Pre-publicationcopy1

Broom, D.M. 2011. A history of animal welfare science. Acta Biotheoretica, 2

59, 121-137. DOI: 10.1007/s10441-011-9123-3 3

Ahistoryofanimalwelfarescience.4

5

DonaldM.Broom6

CentreforAnimalWelfareandAnthrozoology,DepartmentofVeterinary7

Medicine,UniversityofCambridge,MadingleyRoad,CambridgeCB30ES,United8

Kingdom9

10

ABSTRACT11

Humanattitudestoanimalshavechangedasnon-humanshavebecomemore12

widelyincorporatedinthecategoryofmoralagentswhodeservesomerespect.13

Parallelsbetweenthefunctioningofhumansandnon-humanshavebeenmade14

forthousandsofyearsbuttheideathattheanimalsthatwekeepcansufferhas15

spreadrecently.Animprovedunderstandingofmotivation,cognitionandthe16

complexityofsocialbehaviourinanimalshasledinthelastthirtyyearstothe17

rapiddevelopmentofanimalwelfarescience.Earlyattemptstodefinewelfare18

referredtoindividualsbeinginharmonywithnaturebutthefirstusable19

definitionincorporatedfeelingsandhealthaspartofattemptstocopewiththe20

environment.Othersconsideredthatwelfareisonlyaboutfeelingsbutitis21

arguedthatasfeelingsaremechanismsthathaveevolvedtheyareapartof22

welfareratherthanallofit.Mostreviewsofwelfarenowstartwithlistingthe23

needsoftheanimal,includingneedstoshowcertainbehaviours.Thisapproach24

hasusedsophisticatedstudiesofwhatisimportanttoanimalsandhasreplaced25

theearliergeneralguidelinesdescribedasfreedoms.Manymeasuresofwelfare26

arenowusedandindicatehowgoodorhowpoorthewelfareis.Naturalnessis27

notapartofthedefinitionofwelfarebutexplainswhysomeneedsexist.In28

recentyears,welfarehasbecomeestablishedasoneofvariouscriteriausedto29

decideonwhetherasystemissustainablebecausemembersofthepublicwill30

notacceptsystemsthatcausepoorwelfare.Thestudyofwelfarehasbecome31

partofthescientificbasisuponwhichimportantpoliticaldecisionsaremade.32

33

INTRODUCTION34

Animalwelfareisatermthatdescribesapotentiallymeasurablequalityofa35

livinganimalataparticulartimeandhenceisascientificconcept.Muchofthe36

discussionaboutanimalwelfareconcernswhathumansdoaboutit,orshoulddo37

aboutit.Suchaquestion,aboutwhatpeopleoughttodo,isanethicalissue.The38

scientificstudyofanimalwelfareshouldbeseparatedfromtheethicsbutno39

applicationofthesciencecanoccurwithoutunderstandingargumentsabout40

ethicalpositions.Thefirstsectionofthispaperwillthereforerefertomoralityin41

relationtoanimaluse.Thiswillbefollowedbydiscussionsofthehistoryofthe42

welfareconceptandofusablewelfareconceptsnowandhowtheyareinter-43

related.Somelinkstoothermoralissuesandsomefutureconcernswillthenbe44

considered.45

46

MORALORIGINSANDEARLYWELFAREHISTORY47

Animalshavealwayshadwelfarebutwhathumansknowofithasbecome48

modifiedovertime,especiallyrecently.Thehumanconceptsofwhatareandare49

notmoralactionshaveprobablychangedlittleovermanymillenniaexceptthat50

thecategoryofindividualswhoareconsideredtodeservetobetreatedina51

moralwayhasbroadenedgreatly(Broom2003).Helpingothersandnot52

harmingothersareeffectivestrategies,especiallyforanimalsthatliveinlong-53

lastingsocialgroups.Hencemoralsystemshaveevolvedinhumansandother54

suchanimals,asexplainedinmoredetailbydeWaal(1996),Ridley(1996),55

Broom(2003).Humanshavelongespousedtheviewthattheyhavedutiesto56

others.Asexplainedinthereferencesquoted,socialanimalssuchashumans57

haveevolvedcharacteristicsthatmakethemresponsivetoothersintheir58

societiesinawaythatpromotesdutifulpreferencesandactions.This59

deontologicalpositionhasarisenineveryhumansocietyandthemechanisms60

involvedhaveparallelsinotheranimalsocieties.Otherevolvedcharacteristics61

increaseabilitiestoassessconsequencesofactionsandtoevaluatecostsand62

benefits,i.e.someutilitariandecisions.63

Insomehumansocieties,forexamplethosewheretheBuddhistorJainreligions64

dominate,therangeoflivingindividualsconsideredtodeserverespecthaslong65

beenwide.However,inmostoftheworld,ideasaboutwhichindividualsshould66

bethesubjectofmoralactions(Singer1994)havechangedwith:(i)improved67

communicationintheworld,(ii)increasingknowledgeofthefunctioningof68

humansandotheranimals.Peoplewilloftenavoidactionsthatcouldharm69

others,evenifonlytheyknowabouttheaction(Gert1988,Broom2006).70

However,theyaremorelikelytorefrainfromcausingharmifthoseintheir71

socialgroupmaycometoknowaboutwhattheyhavedone.Ashumansocieties72

haveexpandedtheircontacts,thegroupthatisinmoralcontactwithan73

individualhaschangedfromthefamilytothetribe,andhassubsequently74

expandedtoincludemuchlargercommunities.The20thcenturycommunication75

explosionhasresultedininformationabouttheactionsofparticularpeople76

becomingknownacrosstheworld.Asaconsequence,ithasbecomeharderfor77

