01- Basics of Alternator

Basics of Alternator

EEE DepartmentA Z M Shahriar Muttalib

What is Alternators?

• Are the primary source of all electrical energy• Commonly used to convert the mechanical power

output of steam turbines, gas turbines, reciprocatingengines, hydro turbines into electrical power for the grid

• Can be extremely large – power ratings up to1500MW!!!

• Are known as synchronous machines because theyoperate at synchronous speed (speed of rotor alwaysmatches supply frequency) in order to get an inducedEMF of the required frequency

Alternator/ Synchronous Generator

Basic Principle

• Same fundamental principle of electromagneticinduction as DC generator

• Consists of Armature winding and magnetic field.• The basic difference between alternator and DC

generator is in the construction.• In DC generator the armature rotates and field system is

stationary• In alternator the armature winding mounted on

stationary element called stator and field winding onrotating element called rotor

Intersected Image of Alternator

Stator of a large hydro generator

Rotor of a large hydro generator

Basic Principle

• The stator consists of a cast-iron frame, which supports thearmature core, having slots on its inner

• The rotor is like a flywheel having alternate N and S polesfixed to its outer rim.

• The magnetic poles are excited (or magnetised) from directcurrent supplied by a d.c. source at 125 to 600 volts. In mostcases, necessary exciting (or magnetising) current isobtained from a small d.c. shunt generator which is belted ormounted on the shaft of the alternator itself.

• As the exciting voltage is relatively small, the slip-rings and brush gear are of light construction.

Basic Principle

• When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors (beingstationary) are cut by the magnetic flux, hence they haveinduced e.m.f. produced in them.

• Because the magnetic poles are alternately N and S, theyinduce an e.m.f. and hence current in armature conductors,which first flows in one direction and then in the other.

• An alternating e.m.f. is produced in the stator conductors(i) whose frequency depends on the number of N and S poles

moving past aconductor in one second and(ii) whose direction is given by Fleming's Right-hand rule

Fleming Right Hand Rule

Basic Principle of DC Generator

Basic Principle of Alternator

Why Stationary Armature?• The output current can be led directly from fixed terminals

on the stator (or armature windings) to the load circuit,without having to pass it through brush-contacts.

• It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for higha.c. voltages, which may have as high a value as 30 kV ormore.

• The sliding contacts i.e. slip-rings are transferred to the low-voltage, low-power d.c. field circuit which can, therefore, beeasily insulated.

• The armature windings can be more easily braced to preventany deformation, which could be produced by themechanical stresses set up as a result of short-circuit currentand the high centrifugal forces brought into play.

Stationary Armature

Stator• In the stationary part of the machine• Built up with steel lamination• Have slots on its inner periphery• A 3-Φ winding placed in these slots• The armature winding is always connected in

start and neutral is grounded

Components of Stator

• Stator Frame

• Stator Core

Stator Frame• It is used for holding the armature stampings and windings in position.• Low speed large-diameter alternators have frames which because of

ease of manufacture, are cast in sections• Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame itself.• But, these days, instead of using castings, frames are generally

fabricated from mild steel plates welded together in such a way as toform a frame having a box type section.

Stator Core• The core is laminated to minimize loss due to eddy currents.

Built up with steel lamination• The laminations are insulated from each other and have

spaces between them for allowing the cooling air to pass through.

• 3 types of stator core

Characteristic• Easy installation of form-wound coils• Easy removal in case of repair

• Disadvantage of distributing the air-gap flux into bunches or tufts, thatproduce ripples in the wave of thegenerated e.m.f

Stator Core

• Semi-closed type slots arebetter than the wide-open inrespect of producing ripple inthe generated e.m.f.

• Do not allow the use of form-wound coils

Stator Core

• The wholly-closed type slots ortunnels do not disturb the air-gapflux

• They tend to increase theinductance of the windings

• The armature conductors have to bethreaded through, therebyincreasing initial labour and cost ofwinding and

• They present a complicatedproblem of end connections.

