Page 1 of 27

011700 ENGLISH FOR EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Unit 4 Essential Grammar Rules

Elements of Sentence Construction 1. Subjects and Predicates Parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are put together in a sentence. A noun or pronoun functions as the sentence subject when it is paired with a verb functioning as the sentence predicate. Every sentence has a subject and predicate. A subject can be a noun or pronoun that is partnered with an action verb. Example:

Sometimes a verb will express being or existence instead of action. Example:

Page 2 of 27 Sometimes we use sentences in which a subject is not actually stated, but is, nevertheless, understood in the meaning. Example:

A sentence like this gives an order or a request to someone.

Because we use such statements when we are talking directly to someone, we omit the word you. It is understood in the sentence. Therefore, in statements like this one, we say the subject is you (understood). This kind of sentence is an imperative sentence. A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject's action or state of being. Example:

Page 3 of 27 Sometimes the predicate will be composed of two or three verbs that fit together - the main verb preceded by one or more auxiliary (helping) verbs.

IMPORTANT NOTE: To be a predicate, a verb that ends in -ing must ALWAYS have a helping verb with it. An -ing verb WITHOUT a helping verb cannot be a predicate in a sentence. A subject and predicate may not always appear together or in the normal order, as the following examples show:

Page 4 of 27 2. Phrases A phrase is a group of related words that: (1) does not express a complete thought; and (2) does not have a subject and predicate pair One type of phrase is a prepositional phrase. Examples:

Another kind of phrase is a verbal phrase. Examples:

Even though these phrases contain nouns (pronouns) and/or verb forms, none of the nouns/pronouns/verbs are subjects or predicates. None of them work as a partnership. Also, these phrases do NOT express complete thoughts. 3. Clauses Words and phrases can be put together to make clauses. A clause is a group of related words that contain a subject and predicate. Note the difference between phrases and clauses in the following examples:

Page 5 of 27 Only one of the clauses is a sentence. Clause #1 gives a thought or an idea that is COMPLETE, that can stand by itself, independent of other words. However, clause #2 gives an INCOMPLETE thought or idea, one that cannot stand by itself, one that needs some more words to make it whole. The word after changes the meaning, making the thought incomplete. After reading this clause, we are left hanging.

These two clauses illustrate the two kinds of clauses:

independent clauses and dependent clauses An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject, a predicate, and a complete thought. A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate, but does NOT express a complete thought. 4. Compounding Sentence Elements Words, phrases, and clauses may be joined to one another inside a sentence with a conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, and nor may join subjects, predicates, adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases or dependent clauses within a sentence. This process is called "compounding." The following examples show the process of compounding

Page 6 of 27 WORDS

PHRASES

DEPENDENT CLAUSES

When entire independent clauses (simple sentences) are joined this way, they become compound sentences.

Page 7 of 27 5. Avoiding Fragments A complete sentence needs only two elements:

a subject - predicate unit AND a complete thought In other words, a simple sentence is actually the SAME thing as an independent clause. Dependent clauses or phrases are called fragments because they are missing one or more parts needed to make a sentence. Therefore, they are only pieces or fragments of complete sentences. Look at these examples:

6. Avoiding Comma Splices and Fused Sentences Sometimes two independent clauses (simple sentences) can be joined to form another kind of sentence: the compound sentence. Two major errors can occur when constructing compound sentences. Error #1: The Comma Splice Writers make this error when they try to separate the two independent clauses in a compound sentence with a comma alone.

Page 8 of 27 A comma is not a strong enough punctuation mark to separate the two independent clauses by itself; thus, using it causes the clauses to be spliced together. Example of a comma splice:

This sentence can be repaired in three ways: (1) by adding an appropriate coordinating conjunction

(2) by changing the comma to a semicolon

(3) by changing the punctuation and adding an appropriate conjunctive adverb

Error #2: The Fused Sentence Writers make this error by joining two independent clauses into a compound sentence without using any punctuation between them. No punctuation between the two independent clauses causes them to "fuse" into an INCORRECT compound sentence. Example of a fused sentence:

Page 9 of 27 This sentence is also repaired in three ways: (1) by adding a comma and an appropriate coordinating conjunction

(2) by placing a semicolon between the two clauses

(3) by adding the needed punctuation and an appropriate conjunctive adverb

Another way to repair a comma splice or fused sentence is to make each independent clause into a simple sentence.

