1 Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley Artisan
Transcript of 1 Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley Artisan
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Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley Artisan SakeMaker Inc.
Guiding Principles for Rice Production in the Fraser Valley
Artisan SakeMaker Inc.
February, 2013
Introduction
Sake is a traditional Japanese beverage that is produced through the fermentation of rice.
Currently, sake production in BC depends on the import of rice from other countries.
Therefore, to produce 100 percent local sake products, local production of premium-quality
sake rice is required. There is some organic wild rice produced in Canada, but this is a different
class of food product than sake rice. Therefore, production of sake-quality rice varieties in
Canada is a novel endeavor. A need currently exists to address the agricultural and processing
challenges to producing local rice with the quality characteristics required to make a British
Columbian premium sake product. There is a market for sake in BC, Canada and across North
America and there are facilities and expertise for its production in BC, but there is no supply of
local rice.
Local rice production is pertinent to the pressing global need for food security and the national
issue of food sovereignty. Namely, local production of food and beverage products is of
immediate and long-term importance to the sustainability of Canadian agricultural production,
environmentally, socially and economically. Specifically, reducing the food miles attached to
products that are consumed in Canada is primarily of importance to the environment, but it is
also of importance to society as a whole since increased awareness of environmental issues
continues to drive demand for local products. Economically speaking, the ability to efficiently
utilize BC’s limited agricultural land for the production of primary products (that can be
processed into value-added, premium-quality goods) is a vital strategy for maintaining the
competitiveness of Canada’s agricultural industry. As well, during difficult economic times,
Canada’s self-sufficiency in agricultural production and processing capacity helps to maintain a
robust and resilient economy. Agricultural and processing diversity is a key-stone feature of a
healthy economy, which is the basis of national food sovereignty. The most effective strategy
for Canada’s future success is the development of local, value-added, premium-quality products
that efficiently utilize Canada’s agricultural land-base, its integrated processing capacity and
competitive marketing atmosphere.
Preliminary investigations into the viability of local sake rice production in various regions of
British Columbia motivated scientific trials to adapt rice production to the local climate. In
2012, determining field-production techniques that can be used to produce the equivalent of at
least 2,250 lbs of rice per acre of land, while providing adequate grain quality to make
premium-quality sake, was set as the goal. Abbotsford was chosen as a suitable location for the
development of agricultural practices for the efficient production of sake rice (Figure 1).
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Figure 1: The field of rice grown in Abbotsford in 2012 with a paper hawk bird-scare floating in the wind. Photo
taken on September 19, 2012.
Research and Development Conducted in 2012:
1. Germination Trials:
An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of three pre-germination steeping
treatments, three germination growing media and two heating treatments on seedling
germination. Efficient germination of seedlings in the greenhouse is the foundation to cost-
effectively establishing a field of rice through transplanting of small plants.
Steeping is the process of soaking grains before germination. A growing medium is the
substrate in which the grains are germinated. Bottom heating is the use of artificial heat
beneath germinating grains to speed their development.
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2. Methods of field production:
A 1.88 acre field with raised edges and an isle way running north to south was used for both
production of rice in 2012 and field trials to improve production methods. The northernmost
portion of the field was used for these experimental plots, being comprised of an east and west
portion, divided by the raised isle way. Seedlings for use in the field-based trials were produced
by a commercial greenhouse company and taken to greenhouse facilities (Figure 2).
Plots were 1.2 by 1.5 meters with 0.8 m between rows of plots and 0.5 m between plots within
each row (Figure 3). This provided a buffer isle between each plot. For the transplanted plants,
spacing was at 20 cm between rows and 15 cm between plants for a total of six rows of ten
plants (60 plants total). Plots were planted by hand on May 11 and 12 into approximately one
inch of standing water in the completely flooded field. Four replications of each combination of
the following experimental variables were used:
a. Three different varieties: Varieties “G”, “N” and “S”.
b. Two irrigation regimes: Irrigation water was supplied from a nearby creek,
being pumped through pipes to the field and delivered through PVC pipes
with holes in the sides.
i. Flooded: Constant high water levels were used to provide flood
irrigation throughout the growing season.
ii. Dry-land: After the establishment period of six weeks, water levels
were permitted to drop until the point of soil cracking before flush
irrigation was used to bring water levels to the same level as for the
flooded plots. Subsequently, water levels were permitted to recede
again until the cracking point before irrigating again.
c. Three fertilizer treatments:
i. Control: Before field establishment, a base rate of fertilizer with a
basic analysis of 104 lbs of nitrogen per acre, 86 lbs of phosphorus
and 24 of potassium and sulfur.
ii. 10 lbs additional nitrogen: A 24.4-14-16 granular fertilizer was
applied to plots at a rate of 10 lbs of nitrogen per acre. These
applications were made on July 25.
iii. 20 lbs additional nitrogen: As above, a rate of 20 lbs of nitrogen per
acre was applied on July 25.
d. Two establishment methods:
i. Seeding: Seeds of each variety were pre-germinated using a 250C
steeping bath for 36 hours prior to the planting date. Approximately
100 seeds were scattered into the water within the bounds of the
plot.