Stator Core

Rotor• Carries a field winding which is supplied with

d.c. through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source (d.c. shunt generator pr compound generator) on the shaft of the alternator.

• Two types:– Salient (or projecting) pole type– Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type

• Used in low-and medium-speed (engine driven) alternatorsbecause of excessive windage loss at high speed and producenoise

• Construction is not strong enough to withstand themechanical stresses at high speed.

• has a large number of projecting (salient) poles, having theircores bolted or dovetailed onto a heavy magnetic wheel ofcast-iron, or steel of good magnetic quality

• Has large diameters and short axial length• Poles and poles shoes are laminated to minimize heating due

to eddy current• Need damper winding to prevent from oscillation in rotor

Salient (or projecting ) pole Type

Salient (or projecting ) pole Type

• It is used for steam turbine-driven alternators i.e. turboalternators,which run at very high speeds because of robustness and givesnoiseless operation

• Flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave andhence better e.m.f waveform is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type.

• designed mostly for 2-pole (or 4-pole) turbo-generators running at 3600 r.p.m. (or 1800 r.p.m.).

• Two (or four) regions corresponding to the central polar areas are left unslotted

• Field coils are so arranged around these polar areas that flux density is maximum on the polar central line and gradually falls away on either side.

Non-salient (or Cylindrical ) pole Type

• Poles are non-salient i.e. they do not project out from the surface of the rotor.

• Small diameters and very long axial (or rotor) length. • Cylindrical construction of the rotor gives better balance and

quieter-operation and also less windage losses.


• Most of the alternators have their pole-shoes slotted for receivingcopper bars of a grid or damper winding

• The copper bars are short-circuited at both ends by heavy copperrings

• These dampers are useful in preventing the hunting (momentaryspeed fluctuations) in generators and are needed in synchronousmotors to provide the starting torque.

• Turbo-generators usually do not have these damper windings(except in special case to assist in synchronizing) because the solidfield-poles themselves act as efficient dampers.

• Under normal running conditions, damper winding does not carryany current because rotor runs at synchronous speed.

Damper Winding

Damper Winding

• In an alternator, there exists a definite relationship between therotational speed (N) of the rotor, the frequency (f) of the generatede.m.f. and the number of poles P

• Consider the armature conductor marked X in the following figuresituated at the centre of a N-pole rotating in clockwise direction.The conductor being situated at the place of maximum flux densitywill have maximum e.m.f. induced in it.

Speed and Frequency

• Direction of the induced e.m.f. is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.• Direction of the induced e.m.f. is downwards, in a direction at right angles

to the plane of the paper.• When the conductor is in the interpolar gap it has minimum e.m.f. induced

in it because flux density is minimum there.• When it is at the centre of a S-pole, it has maximum e.m.f. induced in it,

because flux density at B is maximum. But the direction of the e.m.f. isopposite

Speed and Frequency

• one cycle of e.m.f. is induced in a conductor when one pair of poles passesover it.

• the e.m.f. in an armature conductor goes through one cycle in angulardistance equal to twice the pole-pitch

• P = total number of magnetic polesN = rotative speed of the rotor in r.p.m.f = frequency of generated e.m.f. in Hz.

• one cycle of e.m.f. is produced when a pair of poles passes past aconductor, the number of cycles of e.m.f. produced in one revolution ofthe rotor is equal to the number of pair of poles.

Speed and Frequency

• N is known as the synchronous speed, because it is the speed at whichan alternator must run, in order to generate an e.m.f. of the requiredfrequency.

• For producing a frequency of 60 Hz, the alternator will have to run atthe following speeds :

• It is clear from the above that because of slow rotative speeds ofengine-driven alternators, their number of poles is much greater ascompared to that of the turbo-generators which run at very highspeeds.

Speed and Frequency

• The armature windings in alternators are different fromthose used in d.c. machines.