harmfulactionstobeconcealed(Broom2003).Thespreadofknowledgehas78

alsobeengreatlyfacilitated.79

Thelevelofsophisticationofthefunctioningofindividualshasoftenbeena80

factorindecisionsaboutwhetherornottheyareasubjectofmoralactions.The81

waysinwhichhumanandotheranimalbrainsworkwasamysterytoallpeople82

untilinformationbecameavailablefromrelativelyrecentdevelopmentsin83

neurobiology.Ourlanguagehasnotkeptpacewiththesechangessopeople84

makestatementsabouthavingfeelingsorknowingsomethingintheirheartorin85

theirgutwhenallareinthebrain.Thestudyofbehaviourandofhowthebrain86

controlsit,andofthegreatsimilaritiesinthephysiologyofallpeopleandawide87

rangeofotherspecies,hasbeenrevolutionaryinitsimpactonhumanattitudes88

(Dennett1984).Untilrecentlyitwasreallybelievedbymanypeople,especially89

males,thatwomenhadveryinferiorfunctioningascomparedwithmen,thatit90

wasnotrealistictocomparethecognitiveabilityofpeoplewithbrownorblack91

skintothatofwhitepeopleandthattherewasanenormousgapinabilityand92

functioningbetweenhumansandotherspecies.Awiderangeofstudiesnow93

showtheseviewstobewrong.Thegroupofindividualswhoarerespected,in94

thatharmwouldnotnormallybecausedtothem,hasbeenextendedtohumans95

ofallnationsandracesandtomanyotheranimalspecies.Tosomeextentthisis96

aconsequenceofinformationthatisavailablefromthemedia.Theperson97

watchingatelevisionprogrammeandseeingaparrot,orsquirrel,ordog,orpig,98

orsheep,orravensolvecomplexproblemsmaynotinfuturethinkofthatkindof99

animalasanobject,orasabeingofnoconsequence.Thatpersonmaywell100

becomemuchlesslikelytodirectlyharmtheanimal,ortocondoneharmby101

others.102

Beforetherewasaccuratescientificknowledge,inhumansocietiesforwhich103

therearedetailedrecordstherehavebeendescriptionsofanimalfunctioning104

includingtheirbehaviour,physiologyandpathology.Verymanyparallels105

betweenhumansandotheranimalswereapparenttopeopleandthesewere106

describedbyGreeks,Mayans,Chineseandothers(Sorabji1993).Ideasabout107

non-humananimalsincludedrecognitionofsimilaritiestohumansinrespectof108

whatwouldharmthem,thecomplexityoftheirbodyregulationsystems,the109

existenceoftheiremotionalresponsesandtherangeofabilitiesthatthey110

demonstratedtocontroltheirenvironment(EngelandEngel1990).Therehave111

beenotherswhoplacedemphasisondifferencesbetweenhumansandallother112

species,asexplainedbyHarwood1928.However,theDescartesviewofanimals113

asautomata,withalmostnosimilaritytohumans,hasprobablybeenusedby114

somepeopleduringmuchofhumanhistory.Itwasoftenusedbythoseforwhom115

itwasconvenientasawayofjustifyingsomeformofexploitation.Such116

argumentswerealsousedtojustifyslaveryandothersuppressionofminorities.117

Bentham(1789)statedthatthekeyquestionaboutanimalswasnotcanthey118

reasonbutdotheysuffer?Mostpeoplewhohavelivedwithorlookedcloselyat119

animalshaveassumedthattheycoulddobothtosomeextent.AsDuncan(2006)120

hassaid,uptothe19thcentury,thisviewwasverywidespreadbutlaterthere121

wassomereluctancetoholdtheviewbecauseofdifficultytomeasurethe122

suffering..Itwasbasedonobservationanddeduction,i.e.onascientific123

approach.124

WELFARE:1960sto1980s125

Inthe19thcenturyandthe20thcenturyuptothe1960s,knowledgeabout126

biologicalfunctioningincreasedgreatly.Bytheendofthistime,scientific127

disciplinessuchasethologyandneurosciencestartedtobecomeacceptedwithin128

thescientificcommunity.However,thisdidnotmeanthattheinformationwas129

widelyknown.Unfortunately,inmanycountries,thedivisionbetweenscientists130

andnon-scientistsandthefearofscienceamongthosenarrowlyeducatedin131

non-scientificdisciplinesresultedinignoranceofthesebiologicaldevelopments132

amongstthosewhocametohaveinfluentialpositionsinsomepartsof133

governmentandindustry.134

In1964RuthHarrison’sbook“AnimalMachines”waspublishedandpointedout135

thatthoseinvolvedintheanimalproductionindustrywereoftentreating136

animalslikeinanimatemachinesratherthanlivingindividuals.Asaconsequence137

ofthisbook,in1965theBritishgovernmentsetuptheBrambellCommittee,a138

committeechairedbyProfessorF.RogersBrambell,toreportonthematter.One139

ofitsmemberswasW.H.Thorpe,anethologistinCambridgeUniversity.Thorpe140

emphasisedthatanunderstandingofthebiologyoftheanimalsisimportantand141

explainedthatanimalshaveneedswithabiologicalbasis,includingsomeneeds142

toshowparticularbehaviours,andthatanimalswouldhaveproblemsifthere143

werefrustrationofthoseneeds(Thorpe1965).Thisviewcametobewrittenin144

theBrambellReportasthe“fivefreedoms”.Theconceptoffreedomhassome145

logicalandscientificdifficulties,asexplainedbelow(Broom2003).BillThorpe146

wasmyPh.D.supervisor.Heaskedmein1965tocommentonsomematerial147

usedbytheCommittee.Thiswasataperecordingofhensindifferenthousing148