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ii. Transplanted: By hand, one or two rice plants were transplanted
from the trays of plants into the mud at the appropriate spacing using
a wooden lattice as a spacing guide.
e. Row-cover experiment:
i. Without: Plots were left to the open air.
ii. With: A sheet of white Remay fabric row-cover was placed over the
transplanted seedlings directly after planting, being tucked into the
mud around the edges of the plots using wooden stakes. This fabric
was left in place for six weeks during the establishment period of the
plants.
Figure 2 (left): Trays of seedlings as they acclimate to external conditions in field water. Figure 3 (right): Recently
transplanted plots of rice seedlings with marker flags on the edges of each plot. Photos taken on May 12, 2012.
Reflective tape was used to crisscross the field for bird protection. Paper hawks, owl figurines
and several different types of reflective scare device were used to protect the field (Figure 4).
Toward the end of the season, an auditory bird distress call device was installed in the field to
protect the ripening grain.
After planting, water levels were raised to two inches and slowly increased as the plants
established and continued to grow until June 28 (Figure 5). At this point, the row-cover
treatments were removed and differential irrigation treatments were commenced. Flood
irrigation required constant high levels of water while dry-land irrigation cycled between
completely dry soil and flushes of irrigation (Figures 6 and 7).
Fields were weeded by hand in July, August and September. Hand sickles were used to cut the
base of weeds within plots, which permitted the rice plants to out-compete and grow
vigorously. Weeds around the edges of the field were controlled via gas weed eater.
Pest and disease issues, as well as general field conditions, were monitored periodically, with
disease samples being submitted for identification to the BC Ministry of Agriculture
laboratories. Water tests were conducted at a commercial laboratory in August and compared
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to values taken before the season. The pH, electrical conductivity, temperature and depth of
water was measured weekly from July 25 to September 25.
Harvest of the research plots was conducted with the help of a crew of university students from
the University of the Fraser Valley (Figures 8 and 9). Using sickle knives, the plants from each
plot was harvested, placed in plastic bags, labeled and transported to polyhouse facilities. For
the main production field, a machine harvester was used to cut and tie the sheaves of rice
(Figure 10).
Each plot of rice plants was kept separate and arranged on benches in a polyhouse. Air drying
was conducted for two weeks before threshing. A hand-threshing machine was used to remove
the grain from the stalks of rice for each plot. The total yield of each plot was measured in
grams and then a 250 mL sample of rice from each plot was used for quality analysis. Using a
small grain polishing mill (Figure 11), small subsamples of rice from each plot were prepared for
quality rating (Figure 12). Each sample was subjectively scored for four quality parameters:
size, greenness, colour and cracking/defects. The combined scores for these parameters were
added to produce a range of relative scores for each plot.
Figure 4 (left): An owl figurine bird-scare device in the rice field as the harvest approached. Photo taken on
September 19, 2012. Figure 5 (right): Flood irrigation of a plot of transplanted rice as plants become fully
established. Photo taken on June 28, 2012.
Figure 6: Dry-land irrigation with soil at the point of cracking. Photo taken on August 15, 2012.
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Figure 7: Dry-land irrigation after application of flush irrigation. Photo taken on August 15, 2012.
Figure 8 (left): Plots of rice on the day of harvest. Figure 9 (right): Sheaves of rice after being harvested by hand.
Photos taken on October 6, 2012.
Figure 10: Mechanical harvesting of the main production field of rice. Photo taken on October 6, 2012.
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Figure 11 (left): Grain polishing mill used for rice quality analysis. Figure 12 (right): Part of a rice sample used for
quality rating. Photos taken on November 10, 2012.
Cautionary Note:
All results and recommendations are based on initial research trials in a novel area of study.
Each response to treatments must be understood as the observation of a single year of trials, at
a single location and using a relatively basic set of experimental parameters on just three
varieties of rice. These recommendations are meant as guidelines to direct future research and
production efforts and are not meant as decisive or broadly applicable experimental findings.
No guarantee of grain yield or quality is given since the results of each year of production will
depend on the prevailing weather conditions, physical conditions of the field and the actual
timings and methods of field management. In 2012, weather conditions were unusually cool
and wet until early July and unusually warm and dry into October. Both may have helped with
the success that was achieved in this one year.
Guidelines for Rice Production Resulting from Research:
1. Germination trials:
For fast germination of the majority of rice grains, steeping treatment of 36 hours at 250C and
seeding into a 75:25 peat to perlite growing medium with bottom heat should be applied.