• The d.c. machines have closed circuit windings butalternator windings are open, in the sense that there is noclosed path for the armature currents in the winding itself.

• One end of the winding is joined to the neutral point andthe other is brought out (for a star connected armature).

• The two types of armature windings most commonly usedfor 3-phase alternators are :(i) single-layer winding(ii) double-layer winding

Armature Winding

Automatic Armature Winding Machine

• Referred to as concentric or chain winding.• Sometimes, it is of simple bar type or wave winding (1)• The fundamental principle of such a winding is illustrated in the

following figure which shows a single-layer, one-turn, full-pitchwinding for a four-pole generator. (2)

(1) (2)

Single-layer winding

• There are 12 slots in all, giving 3 slots per pole or 1slot/phase/pole. The pole pitch is obviously 3

• To get maximum e.m.f., two sides of a coil should be one pole-pitch apart i.e. coil span should be equal to one pole pitch.

• In other words, if one side of the coil is under the centre of a N-pole, then the, other side of the same coil should be under thecentre of S-pole i.e. 180 (electrical) apart.


• R phase starts at slot No. 1, passes through slots 4, 7 and finishes at 10.

• The Y-phase starts 120° afterwards i.e. from slot No. 3 which is two slots away from the start of R-phase

• It passes through slots 6, 9 and finishes at 12.


• B-phase starts from slot No.5 i.e. two slots away from thestart of Y-phase. It passes through slots 8, 11 and finishes atslot No. 2

• The ends of the windings are joined to form a star point fora Y-connection.


• For this type of winding, the number of slots is equal to twice the numberof coils or equal to the number of coil sides.

• It has one coil per pair of poles per phase.

• It would be noted that the polar group of each phase is 360° (electrical)apart in this type of winding1. It is necessary to use two different shapes of coils to avoid fouling of endconnections.2. Since polar group of each phase are 360 electrical degrees apart, all suchgroups are connected in the same direction.

Concentric or Chain Winding

3. The disadvantage is that short-pitched coils cannot be used.

• A concentric winding with two coils per group per pole. Different shapes of coils are required for this winding.

• All coil groups of phase R are connected in the same direction. It is seen that in each group, one coil has a pitch of 5/6 and the other has a pitch of 7/6 so that pitch factor (explained later) is 0.966. Such windings are used for large high-voltage machines.

Concentric or Chain Winding

• This winding is either of wave-wound type or lap-wound type (thisbeing much more common especially for high-speed turbo-generators). It is the simplest and, as said above, most commonly-used not only in synchronous machines but in induction motors aswell.

• Two important points regarding this winding should be noted :(a) Ordinarily, the number of slots in stator (armature) is a multipleof the number of poles and the number of phases. Thus, the statorof a 4-pole, 3-phase alternator may have 12, 24, 36, 48 etc. slots allof which are seen to be multiple of 12 (i.e. 4 × 3).(b) The number of stator slots is equal to the number of coils (whichare all of the same shape). In other words, each slot contains twocoil sides, one at the bottom of the slot and the other at the top.The coils overlap each other, just like shingles on a roof top.

Two-Layer Winding

• For the 4-pole, 24-slot stator machine shown in the following figure,the pole-pitch is 24/4 = 6.

• For maximum voltage, the coils should be full-pitched. It means that ifone side of the coil is in slot No.1, the other side should be in slot No.7,the two slots 1 and 7 being one pole-pitch or 180° (electrical) apart.

• For the 4-pole, 24-slot stator machine shown in the above figure, the pole-pitch is24/4 = 6.

Two-Layer Winding

• For maximum voltage, the coils should be full-pitched. It means that ifone side of the coil is in slot No.1, the other side should be in slot No.7,the two slots 1 and 7 being one pole-pitch or 180° (electrical) apart.

• To make matters simple, coils have been labeled as 1, 2, 3 and 4 etc. Inthe following developed diagram , the coil number is the number ofthe slot in which the left-hand side of the coil is placed.