conditions.Thorpeaskedwhetheritwaspossibletodeduceanythingaboutthe149

welfareofthebirdsfromthesoundsthattheymade.Althoughsomededuction150

mightnowbemade(Zimmermanetal2003),thesetapesdidnotallowanyat151

thattime.However,theBrambellReporthashadgreatinfluenceinmany152

countries.153

Inthe1960s,theemphasisofdiscussionswasonwhatpeopleshoulddo,i.e.on154

animalprotectionratherthanonanimalwelfare.Inthe1970sandearly1980s,155

thetermanimalwelfarewasusedbutnotdefinedandnotconsideredscientific156

bymostscientists.157

Adevelopmentofmajorimportancetotheemergingconceptofanimalwelfare158

wasresearchbyethologistsandpsychologistsonmotivationsystems.The159

writingsofNealMiller,RobertHinde,DavidMcFarlandandothersinthe1950s160

to1980shelpedethologiststounderstandcontrolsystemsandhowanimals161

cametotakedecisions(Miller1959,Hinde1970,McFarlandandSibly1975).A162

reviewofBroom(1981),abookentitled“BiologyofBehaviour”,pointedoutthat163

theanimalsdescribedinitwerepresentedassophisticateddecision-makersin164

almostallaspectsofwhattheydid.Thisviewcontrastedgreatlywiththethen165

widespreadbutsubsequentlydiscreditedviewofanimalsasautomatadrivenby166

“instinct”.KeyresearchbyIanDuncanandDavidWood-Gush(Duncanand167

Wood-Gush1971,1972),explainedthemotivationofanimalswhoseneedswere168

notmetsotheanimalswerefrustrated.TheseauthorsandBarryHughes169

explainedthebiologicalbasisofneeds(HughesandDuncan1988,Toatesand170

Jensen1991).Alsoatthistime,therewasworkontheevolutionofbehaviour171

includingsociobiology(Wilson1975),manyofwhoseproponentsconsidered172

motivationtobeoflittleinterestanddomesticanimalsasquiteunsuitable173

subjectsforbiologicalresearch.Someofthosewhoworkedonmotivationat174

thattimechangedtoappliedethologystudiesandparticularlytoanimalwelfare,175

e.g.Broom,M.Dawkins,Duncan,D.Fraser,Ladewig,Matthews,Vestergaardand176

Wiepkema.Atthesametime,thescientificuseofthetermstresswasbeing177

questioned.ItsusebyHansSelyewasclearlyambiguousand,asJ.Mason178

pointedout(Mason1968,DantzerandMormède1979),tosomedegree179

erroneousinthattheHPAandSAMphysiologicalmechanismswerepresentedas180

generaltoallsituationswhentheyarenot.Somepeopleusedthetermstressto181

meanHPAaxisactivitywhilstothersuseditforanystimulation.Broom182

suggested(1983,seealsoBroomandJohnson1993)thatitshouldbelimitedto183

adverseorpotentiallyadverseeffectswithfitnessreductionasthecriterion.This184

viewwassupportedbyDantzer,vonHolst(D),Moberg,MormèdeandToatesbut185

wasignoredbymedicalandmostphysiologicalresearchers.186

Anotherviewchallengedinthe1970sand1980swastheideathatdomestic187

animalswerecompletelymodifiedbymanandthereforescarcelybiologicaland188

notcomparablewiththeirwildequivalents.GlenMcBridestudiedapopulation189

offeralchickensonanislandoffAustralia(McBrideetal1969).DavidWood-190

Gushstudiedanotherdomesticfowlpopulationand,laterwithAlexStolba,a191

groupofsowskeptinfieldswithtrees(Wood-GushandStolba).PerJensen,192

encouragedbyIngvarEkesbo,carriedoutadetailedstudyofmoderndomestic193

pigsinwoodlandconditions.(Jensen1986)Theconclusionfromallofthiswork194

wasthatthebehaviourofthesefarmanimalbreedswasscarcelydistinguishable195

inmanyrespectsfromthatoftheirwildancestors.Anotherview,subsequently196

foundtobelargelyincorrect,wasthatofHemmer(1983)thatdomesticanimals197

havelessbrain-powerandmuchlesscomplexbehaviourthantheirwild198

ancestors.Awiderangeofexperimentalstudiesonlearninghaveshown,for199

example,thatsheepandcowsrecognisemanyindividualsandsheephaveunits200

intheirbrainswhichmakethispossible(KendrickandBaldwin1987,Kendrick201

etal1995,2001),youngcattlecanshowanexcitementresponsewhentheylearn202

something(HagenandBroom(2004),andpigscanuseinformationfrommirrors203

afterafewhoursofexperiencewithamirror(Broometal2009).Themajorway204

inwhichdomesticanimalshavebeenchangedbyhumanselectionisthatthey205

arenowverydifferentfromtheirancestorsinthattheycanhavesometolerance206

ofhumanproximityandanabilitytobreedinrestricted,suboptimalsituations207

(Price2002).208

Atthistime,mostoftheanimalwelfareresearcherswereinzoologyoranimal209

productiondepartmentsinuniversitiesandresearchinstitutes.Althoughnot210

oftenawareofthewiderangeofwelfaretopics,manyveterinarianswereaiming211

tobenefittheanimalsandimproveanimalwelfarebytryingtocureorprevent212

animaldisease.Someoftheseusedtheirclinicalknowledgetoensurethatthe213

healthofanimalswasproperlyconsideredinevaluationofwelfarewhilstothers214

carriedoutexperimentalwork.Veterinarianswhocontributedtomoregeneral215

aspectsofanimalwelfarescienceincludedAndrewFraser,IngvarEkesbo,Henrik216

Simonsen,RobertDantzer,RogerEwbank,BarryHughesandJohnWebster.217