2. Methods of field production:
The seeding method completely failed in the 2012 growing season. In previous years, seeding
had been successful as an establishment method. For climatic and/or field condition reasons,
the seeded plots did not establish well in this year`s trials, resulting in low numbers of
shortened plants with little grain yield and relatively poor grain quality. On the other hand,
transplanting worked very well as an establishment method. Transplanting is recommended
for establishment of all varieties of rice.
All three varieties have the potential to produce sufficient yield to be of use in the Fraser Valley,
yielding the equivalent of 2,773 (variety G), 3,949 (variety N) and 2,159 (variety S) lbs of grain
per acre when transplanted. If maximal yield are the goal, variety N is recommended for full-
scale field production.
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The results for different combinations of fertilizer and irrigation treatments varied for the
different varieties. For production of variety G, dry-land irrigation with a treatment of 20 lbs
of additional N (per acre equivalent) is recommended though flood irrigation with the control
or 10 lbs of additional N may be more feasible from a production standpoint. For production
of variety N, flood irrigation with a treatment of 20 lbs of additional N may be used to achieve
the highest yields. For production of variety S, flood irrigation with the control or a
treatment of 10 lbs of additional N may be used to achieve the highest yields.
The row-cover treatment decreased yields for all combinations of varieties and irrigation
methods. Therefore, the row-cover treatment is not recommended for the Fraser Valley as it
tended to smother the plants under the heavy rain conditions during the establishment
period.
3. Field Management and Monitoring:
a. Algae:
Once temperatures began to rise in mid-June, algal blooms became evident (Figure 13 and 14).
Several species of algae grew quickly in the relatively stagnant water of the rice field where the
water temperature was warm and nutrients were in abundance. Despite the presence of these
algal species throughout the growing season, the rice plants did not appear impeded. Tillering
had commenced before the algal populations began to increase and so it is suspected that the
plants were able to outcompete. Without registered algicides in Canada, no control methods
were recommended.
With the onset of differential irrigation treatments, algae in the west (dry-land) section of the
field were highly reduced as the drying cycle resulted in algal death. The algae persisted in the
flooded section of the field. Since yields in the flooded plots were greater than under the dry-
land irrigation, the algae could not have had a very strong impact on the growth of the rice.
This cannot be said for certain since a comparison of flood irrigated plants with and without
algae was not made.
It is recommended that investigation into the actual need for control methods be made. If
future results indicate a negative effect of algae then control methods should be pursued, but
these results provide no such indication.
Figure 13 (left): Algae growing in the water around the base of transplanted seedlings at the end of the
establishment period. Photo taken on June 28, 2012. Figure 14 (right): Close-up shot of two species of algae
growing near the end of the season. Photo taken on September 14, 2012.
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b. Weeds:
During the establishment period, several weed species took advantage of high water levels
when the rice plots were too recently established to safely weed without disturbing their
establishing root systems. The majority of these weeds were aquatic sedge and grass species.
Once water levels were permitted to temporarily recede, weeding with a hand sickle was highly
effective in removing the majority of the shoot growth of these weeds. This set the weeds back
enough to permit the rice to continue to outcompete. Complete removal of these weeds from
the ground usually proved too difficult due because the field was composed of hardened mud
with very little structure due to standing water conditions during establishment. A specialized
hand-propelled weeding implement (Figure 15) is also available for weeding large sections of
fields, plowing weeds into the mud. This method was not compared for efficiency with hand
weeding using the sickle, but it is clearly intended for managing weeds of a smaller size than
can be managed by sickle.
It is recommended that weeding be avoided during the establishment period and that the
hand-propelled weeding implement be used between rows if weeds are not large and a hand
sickle be used if weeds are large when conditions permit field operations.
Figure 15: Hand-propelled weeding implement for turning smaller weeds into the mud between rice rows. Photo
taken on August 15, 2012.
c. Insects:
Observations of insect pests were made throughout the season. Among other classes, fruit
flies, fungus gnats, mosquitoes and aphids were observed (Figures 16 and 17). The first three
classes were all expected due to the relatively stagnant water and a nearby milk protein
transfer facility. Their effect was not deemed detrimental to the development of the rice crop.
Initial concern over the presence of aphids was later deemed unnecessary as the number of
infestations did not increase to more than 5 or 10 percent of the plants; no significant effects of
the plants’ ability to grow and develop were noticed; and the levels did not enter an
exponential phase, perhaps due to preferred hosts in the developing corn field to the east or
the presence of abundant biological controls in the brush and grasslands to the north. In fact, it
was observed that the aphids preferred some of the weeds species in the perimeter of the field,
such as broad-leaved plantain.
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Though some repellant spray products (e.g., garlic extract) are available, no effective control
chemical is registered on rice in Canada. Therefore, these observations provide no indication
of the need for registration of chemical sprays at this time. Rather, continued field
observation over multiple years will provide a better understanding of the future needs for
integrated pest management in rice.
