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PowerPointPresentationby Jim Foley

2013 Worth Publishers

Chapter 7Learning

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Types of Learning

Classicalconditioning:learning to link twostimuli in a way thathelps us anticipate

an event to whichwe have a reaction

Operantconditioning:

changing behaviorchoices in response

to consequences

Cognitive learning:acquiring newbehaviors and

information throughobservation andinformation, rather

than by directexperience

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How it works: after repeatedexposure to two stimulioccurring in sequence, weassociate those stimuli with eachother.

Result: our natural response toone stimulus now can betriggered by the new, predictivestimulus.

Associative Learning:Classical Conditioning

Here, our response tothunder becomesassociated withlightning.

Stimulus 1: Seelightning

Stimulus 2: Hearthunder

After Repetition

Stimulus: See lightning

Response: Cover ears to avoid sound

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Child associates his response (behavior) with consequences. Child learns to repeat behaviors (saying please) which were

followed by desirable results (cookie).Child learns to avoid behaviors (yelling gimme!) which were

followed by undesirable results (scolding or loss of dessert).

Associative Learning:Operant Conditioning

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Cognitive LearningCognitive learning refers to acquiring new behaviors

and information mentally, rather than by directexperience.Cognitive learning occurs:1.by observing events and the behavior of others.

2.by using language to acquire information aboutevents experienced by others.

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BehaviorismThe term behaviorism was used by John B. Watson

(1878-1958), a proponent of classical conditioning,as well as by B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a leader inresearch about operant conditioning. Both scientists believed the mental life was much

less important than behavior as a foundation forpsychological science.

Both foresaw applications in controlling humanbehavior:

Skinner conceived ofutopian communities.

Watson went intoadvertising.

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Ivan Pavlovs Discovery

While studying salivation indogs, Ivan Pavlov found thatsalivation from eating foodwas eventually triggered bywhat should have beenneutral stimuli such as:

just seeing the food.

seeing the dish.

seeing the person whobrought the food.

just hearing that persons

footsteps.

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Before Conditioning

No response

Neutralstimulus

(NS)

Neutral stimulus :a stimulus which does not trigger a response

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Unconditionedresponse (UR):dog salivatesUnconditioned

stimulus (US):yummy dog food

Before ConditioningUnconditioned stimulus and response :

a stimulus which triggers a response naturally,before/without any conditioning

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Unconditionedresponse (UR):dog salivates

Neutralstimulus

(NS)Unconditionedstimulus (US)

During ConditioningThe bell/tone (N.S.) is repeatedly presented with

the food (U.S.).

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Conditionedresponse:

dog salivates

After Conditioning

Conditioned(formerlyneutral)stimulus

The dog begins to salivate upon hearing the tone(neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus).

Did you follow the changes?The UR and the CR are thesame response, triggered bydifferent events.

The difference iswhether conditioningwas necessary for theresponse to happen.

The NS and the CS are thesame stimulus.The difference iswhether the stimulustriggers the conditionedresponse.

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Find the US, UR, NS, CS, CR in the following:

Your romantic partner always uses the same

shampoo. Soon, the smell of that shampoo makesyou feel happy.

The door to your house squeaks loudly when youopen it. Soon, your dog begins wagging its tail whenthe door squeaks.

The nurse says, This wont hurt a bit, just beforestabbing you with a needle. The next time you hear

This wont hurt, you cringe in fear.

You have a meal at a fast food restaurant that causesfood poisoning. The next time you see a sign for thatrestaurant, you feel nauseated.

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If the dog becomes conditioned to salivate atthe sound of a bell, can the dog beconditioned to salivate when a lightflashesby associating it with the BELLinstead of with food?

Yes! The conditioned response can betransferred from the US to a CS, then fromthere to another CS.This is higher-order conditioning : turning aNS into a CS by associating it with anotherCS.A man who was conditioned to associate joywith coffee, could then learn to associate joywith a restaurant if he was served coffeethere every time he walked in to therestaurant.

Higher-Order Conditioning

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14

Acquisition

What gets acquired? The association between a neutral

stimulus (NS) and an unconditionedstimulus (US).How can we tell that acquisition has

occurred? The UR now gets triggered by a CS

(drooling now gets triggered by a bell).

Timing

For the association to be acquired,the neutral stimulus (NS) needs torepeatedly appear before theunconditioned stimulus (US)about ahalf-second before, in most cases. The

bell must come right before the food.

Acquisition refers to the initialstage of learning/conditioning.

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Acquisition and Extinction

The strength of a CR grows with conditioning.Extinction refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response. Ifthe US (food) stops appearing with the CS (bell), the CR decreases.

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Spontaneous Recovery [Return of the CR]

After a CR (salivation) has been conditioned and then extinguished: following a rest period, presenting the tone alone might lead to aspontaneous recovery (a return of the conditioned response despite alack of further conditioning) . if the CS (tone) is again presented repeatedly without the US, the CR

becomes extinct again.