AndrewFraserwasoneofthefoundersoftheSocietyforVeterinaryEthology218

(latertheInternationalSocietyforAppliedEthology),whichisthemajor219

scientificsocietyforanimalwelfarescience.Hewasalsoeditorofthejournal220

thencalled“AppliedAnimalEthology”andnowcalled“AppliedAnimal221

BehaviourScience”whichisthemostimportantjournalforscientificpaperson222

animalwelfare.Thejournal“AnimalWelfare”hasalsobeenofmajorimportance223

inmorerecentyears.224

Muchofthediscussionabouttheuseofanimals,untilrelativelyrecently,centred225

onwhetherornottheyshouldbekilled.Philosophersandthepublicwereoften226

concernedwiththeethicsofkillinganimalsforhumanfood,humanclothing,227

scientificresearchorasunwantedpets(Regan1990,Fraser2008).Thisisan228

importantethicalquestionbutitisnotananimalwelfareissue.Theanimal229

welfareissueiswhathappensbeforedeath,includinghowtheyaretreated230

duringlastpartoftheirlives,oftenthepre-slaughterperiodandthenthemethod231

bywhichtheyarekilled.However,asHaynes(2008)pointsout,thereisadanger232

inthispositionifitresultsintheethicalquestionofwhetherornotitis233

acceptabletokillandanimalbeingignoredorinadequatelyconsidered.234

235

236

THEHISTORYOFTHEANIMALWELFARECONCEPT237

Inthe1980s,itwasacceptedbymostbiologistsandveterinariansthatanimals238

andtheirresponsesystemsaresubjecttochallengesfromtheirenvironment.239

Thesechallengesincludepathogens,tissuedamage,attackorthreatofattackby240

aconspecificorpredator,othersocialcompetition,thecomplexityofinformation241

processinginasituationwhereanindividualreceivesexcessivestimulation,a242

lackofkeystimulisuchasateatforayoungmammalorthoseassociatedwith243

socialcontactforasocialanimalandalackofoverallstimulation.Ingeneral,an244

inabilitytocontrolinteractionswiththeirenvironmentcausesproblemsfor245

humansandotheranimals(Mason1968,1971,Weiss1971,.TheBrambell246

Committeedidnotdefinewelfareintheirreportbut,followingsomegenerally247

acceptedviewsofthefunctioningofanimalsandalsothewritingsofLorca,Barry248

Hughes(1981)proposedthatthetermanimalwelfaremeantthattheanimalwas249

inharmonywithnature,orwithitsenvironment.Thisisabiologicallyrelevant250

statementandaprecursoroflaterviewsbutitisnotausabledefinition.Beingin251

harmonyisasinglestatesoitdoesnotallowscientificmeasurement.Thekey252

questionishowmuchtheindividualisinharmony.Thetermwelfarewasbeing253

usedmoreandmoreinscience,inlawsandindiscussionabouttheeffectsofthe254

treatmentoflaboratory,farmandcompanionanimals.Hencetherewasaclear255

needforascientificdefinition.256

Broom(1986)presentedthisdefinitionofwelfare.“Thewelfareofanindividual257

isitsstateasregardsitsattemptstocopewithitsenvironment.”Inaseriesof258

publications(Broom1988,1991a,b,BroomandJohnson1993),anumberof259

pointsrelatingtothisdefinition,includingthosebelow,wereemphasised.260

Copingmeanshavingcontrolofmentalandbodilystability(BroomandJohnson261

1993).Welfarecanbemeasuredscientificallyandvariesoverarangefromvery262

goodtoverypoor.Welfarewillbepoorifthereisdifficultyincopingorfailureto263

cope.Therearevariouscopingstrategieswithbehavioural,physiological,264

immunologicalandothercomponentsthatarecoordinatedfromthebrain.265

Feelings,suchaspain,fearandthevariousformsofpleasure,maybepartofa266

copingstrategyandfeelingsareakeypartofwelfare.Thesystemmayoperate267

successfullysothatcopingisachievedormaybeunsuccessfulinthatthe268

individualisharmed.Oneormorecopingstrategiesmaybeusedtoattemptto269

copewithaparticularchallengesoawiderangeofmeasuresofwelfaremaybe270

neededtoassesswelfare.Copingwithpathologyisnecessaryifwelfareistobe271

goodsohealthisanimportantpartofwelfare.272

Akeypointofagreementamongstanimalwelfarescientistsintheearly1990s273

andlaterhasbeenthatanimalwelfareismeasurableandhenceisascientific274

concept(seereviewoftheideasofDuncan,Dawkins,Broomandothersby275

Fraser2008).However,Broom’sdefinitionhasbeenreferredtobysomeasa276

functionaldefinitionandcontrastedwiththefeelings-relateddefinitionsofIan277

Duncan(seealsoBroom2008).Duncanarguedthatwelfareiswhollyabout278

feelings(DuncanandPetherick1991,Duncan1993).Thisviewwassharedby279

someotherpeoplebutacommonerpositionwasthatofMarianDawkins(1980,280

1990)whostatedthatthefeelingsoftheindividualarethecentralissuein281

welfarebutotheraspectssuchasthehealthofthatindividualarealsoimportant.282

Atthesametime,thosewithamedicalorveterinarybackgroundsometimes283

presentedtheviewthathealthisall,oralmostall,ofwelfare.AllofBroom’s284

papersandbooksdiscussingthewelfaredefinitionreferredtofeelingsbutasa285

partofwelfare.Theargumentsfortheevolutionoffeelingsaspartofanimal286