Two-Layer Winding

• Each of the three phases has 24/3 = 8 coils, these being soselected as to give maximum voltage when connected in series.

• When connected properly, coils 1, 7, 13 and 19 will add directly inphase. Hence, we get 4 coils for this phase.

• To complete eight coils for this phase, the other four selected are2, 8, 14 and 20 each of which is at an angular displacement of 30°(elect.) from the adjacent coils of the first.

• The coils 1 and 2 of this phase are said to constitute a polar group(which is defined as the group of coils/phase/pole).

• Other polar groups for this phase are 7 and 8, 13 and 14, 19 and20 etc. After the coils are placed in slots, the polar groups arejoined. These groups are connected together with alternate polesreversed

Two-Layer Winding

• Phase Y is to be so placed as to be 120° (elect.) away from phase R.Hence, it is started from slot 5 i.e. 4 slots away.

• It should be noted that angular displacement between slot No. 1and 5 is 4 × 30 = 120° (elect).

• Starting from coil 5, each of the other eight coils of phase Y will beplaced 4 slots to the right of corresponding coils for phase R.

• In the same way, B phase will start from coil 9.• The terminals R2, Y2 and B2 may be connected together to form a

neutral for Y-connection.

Two-Layer Winding

• A simplified diagram of the above winding is shown in thefollowing figure.

Two-Layer Winding

• For Y-connection, R1, Y1 and B1 are joined together to form thestar-point. Then, ends R2, Y2 and B2 are connected to the terminals.

• For delta connection, R2 and Y1, Y2 and B1 B2 and R1 are connectedtogether and terminal leads are brought out from their junctions

Wye-Delta connection

• To obtain a desired voltage between outside terminals of agenerator, the voltage build up in any one phase need to be only58% of the terminal value. Hence only 58% of the turns required forthe a -connected armature are necessary, with a consequentlowering insulation cost

• Y-connected winding offers the advantages of fourth or neutral load,making possible the advantages of a four wire system, with orwithout grounded load

• The wave shape of a Y-connected wingding is improved, owing toelimination of 3rd harmonics and all multiple of 3rd harmonic fromthe terminal voltage.

Advantages of Y Connection

D

Let the induced per phase voltage as shown in the following figure of an alternator are:eAN = E(m)ANsin(ωt)eBN = E(m)BNsin(ωt-1200)eCN = E(m)CNsin(ωt-2400)= E(m)CNsin(ωt+1200)

Proof of Elimination of 3rd harmonic in Y connection

In the case of third harmonics:eAN (3) = E(m)ANsin3(ωt)= E(m)Ansin(3ωt)eBN (3) = E(m)BNsin3(ωt-1200)= E(m)Bnsin(3ωt-3600)eCN (3) = E(m)CNsin3(ωt+1200)= E(m)CNsin(3ωt+3600)All are in the same direction as shown in the following figure thus EAN-EBN = 0; EBN-ECN = 0; ECN-ENA = 0.Hence no third harmonics appears between the terminals, althoughthe third harmonics in any phase may distort the voltage wavebetween one terminal and neutral.

Proof of Elimination of 3rd harmonic in Y connection

• From the diagram(a) for a delta-connected armature, with a pure sine wave,the connection of the windings with equal voltages in a closed delta causes nocirculation current, as the vector sum of the three voltages is zero.

• If the wave is so distorted as to have a pronounced third harmonic, thevoltages of the third harmonic add directly in the three legs as shown in figure(b). This is the equivalent of a short circuit of the third harmonic voltages,permitting the circulating current though the windings. This current is of the

• Magnitude: I3 = 3E3/3Z3

Shortcoming of -ConnectionD

(a) (b)

Line Voltage Representation

• We have discussed full-pitched coils i.e. coils having span which isequal to one pole-pitch i.e. spanning over 180° (electrical).