Kinds of Sentences and Their Punctuation

A sentence may be one of four kinds, depending upon the number and type(s) of clauses it contains.

Review:

An independent clause contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

Page 10 of 27 A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but no complete thought.

1. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has one independent clause.

Punctuation note: NO commas separate two compound elements (subject, verb, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, etc.) in a simple sentence. 2. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined by

A. a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), B. a conjunctive adverb (e.g. however, therefore), or C. a semicolon alone

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, and C above):

A. Independent clause, coordinating conjunction independent clause.

B. Independent clause; conjunctive adverb, independent clause.

C. Independent clause; independent clause

Page 11 of 27 3. A COMPLEX SENTENCE has one dependent clause (headed by a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun) joined to an independent clause.

Punctuation patterns (to match A, B, C and D above):

A. Dependent clause, independent clause

B. Independent clause dependent clause

C. Independent, nonessential dependent clause, clause. D. Independent essential dependent clause clause.

4. A COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE has two independent clauses joined to one or more dependent clauses. Punctuation patterns: Follow the rules given above for compound and complex sentences. A compound-complex sentence is merely a combination of the two.

5. CONNECTORS, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

Two independent clauses may be joined by

1. Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) IC, and IC. 2. Conjunctive adverbs IC; therefore, IC. A dependent (subordinate) clause may be introduced by

1. Subordinating conjunctions (ADVERB CLAUSE) DC, IC. or IC DC.

2. Relative pronouns (ADJECTIVE CLAUSE) I, DC, C. or I DC C.

3. Relative pronoun, subordinating conjunctions, or adverbs (NOUN CLAUSE)

Page 12 of 27

Sentence Patterns Just about all sentences in the English language fall into ten patterns determined by the presence and functions of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The patterns are most easily classified according to the type of verb used:

Verb of being patterns (1, 2, 3) use a form of the verb to be as the main verb in the sentence.

is are was were has been have been had been

Linking verb patterns (4, 5) use one of the linking verbs as the main verb in the sentence. The linking verb is followed by a noun or adjective functioning as a subjective complement.

smell taste look feel seem become appear grow

Action verb patterns (6, 7, 8, 9, 10) use one of the many action verbs as the main verb in the sentence. The action verb may be either transitive (take a direct object) or intransitive (not take a direct object).

see jump embrace write imagine buy plummet think etc.

Terms used to identify various parts of each sentence pattern include the following:

NP = noun phrase This abbreviation refers to a headword noun and its modifiers ("noun phrase") functioning as a subject, direct object, indirect object, subjective complement, or objective complement.

NP1, NP2, NP3, etc. = designations for different noun phrase functions

Numbers in sequential order are used with each NP to designate its difference from or similarity to other NPs before and after it.

V-be = verb of being

LV = linking verb

V-int = intransitive verb

V-tr = transitive verb

ADV/TP = adverbial of time or place

ADJ = adjective

Page 13 of 27 THE TEN SENTENCE PATTERNS 1. NP1 + V-be + ADV/TP

The verb of being is followed by an adverb indicating where or when.

The adverbial indicating where or when may be a prepositional phrase.

2. NP1 + V-be + ADJ The verb of being is followed by an adjective that functions as the subjective complement.

The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional phrase.

Page 14 of 27 3. NP1 + V-be + NP1

The verb of being is followed by a noun that functions as the subjective complement.

Note: The second NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP because the second NP, the subjective complement, is the same as the subject (Mr. James = teacher).

4. NP1 + LV + ADJ

The linking verb is followed by an adjective functioning as a subjective complement.

