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Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Organizational Culture in Higher Education
Abstract
Zeine1, 3, R., Boglarsky2, C.A., Blessinger3, P., and Hamlet1, M.T.
1Keller Graduate School of Management at DeVry College of New York,
2Human Synergistics, Inc., 3Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association
The organizational culture of academic higher educational institutions was
analyzed using the Human Synergistics International (HSI) Organizational Culture
Inventory® (OCI®) Survey. Cultural norms characteristic of Passive/Defensive and
Aggressive/Defensive behavioral styles were overrepresented, while those
characteristic of Constructive styles were underrepresented, as compared to Ideal
profiles. The results reflect predominance of task-centered over people-centered
organizational orientations and of lower-order (security) over higher-order (satisfaction)
needs. Both current and ideal profiles were derived from the responses of higher
education faculty and administrators who are active at non-profit or for-profit
organizations worldwide. Targets for cultural change were identified, and
recommendations were developed to assist higher education institutions approach their
ideal organizational cultures.
ZEINE, R., Boglarsky, C.A., Blessinger, P., and Hamlet, M.T. (2011). Organizational Culture in Higher Education. Chapter 3 in Kazeroony, H. (Ed.), The Strategic Management of Higher Education Institutions: Serving Students as Customers for Institutional Growth. Business Expert Press, LLC, New York, NY, USA.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Introduction
Organizational Culture in Higher Educational Institutions (HEds.) can be
examined with regards to behavioral norms that have been extensively studied in the
context of guiding organizational change in the corporate world. HEds are social sector
organizations that differ in purpose and performance measures from business
corporations (Stilwell, 2003; Collins, 2005). Because the purpose of social sector
organizations is to meet social objectives, human needs and national/global priorities,
the people affiliated with them are ambitious first and foremost for the causes, the
movements, the missions, the work ‒ not themselves ‒ and they have the will to do
whatever it takes to make good on that ambition (Collins, 2005, pp.19,11). HEds can be
viewed as service providers fulfilling diverse customer needs (Akinyele, 2010; Soars,
2009; Watjatrakul, 2009). More complex dimensions apply in HEds because students
can be viewed as products, customers, coworkers and laborers simultaneously
(Obermiller et al. 2005; Halbesleben et al. 2003; Pitman, 2000). Ideally, a culture of
selflessness and excellence would be expected throughout the range of HEds, including
those that rely heavily on business revenue streams such as medical centers and for-
profit colleges (Collins, 2005, pp. 20-21; Schnier, 2004; Soars, 2009; Bennett Clark,
2011). Because financial incentives are weak in non-profit organizations, their ability to
generate funds to support their non-business activities depends on effectively tapping
into the idealistic passions of their deeply committed members and benefactors (Collins,
2005, pp.16-18). In this chapter, we analyze the currently prevailing organizational
culture and compare it to the ideal cultural profile for HEds as measured by the
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Organizational Culture Inventory® (OCI®)1 (Cooke & Lafferty, 2003).
Perceptions of the work environment shape the ‘organizational climate’ which is a
function of how employees experience their organizations (Patterson et al., 2005). In
the absence of active guidance aimed at nurturing healthy organizational dynamics,
organizational cultures tend to default to rather constraining or low-performance states.
For example, research indicates that people interacting on a task tend to voluntarily
construct differences in hierarchy, and to contribute to their own disempowerment to
maintain a stable hierarchical social order (Pfeffer, 2010, pp. 220-1). Some studies
have shown that, in contrast to higher-status schools, members of lower-status
universities tend to accept the fact, and the implications, of the lowered status of their
educational institution, and do not take initiative to bolster it (Jost & Banaji, 1994).
People inside organizations who agree on organizational goals, often hold differing
views on how to accomplish shared objectives (Pfeffer, 2010, p.224). Consequently,
organizations can lose their vitality and begin to “age” as they remain unable or
unwilling to evolve and change (Blanchard et. al. 1997, p.136). Preliminary studies
have highlighted the importance, of exploring the complex barriers to cultural renewal in
academic institutions in order to identify appropriate targets, and develop suitable
mechanisms, for cultural change (Lobas, 2006; Kay et al. 2010).
“Culture forms the superglue that bonds an organization, unites people, and
helps an enterprise accomplish desired ends” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p.253). “Some
argue that organizations have cultures, others insist that organizations are cultures”
(Bolman & Deal, 2008, p.269). Organizational culture has been defined as “a pattern of
1 Organizational Culture Inventory® and OCI® are trademarks of and copyrighted © by Human
Synergistics International. All rights reserved. Used with permission.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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shared basic assumptions that a group learned as it solved its problems of external
adaptation and integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and
therefore to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in
relation to those problems” (Schein, 1992, p.12).