Figure 16: Insect larvae growing in the stagnant, warm and nitrified waters of the rice plots. Photo taken on
September 14, 2012. Figure 17: Aphids living on a broad-leaved plantain weed at the edge of the field. Photo
taken on September 26, 2012.
d. Birds:
In the experimental plots, reflective tape effectively discouraged ducks and geese from eating
the young rice plants as they established. In the main production field, with more area to
protect, the application of a variety of visual deterrents to birds were effective during the
establishment period.
Later on, during grain development, large groups of starlings were seen entering the fields since
the long-standing visual control methods had lost their novel effect. Since starlings are
primarily insectivores, only feeding on grain when their preferred food is not present, their
presence was not a great concern. They were most likely feeding on the abundant insects
growing in the water and on the plants. Only a small amount of bird damage was estimated
from the plots of rice in this research trial. The producer did purchase an auditory bird distress
call machine, which helped to keep some birds out of the field, but was not entirely effective.
Control of birds should be maintained to avoid attracting species that will readily switch to
rice as a food supply and to reduce plant losses during the establishment phase. Visual
controls using reflective tape and predatory bird figurines as well as auditory bird distress call
machines should be deployed at strategic times during the season.
e. Diseases:
Three distinct sets of disease symptoms of concern were noted in the field. Again, since no
chemical control methods are registered for rice in Canada, these observations were made
merely to direct future efforts in integrated pest management.
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The first type of symptom (Figures 18 and 19) was a premature bolting with elongated stems
and whitish panicles. The panicles are empty and chlorotic while the entire plant tends to fall
over and die. The BC Ministry of Agriculture’s plant pathology lab did not detect this fungus, but
the presence of a bacterial infection in the panicle was detected. This bacteria was cultured
and identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens, which is not a disease causing organism but a
common epiphyte of plant surfaces. Further incubation revealed the presence of Alternaria sp.
and Cladosporium sp., the former of which is known to cause leaf spot in rice (see below). The
cause of the bolting was not confirmed by these examinations.
Another sample of plants with these same symptoms (Figure 20) was submitted with the
inclusion of a sample of the base of the plant. Fungal growth, appearing to spread by spores
was observed at the base of the plant. The plant pathology lab used polymerase chain reaction
to determine the presence of Fusarium proliferatum, which is known to cause seedling blight
and root rot in rice. The destruction of the root system is potentially the cause of the above
ground stem elongation and chlorotic/empty panicles.
No recommendation for control is indicated, but future evaluation of the severity of this
disease should be made to determine if future control methods are required.
Figure 18 (left): Disease symptom of bolting of stems. Figure 19 (centre): Disease symptom of empty panicles
associated with bolting. Figure 20 (right): Disease symptom of fungal growth around the base of the plant
associated with bolting and chlorotic panicles. Photos taken on August 15, 2012.
The second type of symptom was a rust-like blotching and black powdery spots on the leaf
blades with leaf tip burn at the ends (Figures 21 and 22). The plant pathology lab incubated
and identified three leaf spot fungi: Ascochyta ap., Alternaria sp. and Cercosproa sp. The
growth of black powdery spots was determined to be due to Epicoccum sp. These symptoms
did not seem to affect the plant’s ability to produce grain.
Foreseeably, such fungal infections could increase in severity over multiple years of rice
production. If it were to become an agronomically important issue, investigation into
fungicides for future registration would be recommended.
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Figure 40 (left): Rust-like blotching on leaf. Figure 41 (right): Leaf tip burn with small black powdery
spots. Photos taken on August 9, 2012.
The third type of symptom (Figures 23, 24 and 25) was browning/blackening of florets and
subsequent signs of necrosis. The plant pathology lab detected bacterial infection, but only
found Pseudomonas fluorescens, which is not a plant parasite. Physical damage, due to low
temperature or excessive rainfall or humidity, may have resulted in proliferation of
opportunistic plant parasites. Upon evaluation of grain quality, it was found that only the most
severely darkened husks resulted in damage to the actual grain within. Therefore, this
darkening, though prevalent, may not be agronomically important.
As for the second set of symptoms, future work should focus on evaluation of the actual
agronomic impact of these disease symptoms and isolation of its root causes. Only then
should control methods be pursued.
Figure 42 (left): A healthy rice panicle. Figure 43 (centre): A rice panicle with browning of florets. Figure 44
(right): A symptomatic sample submitted to the plant pathology lab. Photos taken on August 9, 2012.
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Acknowledgements:
Funding for this project has been provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada through the
Canadian Agricultural Adaptation Program (CAAP). In British Columbia, this program is
delivered by the Investment Agriculture Foundation of BC.
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) is committed to working with industry partners.
Opinions expressed in this document are those of Artisan SakeMaker Inc. and not necessarily
those of AAFC.