The adjectival functioning as the subjective complement may be a prepositional phrase.

Page 15 of 27 5. NP1 + LV + NP1

The linking verb is followed by a noun functioning as a subjective complement.

Note: The second NP receives the same numerical designation as the first NP because the second NP, the subjective complement, is the same as the subject (Joan = Buddhist).

6. NP1 + V-int

The action verb takes no direct object.

Even if the action verb is followed by a prepositional phrase, the verb is still intransitive as long as it does not take a direct object.

Page 16 of 27 7. NP1 + V-tr + NP2

The action verb is followed by a direct object.

Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1).

8. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP3

The action verb is followed by an indirect object and then a direct object.

Note: The indirect object and the direct object each receive a new numerical designation because each is different from the other and both are different from the subject.

9. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + ADJ

The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct object is followed by an adjective functioning as an objective complement.

Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1).

Page 17 of 27 10. NP1 + V-tr + NP2 + NP2

The action verb is followed by a direct object. The direct object is followed by a noun functioning as an objective complement.

Note: The second NP, the direct object, receives a different numerical designation (NP2) because it is not the same as the subject (NP1). The third NP, the objective complement, receives the same numerical designation as the direct object (NP2) because it is the same as the direct object (Jacobsen = friend).

Subject-Verb Agreement Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural. In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways:

nouns ADD an s to the singular form,

BUT

verbs REMOVE an s from the singular form.

Page 18 of 27 Here are nine subject-verb agreement rules.

1. A phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change the number of the subject.

Examples:

2. Indefinite pronouns as subjects Singular indefinite pronoun subjects take singular verbs.

Plural indefinite pronoun subjects take plural verbs.

PLURAL: several, few, both, many

Page 19 of 27 Some indefinite pronouns may be either singular or plural: with uncountable, use singular; with countable, use plural.

EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all, most

Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb. 3. Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.

4. With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it.

In the above example, the plural verb are agrees with the nearer subject actors.

In this example, the singular verb is agrees with the nearer subject director.

Page 20 of 27 5. Inverted Subjects must agree with the verb.

6. Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on meaning.

In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the verb is singular.

In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the verb is plural. 7. Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) are always singular.

8. Plural form subjects

Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular verb. (e.g. news, measles, mumps, physics, etc.)

Page 21 of 27

Plural form subjects with singular or plural meaning take a singular or plural verb, depending on meaning. (e.g. politics, economics, etc.)

In this example, politics is a single topic; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

In this example, politics refers to the many aspects of the situation; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

Plural form subjects with a plural meaning take a plural verb. (e.g. scissors, trousers)

Note: In this example, the subject of the sentence is pair; therefore, the verb must agree with it. (Because scissors is the object of the preposition, scissors does not affect the number of the verb.) 9. With subject and subjective complement of different number, the verb always agrees with the subject.

Page 22 of 27 10-A. With one of those ________ who, use a plural verb.

The above example implies that others besides Hannah like to read comic books. Therefore, the plural verb is the correct form to use. 10-B. With the only one of those ________who, use a singular verb.

The above example implies that no one else except for Hannah likes to read comic books. Therefore, the singular verb is the correct for to use. 11-A. With the number of _______, use a singular verb.

11-B. With a number of _______, use a plural verb.

Page 23 of 27 12. With every ______ and many a ________, use a singular verb.

ACTIVE / PASSIVE VOICE Active voice In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in the active voice.

Page 24 of 27 Passive voice One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive. Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive voice. NOTE: Colorful parrots live in the rainforests cannot be changed to passive voice because the sentence does not have a direct object. To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following: 1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot

2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by

Page 25 of 27 3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form

Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to understand than the same sentence in passive voice.

It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice.

Page 26 of 27 To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown above. 1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct object slot

2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed

3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.

Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible. The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when

the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence Example:

Page 27 of 27

the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action

Example:

the writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety. Source: http://www.towson.edu/ows/index.htm