functioningareexplainedbyCabanac(1979),Broom(1991b,1998,Broomand287

Fraser2007)andPanksepp(1998).Eveninrecenttimes,themyththatBroom’s288

definitionisfunctional,ratherthanencompassingsufferingandotherfeelings,289

hasbeenperpetuated(e.g.DwyerandLawrence2008).Theideathatfeelingsare290

completelydifferentfromotherbiologicalmechanismswhenindividualsare291

tryingtocopewiththeirenvironmentisnotbiologicallysound.Whencopingis292

successfulandproblemsareabsentorminor,welfareisgood.Goodwelfareis293

generallyassociatedwithfeelingsofpleasureorcontentment.294

Likebadfeelings,suchaspainorfear,goodfeelingsareabiologicalmechanism295

andthismechanismhasevolved(Cabanac1992,KeelingandJensen2002).A296

feelingisabrainconstruct,involvingatleastperceptualawareness,whichis297

associatedwithaliferegulatingsystem,isrecognisablebytheindividualwhenit298

recursandmaychangebehaviouroractasareinforcerinlearning(Broom299

1998)..Sufferingoccurswhenoneormorenegativefeelingscontinueformore300

thanafewseconds(Broom1998).Thereareproblemswithadefinitionof301

welfarethatonlyreferstofeelings.Feelingsarejustonepartofananimal’s302

repertoireofcopingmechanisms.Althoughthebrainconditionwhichresultsina303

feelingmayhavefirstarisenaccidentally,mostfeelingsnowoccurringarea304

resultofnaturalselectionandareadaptive.Althoughfeelingsareanimportant305

partofwelfare,welfareinvolvesmorethanfeelings,forexample:anindividual306

withabrokenlegbutasleep,anaddictwhohasjusttakenheroin,anindividual307

greatlyaffectedbydiseasebutunawareofit,aninjuredindividualwhosepain308

systemdoesnotfunction(Broom1991b,1998).309

Afewveterinarianswereinvolvedinanimalwelfareresearchinthe1980s,as310

mentionedabove,andthepaperonassessingpainanddistressinlaboratory311

animalsbyMortonandGriffiths(1985)hadsubstantialinfluence.However,at312

thistimemostveterinariansdidnotconsideranimalwelfareasascientific313

disciplinethatshouldbetaughttoveterinarystudentsandthatwasrelevantto314

thoseinpractice.Manythoughtthatonlyveterinariansknewaboutanimal315

welfareandthatalmostallofwelfarewastreatmentoforpreventionofdisease.316

Animalbehaviourandbrainfunctionwerethoughttobeofminorimportanceto317

veterinarywork.Theseviewshadcloseparallelswiththemedicalprofessionin318

whichthosewhostudiedbehaviouralormentalproblemswereoftenconsidered319

peripheraltothemajortasksofhumanmedicine.Vets,medicsandscientists320

wereunwillingtorefertoanimalfeelings(Panksepp2005).Researchbiologists321

inuniversitiesdidnotthinkofthestudyofanimalwelfareasascience.They322

oftenvieweditasanimpedimenttoresearchandwereonlygrudginglyawareof323

theconceptofthe3Rs,reduce,replaceandrefinepresentedbyRusselland324

Burch(1959).Despitethefactthatmanyimportantbiologicalsystemshavethe325

functionofattemptingtocopewithdifficultiesinlife,thestudyofwelfarehas326

notbeengreatlyvaluedinthescientificworldandwelfarescientistsarenot327

thoughtofassignificantcontributorstoscience.328

329

USABLEANIMALWELFARECONCEPTSANDHOWTHEYAREINTER-RELATED330

331

Adaptation332

Itmaybehelpfultorelatethewelfareterminologytotheconceptofadaptation.333

Howwellcanourdomesticanimalsadapttotheconditionsthatweimposeupon334

them?Canwildanimalsadapttoourimpactonthem?Whenreferringto335

individualanimals,adaptationistheuseofregulatorysystems,withtheir336

behaviouralandphysiologicalcomponents,tohelpanindividualtocopewithits337

environmentalconditions(Broom2006a).Animalscanadaptbetteriftheir338

needsaremet.Whatarethelimitstoadaptation?Theideathattherearelimits339

hasbeenwidelyacceptedinbiology(Mount1979,Moberg1985)butresistedby340

someinvolvedinanimalproduction.Anindividualattemptingtocopemayfailto341

doso.Forexample,itmaybedifficultorimpossibletocopewith:extreme342

externaltemperature,pathogenmultiplication,orhighpredationriskordifficult343

socialconditions.Bodystatemaybedisplacedtooutsidethetolerablerangeand344

deathmayfollow.Anindividualmayadapttoanenvironmentalsituationwith345

difficulty,inwhichcasethewelfareispoor.Forexample,ifanindividualis346

adapting,orhasadapted,butisinpainordepressed.Copingusuallymeansthat347

allmentalandbodilysystemshavefunctionedsothattheenvironmentalimpact348

isnullified.Hence“tocope”ismorethan“toadapt”.Adaptationdoesnot349

necessarilymeangoodwelfare.350

351

Stress352

Formostpeople,stressimpliestheeffectsofachallengetotheindividualthat353

disruptshomeostasisresultinginadverseeffects.Itisnotjustastimuluswhich354

activatesenergyreleasingcontrolmechanisms.Stimuliwhoseeffectsare355

beneficialwouldnotbecalledstressorsbymostpeople.Also,formostpeople,356

situationswhichactivatethehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcorticalaxis,but357