Distinct but interdependent subcultures have been noted in HEds especially in
regards to academic vs. administrative divisions, and for-profit/business/clinical vs. non-
profit/research/educational organizations (Kuo, 2009; Pitman, 2000; Calabrese &
Shoho, 2000; Bennett Clark, 2011). A systematic analysis of current and ideal
organizational cultures can inform HEds professionals on specific changes that would
help them meet and exceed expectations (Tricker, 2003; Soares, 2009, Kay et al.
2010).
The Organizational Culture Inventory® (OCI®)2 is a quantitative instrument that
measures 12 sets of behavioral norms associated with three general types of
organizational cultures: Constructive, Passive/Defensive, and Aggressive/Defensive3
(Cooke & Szumal, 2000). It focuses on twelve behavioral patterns that members
believe are required to “fit in” and “meet expectations” within their organization (Szumal,
2003). Descriptions of the twelve styles measured by the OCI are provided in Table 1.
2 Organizational Culture Inventory® and OCI® are trademarks of and copyrighted © by Human
Synergistics International. All rights reserved. Used with permission. 3 OCI style names and descriptions from Robert A. Cooke and J. Clayton Lafferty, Organizational Culture
Inventory®, Human Synergistics International. Copyright © 1987-2011. All rights reserved.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Table 1. Descriptions of the Twelve Styles Measured by the
Organizational Culture Inventory® (and Sample Items)
Constructive Cultures encourage members to interact with people and approach tasks
in ways that will help them to meet their higher-order satisfaction needs for affiliation,
esteem and self-actualization:
(11:00) An Achievement culture characterizes organizations that do things well and
value members who set and accomplish their own goals. Members are expected
to set challenging but realistic goals, establish plans to reach these goals, and
pursue them with enthusiasm. (Pursue a standard of excellence; Openly show
enthusiasm). Achievement organizations are effective; problems are solved
appropriately, clients and customers are served well, and the orientation of
members, as well as the organization itself, is healthy.
(12:00) A Self-Actualizing culture characterizes organizations that value creativity,
quality over quantity, and both task accomplishment and individual growth.
Members are encouraged to gain enjoyment from their work, develop
themselves, and take on new and interesting activities. (Think in unique and
independent ways; Do even simple tasks well). While self-actualizing
organizations can be somewhat difficult to understand and control, they tend to
be innovative, offer high-quality products and/or services, and attract and
develop outstanding employees.
(1:00) A Humanistic-Encouraging culture characterizes organizations that are
managed in a participative and person-centered way. Members are expected to
be supportive, constructive and open to influence in their dealings with one
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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another. (Help others to grow and develop; Take time with people). A humanistic
culture leads to effective organizational performance by providing for the growth
and active involvement of members who, in turn, report high satisfaction with and
commitment to the organization.
(2:00) An Affiliative culture characterizes organizations that place a high priority on
constructive interpersonal relationships. Members are expected to be friendly,
open, and sensitive to the satisfaction of their work group. (Deal with others in a
friendly, pleasant way; share feelings and thoughts). An Affiliative culture can
enhance organizational performance by promoting open communication, good
cooperation, and the effective coordination of activities. Members are loyal to
their work groups and feel they “fit in” comfortably.
Passive/Defensive Cultures are those in which members believe they must interact
with people in ways that will not threaten their own security:
(3:00) An Approval culture describes organizations in which conflicts are avoided and
interpersonal relationships are pleasant – at least superficially. Members feel
that they should agree with, gain the approval of, and be liked by others. (Go
along with others; Be liked by everyone). This work environment can potentially
limit organizational effectiveness by minimizing constructive “differing”, and
inhibiting the expression of ideas and opinions.
(4:00) A Conventional culture is descriptive of organizations that are conservative,
traditional, and bureaucratically controlled. Members are expected to conform,
follow the rules, and make a good impression. (Always follow policies; Fit into the
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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“mold”). Too conventional a culture can interfere with effectiveness by
suppressing innovation and preventing the organization from adapting to
changes in its environment.
(5:00) A Dependent culture is descriptive of organizations that are hierarchically
controlled, non-participative and do not empower their members. Centralized
decision making in such organizations leads members to do only what they are
told and to clear all decisions with superiors. (Please those in positions of
authority; Do what is expected). Poor performance results from the lack of
individual initiative, spontaneity, flexibility, and timely decision making.
(6:00) An Avoidance culture characterizes organizations that fail to reward success but
nevertheless punish mistakes. This negative reward system leads members to
shift responsibilities to others and avoid any possibility of being blamed for a
mistake. (Wait for others to act first; Take few chances). The survival of this type
of organization is in question since members are unwilling to make decisions,
take action, or accept risks.