• Example of full-pitch

Short Pitch Winding: Pitch Factor/ Chording Factor

• In the figure if the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 7, then it is full-pitched. If the coil sides are placed in slots 1 and 6, then it is short-pitched or fractional-pitched because coil span is equal to

• 5/6 of a pole-pitch. It falls short by 1/6 pole-pitch or by 180°/6 = 30°.

Short Pitch Winding: Pitch Factor/ Chording Factor

Merits:1. They save copper of end connections.2. They improve the wave-form of the generated e.m.f. i.e. thegenerated e.m.f. can be made to approximate to a sine wave moreeasily and the distorting harmonics can be reduced or totallyeliminated.3. Due to elimination of high frequency harmonics, eddy currentand hysteresis losses are reduced thereby increasing the efficiency.Demerits:The disadvantage of using short-pitched coils is that the totalvoltage around the coils is somewhat reduced. Because the voltagesinduced in the two sides of the short-pitched coil are slightly out ofphase, their resultant vectorial sum is less than their arithmeticalsum.

Merits and Demerits Short Pitch Winding

• The pitch factor or coil-span factor kp or kc is defined as

=

• It is always less than unity.• In the following figure let Es be the induced e.m.f. in each side of the

coil. If the coil were full-pitched i.e. if its two sides were one pole-pitch apart, then total induced e.m.f. in the coil would have been = 2Es

Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (kp /kc)

coilper e.m.fs. induced theof sum arithmetic

coilper e.m.fs. induced theof sumvector

• If it is short-pitched by 30° (elect.) then as shown in the following figure their resultant is E which is the vector sum of two voltage 30°(electrical) apart.∴ E = 2 Escos (30°/2) = 2Escos 15°

• kc = = E /2Es = 2Escos 15°/2Es = cos 15°= 0.966

• Hence, pitch factor, kc = 0.966.


sum arithmetic

sumvector

• In general, if the coil span falls short of full-pitch by an angle α(electrical) then kc = cos α/2.

• Similarly, for a coil having a span of 2/3 pole-pitch, kc = cos 60°/2 =cos 30° = 0.866.

• α is known as chording angle and the winding employing short-pitched coils is called chorded winding

• The value of α will usually be given in the question, if not, thenassume kc = 1.


Calculate the pitch factor for the under-given windings :(a) 36 stator slots, 4-poles, coil-span, 1 to 8(b) 72 stator slots, 6 poles, coils span 1 to 10 and(c) 96 stator slots, 6 poles, coil span 1 to 12.Sketch the three coil spans.


Solution:(a) Here, the coil span falls short by (2/9) × 180° = 40° ∴ α = 40°∴ kc = cos 40°/2 = cos 20° = 0.94(b) Here α = (3/12) × 180° = 45°∴ kc = cos 45°/2 = cos 22.5° = 0.924(c) Here α = (5/16) × 180° = 56° 16′ ∴ kc = cos 28°8′ = 0.882


• It will be seen that in each phase, coils are not concentrated orbunched in one slot, but are distributed in a number of slots toform polar groups under each pole.

• These coils/phase are displaced from each other by a certainangle

• The result is that the e.m.fs. induced in coil sides constituting apolar group are not in phase with each other but differ by anangle equal to angular displacement of the slots.

Distribution or Breadth Factor or Winding Factor or Spread Factor

• In the following figure the end connections of a 3-phase single-layerwinding for a 4-pole alternator.

• It has a total of 36 slots i.e. 9 slots/pole. Obviously, there are 3 slots/phase / pole. For example, coils 1, 2 and 3 belong to R phase.

• Now, these three coils which constitute one polar group are not bunchedin one slot but in three different slots. Angular displacement between anytwo adjacent slots = 180°/9 = 20° (elect.)