whoseeffectsareusefultotheindividual,wouldnotbecalledstressors.A358

definitionofstressthatisinlinewiththegeneralpublicusageofthewordis359

“Stressisanenvironmentaleffectonanindividualwhichovertaxescontrol360

systemsandresultsinadverseconsequences,eventuallyreducedfitness”(Broom361

andJohnson1993,followingBroom1983).Thereisnogoodstress.Duringthe362

developmentofindividuals,stimulithatresultfromsomewhatdifficult363

situationscanbeusefulexperiencebutthesearebestnotreferredtoasbeing364

stressful..Wheneverthereisstress,welfarewillbepoorbutwelfarecouldbe365

temporarilypoorwithoutanylon=lastingadverseeffectsowithoutstress.366

367

368

369

Needsorfreedoms?370

Motivationalsystemshaveevolved.Theyenableindividualstoascribepriorities371

tocertainactions,aswellastodeterminethetimingofactions(Broom1981).372

Thisfacilitatesadaptation.Aneedisarequirement,whichispartofthebasic373

biologyofananimal,toobtainaparticularresourceorrespondtoaparticular374

environmentalorbodilystimulus(BroomandJohnson1993).Theneeditselfis375

inthebrain.Itallowseffectivefunctioningoftheanimal.Itmaybefulfilledby376

physiologyorbehaviourbuttheneedisnotphysiologicalorbehavioural.There377

areneedsforresources,suchasfood,waterorheatbuttherearealsoneedsto378

carryoutactionswhosefunctionistoattainanobjective(HughesandDuncan379

1988,ToatesandJensen1991).Forexample:apigrootinginsoilor380

manipulatingmaterialsuchasstrawortwigs,orahendust-bathingtokeep381

feathersingoodcondition,orahenorasowbuildinganestwhenabouttogive382

birthorlayanegg.Theideaofprovidingfor“thefivefreedoms”,firstsuggested383

intheBrambellReportin1965butnotquiteinlinewithThorpe’sconceptof384

needs,isnowreplacedbythemorescientificconceptofneeds.Thelistof385

freedomsjustprovidesageneralguidelinefornon-specialists.Animalshave386

manyneedsandthesehavebeeninvestigatedformanyspecies.Thisisthe387

startingpointforreviewsofthewelfareofaspecies.Alistofneedshasbeenthe388

startingpointforCouncilofEuroperecommendationsandE.U.scientificreports389

onanimalwelfareforover20years.Thefreedomsarenotpreciseenoughtobe390

usedasabasisforwelfareassessment.Thisisnowanout-datedapproachthat391

maystillbeusefulasapreliminaryguidelinebutshouldnotbeusedifscientific392

evidenceaboutneedsisavailable.The12factorspresentedbytheWelfare393

Qualityprogrammeareabetterguidethanthefivefreedomsbutalistofthe394

needsoftheparticularanimalsunderconsideration,basedonpublished395

scientificevidence,ismoreuseful.396

Howdowefindoutfromanimalswhattheyneed?Whatispreferred?397

Howhardwilltheindividualworkforaresource?Anexampleisworkwithrats398

thataregivenachoiceoffloors.Onemeasureiswhichfloortheychoosebut399

moreinformationisobtainediftheratshavetoworkinordertogettothefloor400

oftheirchoice.Aratcanreadilylearntoliftaweighteddoorandtheamount401

liftedgivesanindicationofitsstrengthofpreferencefortheresource.402

Terminologyusedinmotivationalstrengthestimationincludesthefollowing403

(Kirkdenetal2003).Aresourceisacommodityoranopportunitytoperforman404

activity.Thedemandisameasuredamountofactionwhichenablesresourceto405

beobtained.Thepriceistheamountofthatactionrequiredforaunitof406

resource.Incomeistheamountoftimeorothervariablelimitingthataction.407

Thepriceelasticityofdemandistheproportionalrateatwhichconsumptionor408

demandchangeswithprice.Theconsumersurplusisameasureofthelargest409

amountwhichasubjectispreparedtospendonagivenquantityoftheresource.410

Itcorrespondstoanareabeneathaninversedemandcurve.Aexampleoftheuse411

ofthismethodologyistheworkofMasonetal(2001).Thekeyquestionwasto412

ascertainthestrengthofpreferenceofmink,apartiallyaquaticspecies,for413

variousresourcesincludingwaterinwhichtheycouldswim.Theminkwere414

trainedtoperformoperantstoreach:anextranest,variousobjects,araised415

platform,atunnel,anemptycageandawaterpooltoswimin.Theswimming416

waterwasgivenveryhighprioritybythemink.417

418

Obligationsorrights?419

Howshouldwedescribewhatshouldorshouldnotbedonetootherindividuals?420

Mostpeoplewouldsaythatweallhaveobligationsnottoharmothers.Fromthe421

otherperspective,itmightbesaidthateachotherindividualhasarightnottobe422

harmedbyus.However,assertionsofrightsandfreedomscancauseproblems423

(Broom2003).Weshoulddescribetheobligationsoftheactorratherthanthe424

rightsofthesubject.Ifwekeeporotherwiseinteractwithanimalswethenhave425

obligationsinrelationtotheirwelfare.426

WELFAREPROBLEMS,ASSESSMENTANDDECISIONS427

Effectsonanimalwelfarewhichcanbedescribedincludethoseof:428

disease,429

injury,430

starvation,431

beneficialstimulation,432

socialinteractions-positiveornegative,433

otherformsofsuccessinactions,434

housingconditions-positiveornegative,435

deliberateoraccidentalilltreatment,436

humanhandling-positiveornegative,437

transport,438