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Generalization and DiscriminationPlease notice the narrow, psychological definition .

Ivan Pavlov conditioneddogs to drool whenrubbed; they then alsodrooled when scratched.

Ivan Pavlov conditioned dogsto drool at bells of a certainpitch; slightly differentpitches did not triggerdrooling.

Generalization refers to thetendency to have

conditioned responsestriggered by related stimuli.

MORE stuff makes you drool.

Discrimination refers to thelearned ability to only

respond to a specific stimuli,

preventing generalization.

LESS stuff makes you drool.

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Insights aboutconditioning ingeneral It occurs in all

creatures. It is related tobiological drivesand responses.

Insights aboutscience Learning can be

studiedobjectively, byquantifyingactions andisolatingelements ofbehavior.

Insights fromspecificapplications Substance abuse

involvesconditionedtriggers, andthese triggers(certain places,

events) can beavoided orassociated withnew responses.

Ivan Pavlovs Legacy

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John B. Watson and ClassicalConditioning: Playing with Fear

In 1920, 9-month-old Little Albert was not afraidof rats.

John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner then clangeda steel bar every time a rat was presented toAlbert.

Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalizedthis fear to other soft and furry things.

Watson pridedhimself in his abilityto shape peoplesemotions. He laterwent intoadvertising.

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BeforeConditioning

NS: rat

No fear

UCS: steel bar hitwith hammer

Natural reflex:fear

Little Albert Experiment

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DuringConditioning

NS: rat UCS: steel bar hitwith hammer

Natural reflex:fear

Little Albert Experiment

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AfterConditioning

NS: rat

Conditioned

reflex:fear

Little Albert Experiment

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How it works:

An act of chosen behavior (aresponse) is followed by areward or punitive feedbackfrom the environment.Results:

Reinforced behavior is morelikely to be tried again.Punished behavior is less likely

to be chosen in the future.

Operant Conditioning

Response:balancing a ball Consequence:receivin food Behaviorstren thened

Operant conditioning involves

adjusting to the consequences of ourbehaviors, so we can easily learn todo more of what works, and less ofwhat doesnt work. Examples

We may smile more at work afterthis repeatedly gets us bigger tips.

We learn how to ride a bike usingthe strategies that dont make uscrash.

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B.F. Skinner: Behavioral ControlB. F. Skinner saw potential forexploring and using EdwardThorndikes principles much morebroadly. He wondered:

how can we more carefully

measure the effect ofconsequences on chosenbehavior?

what else can creatures be taughtto do by controllingconsequences?what happens when we changethe timing of reinforcement?

B.F. Skinnertrained pigeons toplay ping pong,and guide a videogame missile.

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B.F. Skinner: The Operant ChamberB. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled

methods of studying conditioning.The operant chamber, often called the Skinner box,allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change inresponse to different rates of reinforcement.

Recording

device

Bar or leverthat an animal

presses,

randomly atfirst, later forreward

Food/water dispenserto provide the reward

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Reinforcement

Reinforcement refers toany feedback from theenvironment that makesa behavior more likelyto recur.

Positive (adding)reinforcement:adding somethingdesirable (e.g.,warmth)Negative (takingaway) reinforcement:ending somethingunpleasant (e.g., the

cold)

For the meerkat,

this warm light isdesirable.

This meerkat has justcompleted a task outin the cold

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A cycle of mutualreinforcement

28

Children who have a temper tantrumwhen they are frustrated may get

positively reinforced for this behaviorwhen parents occasionally respond bygiving in to a childs demands.

Result : stronger, more frequenttantrums

Parents who occasionally give in totantrums may get negativelyreinforced when the child responds byending the tantrum.

Result : parents giving-in behavioris strengthened (giving in soonerand more often)

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Discrimination

Discrimination refers to the abilityto become more and more specificin what situations trigger aresponse.Shaping can increasediscrimination, if reinforcementonly comes for certaindiscriminative stimuli.For examples, dogs, rats, and evenspiders can be trained to search forvery specific smells, from drugs toexplosives.Pigeons, seals, and manatees havebeen trained to respond to specificshapes, colors, and categories.

Bomb-finding rat

Manatee thatselects shapes

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How often should we reinforce?

Do we need to give a reward every single time? Or isthat even best?B.F. Skinner experimented with the effects of givingreinforcements in different patterns or schedulesto determine what worked best to establish andmaintain a target behavior.In continuous reinforcement (giving a reward afterthe target every single time), the subject acquires thedesired behavior quickly.In partial/intermittent reinforcement (givingrewards part of the time), the target behavior takeslonger to be acquired/established but persists longerwithout reward.

