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Lecture 4

• Chapter 8: Secondary data– For both qualitative and quantitative research projects

• Chapter 9: Primary data– For mainly quantitative research projects

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Chapter 8: Secondary Data

• Data that have already been collected for other purposes, perhaps processed and subsequently stored, are termed secondary data

• Most research projects require some combination of secondary and primary data to answer research question(s) and meet the researcher’s objectives

• Where can we get them? (Figure 8.1)• Other sources (refer to Tables 8.1 to 8.3, pp 255-258)

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Figure 8.1

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Using Secondary Data

• Secondary data can be used in a variety ways:– To provide the main data set;– To provide longitudinal (time-series data);– To provide area-based data;– To compare with, or set in context, research

findings.(p5)

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Secondary Data(cont)

Attention notes:

1. Any secondary data that are used will have been collected for a specific purpose

2. In addition, the secondary data are likely to be less current than any data collected by the researcher (why?)

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How to find it

• Finding the secondary data required is a matter of detective work

• It involves with:1. Establishing whether the sort of data required are

likely to be available;

2. Locating the precise data

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Suitability

• Once located secondary data sources must be assessed to ensure their overall suitability for the research question(s) or objective(s)

• In particular attention must be paid to the

measurement validity and coverage of the data

• How to evaluate? • Pros and Cons

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validity

• Ensure that

– Data match to what u need (since most data may not be measuring it up for what u wanted)

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coverage

• Ensure that (p264):

– Unwanted data are or can be excluded– Sufficient data remain for analyses to be

undertaken once unwanted data have been excluded

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Suitability (cont)

Criteria to use: (Figure 8.2)1. Reliability2. Bias

1. Deliberate distortion of data inaccuracy (for either unintentionally or intentionally)

2. costs and benefits in comparison to alternative sources, such as time and financial resources and will it answer your research questions

Note:when assessing costs and benefits it is important to remember that secondary data that are completely reliable and contain some bias are better than no data at all if they enable the research question(s) to be answered partially and objectives met (p7)

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(Figure 8.2)

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Pros and Cons

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Pros

1. May have fewer resource requirement

2. Unobtrusive3. Longitudinal studies may be

feasible4. Provide comparative and

contextual data5. Result in unforeseen

discoveries6. Permanence of data

(p260)Cons

1. May not match with what you need for your objective(s)

2. Access may be difficult/costly3. Aggregation and definitions

may be unsuitable4. No real control over data

quality5. Initial purpose may affect

how data are presented(p7)

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Chapter 9: Primary data

• Here, we attempt to gain understanding the role that observation may play as data collection method in research design

• Two types of observation:1. Participant observation

2. Structured observation

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Participant observation

• It is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom they are studying

• It may be used in a student placement, or the student may already be a member of an organization that will enable him or her to adopt the role of the practitioner-researcher

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Participant observation(cont)

• Participant observation means that the research adopts a number of potential roles differentiated by the degree to which his or her identity is/is not concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which there is researcher participation in the events being studied

• How it works? (Figure 9.1)

• Which above method is a better? • Data analysis and its result validity (subject to biasness)

• Pros and cons(p13)

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Observing how thingsWorks in office withInvolvement in it, spying!Unethical?

Observing withoutTaking part in it, such As exploratory study

Observe without participate

Observe and participateWith identify revealed

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Participant observationInfluencing factors

Influencing factors (pp 286-288):

1. The purpose of research

2. The time devotion

3. Degree to which you feel the suitability

4. Organizational access

5. Ethical considerations

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Participant observationData Analysis

• A prevalent form of data analysis used in here is analytic induction. (That is to establish what is going on)

• This may lead to an initial hypothesis being re-developed more than once

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Pros and cons

(pp 293, Table 9.1)Pros

1. Good to explain “what is going on”2. Provide insight to social process3. Useful to organizational

management4. Practical real experience/feeling

could be gathered5. All data collected are mostly useful

Cons

1. Time consuming2. Difficult to launch ethical dilemmas3. May consist of “role of conflict”

between being employee and researcher

4. Biasness may exit5. Special skill may required6. Difficulty to access organizations

for participate7. Data recording is difficult

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Structured observation

• It is concerned with the frequency of events.

• It is characterized by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis

• It tells you how often things happened rather than why they happened

• When to apply it? (p21)

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• Answer:• “Time-and-motion” study, data collected from streets/mkt

• Pros and Cons

• How to collect data ?

• How to evaluating its validity and reliability?

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StructuredPros and Cons

(Table 9.2, p298)

Pros

1. Anyone can apply it after some training

2. Can be adopted in different locations for result comparison

3. Highly reliable results because it is actual event

4. Possible to record the relationship between events

5. Data cannot collected at time they occur then based on “second-hand” accounts

6. Secure data that might otherwise be ignored by participants

Cons

1. Observer must be in the setting when phenomena under study are taking place (ie at the site)

2. Results are limited to overt action or surface indicators

3. Data are slow and expensive to collect

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Structured observation (cont)

• A choice may be made between “off the shelf” coding schedule and a schedule that is designed for the purpose of the particular piece of research

• (refer to p297)

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Structured ObservationValidity and Reliability

Treats :(p 301)

1. Subject error– Ensure subjects are performing normal routines

2. Time error– Ensure untypical time is not included in the observation

3. Observer effect– Ensure that the subjects are not conscious of being studied– Remedies: a) minimal interaction

b) habituation (ie adapted to it) (p22)

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