laboratoryprocedures,439

variousmutilations,440

veterinarytreatment-positiveornegative,441

geneticchangebyconventionalorotherbreeding.442

443

WelfareindicatorsaredescribedbyBroomandFraser(2007).Thereare444

differencesbetweenwelfareindicatorsforshort-termandlong-termproblems.445

Short-termmeasureslikeheart-rateandplasmacortisolconcentrationare446

appropriateforassessingwelfareduringhandlingortransportbutnotduring447

long-termhousing.Somemeasuresofbehaviour,immunesystemfunctionand448

diseasestatearemoreappropriateforlong-termproblems.Welfareoverlonger449

periodsissometimesreferredtoasqualityoflife.Thistermismuchusedby450

cliniciansbutitmeanswelfareoveraperiodofmorethanafewdays(Broom451

2007b).452

Overanytime-scale,measuresofintensityofeffectonwelfarehavetoberelated453

tothedurationofthestate.Whenwelfareisevaluated,therelationshipbetween454

itsintensity(thewordseverityissometimesusedwheretheeffectisnegative)455

anddurationshouldbetakenintoaccount.Fig1wasinitiallydrawntoexemplify456

poorwelfareduringkillingmethods(Broom2001b)buttheprincipleisthesame457

forpositiveeffects..458

LegendFig.1Themeasuredintensityofgoodorpoorwelfareisplottedagainst459

timefortwoexamples.(a)mightbeananimalbeingkilledbyamethodinvolving460

prolongedpainandotherpoorwelfare,(b)mightbeananimalkilledbya461

methodthathasamuchmorerapideffect(AfterBroom2001b).462

463

AxislabelledIntensityofEffect(notseverity)464

WherethereisanadverseimpactinFig.1,theareaundertheintensityagainst465

timecurveisthemagnitudeofpoorwelfare.Wheretheimpactispositive,466

magnitudeofgoodwelfareistheareaunderthecurve.467

468

NATURALNESSANDWELFARE469

Wheredoesnaturalnessfitwiththeconceptofwelfare?Fraser(1999)pointed470

outthatwhenmembersofthepublictalkaboutanimalwelfare,theirideas471

includethefunctioningoftheanimals,thefeelingsoftheanimalsandthe472

naturalnessoftheenvironment.Thefeelings,referredtobyFraserandothers,fit473

comfortablyintoBroom’sdefinitionofwelfareastheyareanimportant474

componentofcopingmechanismsandofbiologicalfunctioning.Rollin(1990,475

1995),Fraseretal(1997)andFraser(2008)haveadvocatedthat“animals476

shouldbeabletoleadreasonablynaturallives”andhavereferredtothe477

importanceofunderstandinganimalneeds.However,theydidnotsaythat478

naturalnesscontributestoadefinitionoftheconceptofwelfareorshouldbepart479

ofwelfareassessment.Thestateofanindividualtryingtocopewithits480

environmentwillnecessarilydependuponitsbiologicalfunctioning,orput481

anotherway,onitsnature.Naturalconditionshaveaffectedtheneedsofthe482

animalandtheevolutionofcopingmechanismsinthespecies.Thestateofan483

individualtryingtocopewithitsenvironmentwilldependuponitsbiological484

functioning.Naturalconditionshaveaffectedtheneedsoftheanimalandthe485

evolutionofcopingmechanismsinthespecies.Theenvironmentprovided486

shouldfulfiltheneedsoftheanimalbutdoesnothavetobethesameasthe487

environmentinthewild.488

489

LINKSBETWEENANIMALWELFAREANDOTHERMORALISSUES490

Inrecentyears,publicpressureinrelationtocodesofpractice,lawsandthe491

enforcementoflawshaveincreasedinallcountriesconcerning:humanhealth,492

animalwelfareandtheimpactontheenvironment.InEurope,oneofthebig493

pressuresforlawsetc.intheseareashasbeentheviewthatitisuncivilisedto494

allowpeopletobecomesick,animalstobetreatedbadlyortheenvironmentto495

bedamaged.Asystemorprocedureissustainableifitisacceptablenowandifits496

effectswillbeacceptableinfuture,inparticularinrelationtoresource497

availability,consequencesoffunctioningandmoralityofaction.Animalwelfare498

isoneofthecriteriausedbythepublicwhendecidingwhetheraprocedureor499

systemisacceptablesoitisanecessaryconsiderationforsustainability(Broom500

2001a,2002,2010).Forconsumersandproducersofanimalproducts,the501

conceptofqualityhasbroadened.Goodqualitynowmeansgoodintasteandalso502

sustainable,especially:acceptableinrelationtohumanhealth,animalwelfare503

andenvironmentalimpact.TheFrench‘LabelRouge’schemehasledthewayin504

this(Ouedraogo1998).TheproportionofFrenchconsumerswhobuyonlyon505

priceisthoughttohavedroppedto25%.506

507

Thetermwelfare,althoughnotapplicabletoinanimateobjectsorplants,is508

relevanttoallanimalsbecausetheyhaveanabilitytodetectandrespondrapidly509

totheimpactsonthemoftheirenvironment,usuallyviathefunctioningoftheir510

nervoussystem.Whilsttheresponsesofmorecomplexanimalsarecontrolledby511

oftencomplexprocessesintheirbrains,thoseofsimpleranimalsarealsopartof512

attemptstocopewiththeenvironment.Wecanassessandconsiderthewelfare513

ofanyanimal.Separatequestionarewhichanimalsshouldbeprotectedandto514

whatdegreeshouldtheybeprotected?Formostpeople,animalswithawareness515

arethoughttobeworthyofmoreprotection.Asentientbeingisonethathas516

someability:toevaluatetheactionsofothersinrelationtoitselfandthird517