• If the three coils were bunched in one slot, then total e.m.f. inducedin the three sides of the coil would be the arithmetic sum of thethree e.m.f.s. i.e. = 3 Es, where Es is the e.m.f. induced in one coil side


• Since the coils are distributed, the individual e.m.fs. have a phase difference of 20° with each other.


• Let b be the value of angular displacement between the slots. Itsvalue is

• Let m= No. of slots/phase/pole• mb= Phase spread angle• Then, the resultant voltage induced in one polar group would be

mES, where ES is the voltage induced in one coil side. Figures in thenext slide illustrates the method for finding the vector sum of mvoltages each of value ES and having a mutual phase difference of b(if m is large, then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle ofradius r).


n

°=

°=

180

slots/poleofNo.

180b

• AB = Es = 2r sin ß/2 ; Arithmetic sum is = mEs= m × 2r sin ß/2• Their vector sum= AE = Er = 2r sin mß/2

• In general, when b is small, the above ratio approaches


)2/sin(

)2/sin(

)2/sin(2

)2/sin(2

emfscoilofsumarithmatic

emfscoilofsumvector

bb

bb

m

m

rm

mrkd =

´==

radianinmanglem

mkd 2/

2/

)2/sin(

arc

chord bb

b-==

• Calculate the distribution factor for a 36-slots, 4-pole, single-layer three-phase winding.

• A part of an alternator winding consists of six coils in series, each coilhaving an e.m.f. of 10 V r.m.s. induced in it. The coils are placed insuccessive slots and between each slot and the next, there is an electricalphase displacement of 30º. Find graphically or by calculation, the e.m.f. ofthe six coils in series.



• Find the value of kd for an alternator with 9 slotsper pole for the following cases :

• (i) One winding in all the slots

• (ii) one winding using only the first 2/3 of theslots/pole

• (iii) three equal windings placed sequentially in60° group.


• Here, β = 180°/9 = 20° and values of m i.e.number of slots in a group are 9, 6 and 3respectively.

Effect of Harmonics on Pitch factor

• If the short-pitch or chording angle is a degrees (electrical) for thefundamental flux wave, then its values for different harmonicsare:

• For 3rd harmonics = 3a; For 5th harmonics =5 a

• Pitch Factor: Kcn = cos(na /2);Where n is the order of theharmonics

• Kc1 = cos (a/2) ---------------------- for fundamental component• Kc3 = cos (3a/2) --------------------- for 3rd harmonics• Kc5 = cos (5a/2) --------------------- for 5th harmonics

Effect of Harmonics on Distribution factor

• The distribution factor is also different for different harmonics. Itsvalues becomes

• Distribution Factor: Kdn=[sin (nmb/2)]/[msin(nb/2)]; Where n isthe order of the harmonics

• Kd1= [sin (mb/2)]/[msin(b/2)]--------- for fundamental component• Kd3=[sin (3mb/2)]/[msin(3b/2)]-------------- for 3rd harmonics• Kd5= [sin (5mb/2)]/[msin(5b/2)]------------- for 5th harmonics

Effect of Harmonics on Distribution factor

• An alternator has 18 slots/pole and the first coil lies in slots 1 and 16. Calculate

• the pitch factor for (i) fundamental (ii) 3rd harmonic (iii) 5th harmonic and (iv) 7th harmonic.

Equation of Induced EMF• Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series/phase = 2T; where

T is the No. of coils or turns per phase (remember one turn or coilhas two sides)

• P = No. of poles• f = frequency of induced e.m.f. in Hz• Φ = flux/pole in webers• kd = distribution factor =• kc or kp = pitch or coil span factor = cos α/2• kf = from factor =(rms value/Avg value)= 1.11 —if e.m.f. is

assumed sinusoidal• N = rotor r.p.m.• In one revolution of the rotor (i.e. in 60./N second) each stator

conductor is cut by a flux of ΦP webers.• ∴ dΦ = ΦP and dt = 60/N second

)2/sin(

)2/sin(

bb

m

m

Equation of Induced EMF• \Average emf induced per conductor =• Now, we know that f=PN/120 or N=120f/P.• Substituting this value of N above, we get• Average emf induced per conductor volt• If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then average emf/phase= 2fFZ