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Fixed interval schedule: reward every hourVariable interval schedule:reward after a changing/randomamount of time passes

We may scheduleour reinforcements

based on aninterval of time

that has gone by.

Fixed ratio schedule: reward every five targeted behaviorsVariable ratio schedule: rewardafter a randomly chosen instanceof the target behavior

We may plan for a

certain ratio ofrewards pernumber of

instances of thedesired behavior.

Different Schedules ofPartial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Which Schedule of Reinforcement is This?

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Which Schedule of Reinforcement is This?Ratio or Interval?Fixed or Variable?

1. Rat gets food every third time it presses the lever

2. Getting paid weekly no matter how much work is done

3. Getting paid for every ten boxes you make

4. Hitting a jackpot sometimes on the slot machine5. Winning sometimes on the lottery you play once a day

6. Checking cell phone all day; sometimes getting a text

7. Buy eight pizzas, get the next one free

8. Fundraiser averages one donation for every eight housesvisited

9. Kid has tantrum, parents sometimes give in

10. Repeatedly checking mail until paycheck arrives

FRFIFR

VRVI/VRVIFR

VR

VRFI

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Rapid respondingnear time for

reinforcement

Fixed interval

Rapidrespondingnear time for

reinforcement

Fixed interval

Results of the different schedules of reinforcementWhich reinforcements produce more

responding (more target behavior)?

Fixed interval: slow,unsustained respondingIf Im only paid for mySaturday work, Im notgoing to work as hard onthe other days.

Variable interval : slow,consistent respondingIf I never know which daymy lucky lottery numberwill pay off, I better play itevery day.

Steadyresponding

Variable interval

Eff ti f th ti h d l f

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Reinforcers

Effectiveness of the ratio schedules ofReinforcement

Fixed ratio : high rate ofrespondingBuy two drinks, get one

free? Ill buy a lot of them! Variable ratio : high,consistent responding,even if reinforcementstops (resists extinction)If the slot machine

sometimes pays, Ill pullthe lever as many times as

possible because it may pay this time!

Variable ratio

Fixed ratio

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Operant Effect: PunishmentPunishments have the opposite effects of reinforcement.

These consequences make the target behavior less likelyto occur in the future.

+ PositivePunishment

You ADD somethingunpleasant/aversive(ex: spank the child)

- NegativePunishment

You TAKE AWAYsomething pleasant/

desired (ex: no TVtime, no attention)--

MINUS is thenegative here

Positive does not mean good or desirable and

negative does not mean bad or undesirable.

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When is punishmenteffective?

Punishment works best in naturalsettings when we encounterpunishing consequences fromactions such as reaching into a fire;in that case, operant conditioning

helps us to avoid dangers.Punishment is effective when wetry to artificially create punishingconsequences for others choices;these work best when

consequences happen as they doin nature.Severity of punishments is not

as helpful as making thepunishments immediate and

certain .

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Punished behaviors may restart whenthe punishment is over; learning is notlasting.Instead of learning behaviors , the childmay learn to discriminate amongsituations , and avoid those in whichpunishment might occur.Instead of behaviors , the child mightlearn an attitude of fear or hatred ,which can interfere with learning. Thiscan generalize to a fear/hatred of alladults or many settings.Physical punishment models aggressionand control as a method of dealingwith problems.

Applying operant conditioning to parentingProblems with Physical Punishment

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Dont think about the beach

Dont think about the waves, thesand, the towels and sunscreen,the sailboats and surfboards.Dont think about the beach.

Are you obeying theinstruction? Would you obeythis instruction more if youwere punished for thinkingabout the beach?

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Problem:Punishing focuses on what NOT to do, which does notguide people to a desired behavior.

Even if undesirable behaviors do stop, anotherproblem behavior may emerge that serves the samepurpose, especially if no replacement behaviors aretaught and reinforced.

Lesson:In order to teach desired

behavior, reinforce whatsright more often thanpunishing whats wrong.

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More effective forms of operant conditioning The Power of Rephrasing

Positive punishment: Youreplaying video games instead ofpracticing the piano, so I am

justified in YELLING at you.

Negative punishment: Youreavoiding practicing, so Im turningoff your game. Negative reinforcement: I willstop staring at you and buggingyou as soon as I see that you arepracticing. Positive reinforcement: Afteryou practice, well play a game!

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Summary: Types of Consequences

Adding stimuli Subtract stimuli Outcome

Positive +Reinforcement

(You get candy)

Negative Reinforcement

(I stop yelling)

Strengthenstarget behavior

(You do chores)Positive +

Punishment

(You get spanked)

Negative Punishment

(No cell phone)

Reduces targetbehavior

(cursing)

= uses desirablestimuli

= uses unpleasantstimuli

M O t C diti i A li ti

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More Operant Conditioning ApplicationsParenting

1.Rewarding small improvements toward desired behaviors worksbetter than expecting complete success, and also works better thanpunishing problem behaviors.2.Giving in to temper tantrums stops them in the short run butincreases them in the long run.

