights that even at the peakChulmun population, people were mostly organized into smallhamlets, with relatively few large aggregate villages capable ofproviding a social environment for intensified interpersonal andinter-lineage interactions. Although population is likely to havegrown in 4000–3000 BC, population pressure at a community level,which would have provided an ideal social arena for aspiring indi-vidual leaders, was largely absent or only ephemeral. This explana-tion is, of course, unlikely to be the only reason explaining theabsence of fully articulated social differentiation during the Chul-mun period; the accumulating archaeological data will undoubt-edly better elucidate this issue in the future.

Acknowledgments

This study was financially supported by Chonnam NationalUniversity, 2014. The authors are grateful to the anonymousreviewers for their insightful and constructive comments.

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