volt=4 fFT volt.• RMS value of emf/phase =1.11´4 fFT volt= 4.44 fFT volt (it is exactly the

same equation as the emf equation of a transformer).• This would have been the actual value of the induced voltage if all the coils

in a phase were: (i) full-pitched and (ii) concentrated or bunched in one slot(instead of being distributed in several slots under poles). But this is notbeing so, the actually available voltage is reduced in the ratio of these twofactors.

• \actually available voltage/phase = 4.44kckdfFT volt= 4kfkckdfFT volt.• If the alternator is star-connected (as is usually the case) then the line

voltage is √3 times the phase voltage (as found from the above formula).

F=F

= fP

fP2

120

60

60/60

PN

N

P

dt

d F=

F=

F

Equation of Induced EMF• A 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has a star-connected winding with

144 slots and• 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, Sinusoidally

distributed and the speed is• 375 r.p.m. Find the frequency rpm and the phase and line e.m.f.

Assume full-pitched coil.

Practice Maths1. Find the no-load phase and line voltage of a star-connected 3 phase, 6-

pole alternator which runs at 1200 rpm, having flux per pole of 0.1 Wbsinusoidally distributed. Its stator has 54 slots having double layerwinding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil is chorded by 1 slot.

2. The stator of a 3-phase, 16-pole alternator has 144 slots and there are 4conductors per slot connected in two layers and the conductors of eachphase are connected in series. If the speed of the alternator is 375r.p.m., calculate the e.m.f. inducted per phase. Resultant flux in the air-gap is 5 × 10− 2 webers per pole sinusoidally distributed. Assume thecoil span as 150° electrical.

3. Calculate the R.M.S. value of the induced e.m.f. per phase of a 10-pole,3-phase, 50-Hz alternator with 2 slots per pole per phase and 4conductors per slot in two layers. The coil span is 150°. The flux per polehas a fundamental component of 0.12 Wb and a 20% third component.

Factors Affecting Alternator Size• Efficiency increases with size:

The efficiency of an alternator always increases as its powerincreases. For example, if an alternator of 1 kW has an efficiency of50%, then one of 10 MW will inevitably have an efficiency of about90%. It is because of this improvement in efficiency with size thatalternators of 1000 MW and above possess efficiencies of the orderof 99%.

• Power output per kilogram increases with size:Another advantage of large machines is that power output perkilogram increases as the alternator power increases. If 1 kWalternator weighs 20 kg (i.e. 50 W/kg), then 10MW alternatorweighing 20,000 kg yields 500 W/kg. In other words, largeralternators weigh relatively less than smaller ones and are,consequently, cheaper.

Factors Affecting Alternator Size• Relevancy of Cooling system with alternator power:

As alternator size increases, cooling problem becomes more serious. Since largemachines inherently produce high power loss per unit surface area (W/m2),they tend to overheat. To keep the temperature rise within acceptable limits,we have to design efficient cooling system which becomes ever more elaborateas the power increases. For cooling alternators of rating upto 50 MW, circulatingcold-air system is adequate but for those of rating between 50 and 300 MW, wehave to resort to hydrogen cooling. Very big machines in 1000 MW range haveto be equipped with hollow water-cooled conductors. Ultimately, a point isreached where increased cost of cooling exceeds the saving made elsewhereand this fixes the upper limit of the alternator size.

• Relevancy of Cooling system with alternator speed:Low-speed alternators are always bigger than high speed alternators of thesame power. Bigness always simplifies the cooling problem. For example, thelarge 200-rpm, 500-MVA alternators installed in a typical hydropower plant areair-cooled whereas much smaller 1800-r.p.m., 500-MVA alternators installed ina steam plant are hydrogen cooled.

01- Basics of Alternator

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