Self-ImprovementReward yourself for steps youtake toward your goals. As youestablish good habits, thenmake your rewards moreinfrequent (intermittent).

R l f Bi l i C diti i

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Role of Biology in Conditioning

Classical ConditioningJohn Garcia and others found it was easierto learn associations that make sense forsurvival.Food aversions can be acquired even if theUR (nausea) does NOT immediately followthe NS. When acquiring food aversionsduring pregnancy or illness, the bodyassociates nausea with whatever food waseaten.

Males in one study were more likely to seea pictured woman as attractive if thepicture had a red border.Quail can have a sexual response linked to afake quail more readily and strongly than toa red light.

C iti P

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In classical conditioning In operant conditioning

Cognitive Processes

When the dog salivates at thebell, it may be due to cognition(learning to predict, evenexpect, the food).Conditioned responses canalter attitudes, even when we

know the change is caused byconditioning.However, knowing that ourreactions are caused byconditioning gives us theoption of mentally breaking the

association, e.g. deciding thatnausea associated with a foodaversion was actually caused byan illness.Higher-order conditioninginvolves some cognition; the

name of a food may triggersalivation.

In fixed-intervalreinforcement, animals domore targetbehaviors/responses aroundthe time that the reward ismore likely, as if expecting thereward.Expectation as a cognitive skillis even more evident in theability of humans to respondto delayed reinforcers such asa paycheck.

Higher-order conditioning canbe enabled with cognition;e.g., seeing something such asmoney as a reward because ofits indirect value.Humans can set behavioral

goals for self and others, andplan their own reinforcers.

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Learning, Rewards, and Motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers tothe desire to perform abehavior well for its own sake .The reward is internalized as afeeling of satisfaction.Extrinsic motivation refers todoing a behavior to receiverewards from others .Intrinsic motivation cansometimes be reduced byexternal rewards, and can beprevented by usingcontinuous reinforcement.One principle for maintainingbehavior is to use as few

rewards as possible, and fadethe rewards over time.

What might happenif we begin toreward a behaviorsomeone wasalready doing andenjoying?

L i b Ob i

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Learning by ObservationCan we learn new behaviors and skills without conditioning

and reward?Yes, and one of the ways we do so is by observationallearning: watching what happens when other people do abehavior and learning from their experience .Skills required: mirroring , being able to picture ourselves

doing the same action , and cognition , noticing consequencesand associations .

ModelingThe behavior of others serves as a model, anexample of how to respond to a situation ; we may trythis model regardless of reinforcement.

VicariousConditioning

Vicarious: experienced indirectly, through othersVicarious reinforcement and punishment meansour choices are affected as we see others getconsequences for their behaviors.

Observational Learning Processes

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Albert Banduras Bobo Doll Experiment (1961) Kids saw adults punching an inflated doll while narrating

their aggressive behaviors such as kick him. These kids were then put in a toy- deprived situationand acted out the same behaviors they had seen.

h

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Mirroring in the BrainWhen we watch others doing or feeling something,

neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we weredoing the action or having the feeling ourselves .These neurons are referred to as mirror neurons ,and they fire only to reflect the actions or feelings of

others .

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From Mirroring to ImitationHumans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both

behaviors and emotions (emotional contagion). This includes even overimitating , that is, copying adultbehaviors that have no function and no reward.Children with autism are less likely to cognitively mirror,and less likely to follow someone elses gaze as a

neurotypical toddler (left) is doing below.

Mi i Pl Vi i R i f t

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Mirroring Plus Vicarious ReinforcementMirroring enables observational learning; we cognitivelypractice a behavior just by watching it.

If you combine this with vicarious reinforcement, we areeven more likely to get imitation.Monkey A saw Monkey B getting a banana after pressingfour symbols. Monkey A then pressed the same four symbols

(even though the symbols were in different locations).

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Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning

Prosocial behaviorrefers to actionswhich benefit others,contribute value togroups, and followmoral codes andsocial norms.Parents try to teachthis behavior throughlectures , but it maybe taught bestthrough modeling especially if kids cansee the benefits ofthe behavior tooneself or others.

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Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning

What happens when we learnfrom models who demonstrateantisocial behavior , actions thatare harmful to individuals andsociet y?

Children who witness violence intheir homes, but are not physicallyharmed themselves, may hateviolence but still may becomeviolent more often than theaverage child.Perhaps this is a result of theBobo doll effect? Under stress,we do what has been modeled forus.

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Media Models of Violence

Do we learnantisocialbehaviorsuch asviolencefrom indirectobservationsof others inthe media?

Research shows that viewing media violence leads toincreased aggression (fights) and reduced prosocial behavior(such as helping an injured person) .This violence-viewing effect might be explained by imitation ,