parties,toremembersomeofitsownactionsandtheirconsequences,toassess518

risk,tohavesomefeelingsandtohavesomedegreeofawareness(Broom2006c,519

2007a).Peoplehavelongappreciatedthesentienceofvariousdomesticand520

otheranimalsandhaveoftenthoughtofthemasanexampletofolloworafriend521

whowouldhelp,ratherthanjustasaresourceobject.However,arabbitis522

vieweddifferentlyaccordingtowhetheritis:afamilypet,alaboratoryanimal,523

ananimalkeptformeatproduction,orawildanimalthateatsyourcrops.Thisis524

notscientificallysound.Arabbitisarabbitandeachonefeelspainorhas525

cognitivefunction.526

527

Healthreferstowhatishappeninginbodysystems,includingthoseinthebrain,528

whichcombatpathogens,tissuedamageorphysiologicaldisorder.Healthisthe529

stateofanindividualasregardsitsattemptstocopewithpathology(Broom530

2000,2006b-).Withdiseasechallenge,aswellaswithotherchallenges,difficult531

orinadequateadaptationresultsinpoorwelfare.Healthisanimportantpartof532

welfare.Examplesincludeosteoarthritisincatsanddogsandsoleulcerincows.533

534

535

RECENTANDFUTUREANIMALWELFARECONCERNS536

Thereremainsomeareasofconfusionamongstthepublicandamongstscientists537

whodonotspecialiseinthearea,inrelationtowhatanimalwelfareis.In538

contrast,thereisasubstantialdegreeofagreementamongwelfarescientists.539

Points(i)to(vi)belowareareaswheretheremaybesomeconfusion.(i)For540

somepeopletheconceptsofprotectionofanimalsandanimalwelfareare541

confused.However,thefirstisahumanactionandthesecondisacharacteristic542

ofananimal.(ii)Theethicalissuesaboutwhetherornotanimalsshouldbekilled543

forhumanbenefitaresometimesperceivedtooverlapwiththeconceptof544

welfarebuttheydonot.Thetermeuthanasiaisoftenmisusedasitshouldbe545

limitedtomeaningthatananimaliskilledforitsownbenefit.(iii)Theconceptof546

healthasakeypartofwelfareratherthanaseparatetopicismisunderstoodby547

many,includingmedicalandveterinaryspecialistswhomaynotbefamiliarwith548

themeaningofwelfare.(iv)Theevolutionofanimalsintheirnatural549

environmenthasledtothemhavingcertainneedsthatmustbemetforwelfare550

tobegood,andgoodconditionsforanimalswillallowthemtofunctionina551

naturalway,i.e.anormalbiologicalway.However,asdiscussedabove,552

naturalnessisnotacomponentofthedefinitionofwelfare.(v)Thedignityofan553

individualisahumanconceptthatmaybeappliedtonon-humananimalsbut554

thereisnoevidencethatotherspecieshavesuchaconcept.Itmaybeusedasan555

argumentfortreatinganimalswellbutitisnothingtodowithwelfare.(vi)The556

integrityofananimal,inthesenseofitswholeness,hassomebiologicalbasis557

andissometimesusedtocriticiseremovalof,orchangein,anypartofananimal558

includingitsgenotype.Theuseofsuchargumentsmayreducethelikelihoodof559

poorwelfarebuttheconceptitselfisnotconnectedtowelfare.Someofthese560

areasofconfusionwillbecomelesscommonasknowledgeofwelfareandits561

scientificstudybecomesmorewidespread.562

Therewillcontinuetobeareasofdiscussionamongstanimalwelfarescientists.563

Forsome,allcopingsystemsshouldbeconsideredwhenassessingwelfare.For564

others,onlythoseinvolvingfeelingsshouldbeconsidered.Theimportanceof565

tryingtoassessfeelingswillcontinuetobecommongroundforwelfare566

scientists(Dawkins1993,Panksepp1998,Mendletal2004,Pauletal2005,567

Broom2010)butbettermethodologiesforallaspectsofwelfareassessmentwill568

bedeveloped.Onerecentandsignificantdevelopmentinanimalwelfarescience569

hasbeenthesubstantialincreaseinattemptstoassessgoodwelfareina570

scientificway.Thishasbecomefeasiblebecauseofincreasedacceptanceofthe571

validityofmeasuringpositivefeelingsinanimals.StudieslikethoseofBoissyet572

al(2007)andMendletal(2009)areincreasingourunderstandingofanimal573

welfareandpointingtonewmethodsinthefuture.574

Anotherdevelopmentinrelationtowelfareconceptsandapplicationsisthe575

measurementofwelfareonfarmorotherplaceswhereanimalsareused.576

Welfareoutcomeindicatorsthatcanbeusedbyveterinaryinspectors,farmers577

andothershavenowbeenworkedoutwithconsiderableprecision(Welfare578

Quality2009a,b,c).Itislikelythatfurtherprogresswillbemadewithmeasures579

ofpainandotheraspectsofwelfareforusebyanimalwelfarescientists.580

Assessmentsarenowbeingmadeoftheriskofpoorwelfareandtheprobability581

ofbenefitstowelfare(SmuldersandAlgers2009).582

Thenumbersofanimalwelfarescientistsisincreasingrapidly.Thesubjectis583

nowbeingtaughtinallEuropeancountriesandthenumberofuniversitycourses584

onanimalwelfareinBrazilhasincreasedfromonetoover60in15years.The585

diversityofanimalwelfarescienceisincreasingandtheexpansionislikelyto586

continue.ThedecisionbytheAmericanVeterinaryMedicalAssociationto587

promotetheteachingofthesubjectinallAmericanveterinaryschoolswillhavea588

substantialeffect.589

590

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