Aggressive/Defensive Cultures expect members to approach tasks in forceful ways to
protect their status and security:
(7:00) An Oppositional culture describes organizations in which confrontation prevails
and negativism is rewarded. Members gain status and influence by being critical
and thus are reinforced to oppose the ideas of others (Point out flaws; Be hard to
impress), and to make safe (but ineffectual) decisions. While some questioning
is functional, a highly oppositional culture can lead to unnecessary conflict, poor
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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group problem solving and “watered-down” solutions to problems.
(8:00) A Power culture is descriptive of non-participative organizations structured on
the basis of the authority inherent in members’ positions. Members believe they
will be rewarded for taking charge and controlling subordinates, and for being
responsive to the demands of superiors. (Build up one’s power base; Demand
loyalty). Power-oriented organizations are less effective than their members
might think; subordinates resist this type of control, hold back information, and
reduce their contributions to the minimal acceptable level.
(9:00) A Competitive culture is one in which winning is valued and members are
rewarded for out-performing one another. Members operate in a “win-lose”
framework and believe they must work against (rather than with) their peers to be
noticed. (Turn the job into a contest; Never appear to lose). An overly competitive
culture can inhibit effectiveness by reducing cooperation and promoting
unrealistic standards of performance that are either too high or too low.
(10:00) A Perfectionistic culture characterizes organizations in which perfectionism,
persistence, and hard work are valued. Members feel they must avoid any
mistakes, keep track of everything, and work long hours to attain narrowly-
defined objectives. (Do things perfectly; Keep on top of everything). While some
amount of this orientation might be useful, too much emphasis on perfectionism
can lead members to lose sight of the goal, get lost in detail, and develop
symptoms of strain.
Note. From Organizational Culture Inventory by Robert A. Cooke and J. Clayton Lafferty, 1987, Plymouth, MI: Human Synergistics International. Copyright © 1987, 2011 by Human Synergistics, Inc. Reproduced by permission. The OCI style descriptions and items may not be reproduced without the express and written permission of Human Synergistics.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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In higher education, teaching hospitals can also be identified as “high reliability”
organizations due to the “life and death” nature of healthcare services. Some
institutions, such as the Military and nuclear power plants, are considered “high
reliability” organizations requiring very high fidelity to a chain of command, and strict
adherence to protocols (Szumal, 2003). Although behavioral norms from the
Aggressive/Defensive and Passive/Defensive clusters may be highly represented,
studies have shown that Constructive norms are desired and important for the success
of such organizations because they help people to understand the reasons why orders
need to be followed, and the benefits of faithfully implementing best practices in
performing critical duties (Reigle, 2001).
Methods
Participants from Higher Education Institutions completed Human Synergistics
OCI and OCI-Ideal surveys (web-based version). The OCI measures the behavioral
norms and expectations members understand are expected of them to “fit in” and meet
expectations in their current position at their organization or the current state. It also
measures outcomes associated with organizational culture (e.g., intention to stay,
satisfaction and customer service orientation) that provide insights into the need for
cultural change (Cooke & Lafferty, 2003). A parallel form of the inventory, the OCI-
Ideal, asks the members to indicate the extent to which the behavioral norms and
expectations should be expected in order to maximize their organization’s effectiveness.
The results of the OCI-Ideal is the desired state and can be seen as a cultural
benchmark.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Respondents’ OCI and OCI-Ideal unadjusted (or “raw”) scores were pooled and
converted to percentile scores which were plotted on an OCI Circumplex shown in
Figure 1. The OCI circumplex compares respondents’ organization’s scores along the
twelve cultural norms to the scores of 921 organizational subunits (e.g., departments
and divisions of other organizations). The bold center ring on the circumplex represents
the 50th percentile. In general, scores falling below the 50th percentile are low relative to
other organizations and scores that fall above the 50th percentile are high relative to
other organizations (Cooke, 2011).
Norms that reflect expectations for people-oriented behaviors are located on the
right side of the Circumplex, while task-oriented norms are on the left side. The norms
toward the top reflect expectations for behaviors that are directed toward higher-order
needs for satisfaction, and those toward the bottom reflect expectations that focus on
meeting lower-order needs for security (Fig. 1) (Cooke & Szumal, 2000). By analyzing
the gaps or discrepancies between the current and ideal culture profiles, the behavioral
norms where there is the greatest need for change can be identified. These gaps were
calculated by subtracting the ideal from the current percentile scores. Undesirable gap
values were negative for Constructive norms (too low), and positive for
Passive/Defensive and Aggressive/Defensive norms (too high) (Szumal, 2003).
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Figure 1. Organizational Culture Inventory® Circumplex
Note: Research and development by Robert A. Cooke, Ph.D. and J. Clayton Lafferty, Ph.D. Copyright © 1973-2011 by Human Synergistics International. All rights reserved.
Results
Demographics of Respondent HEds Professionals
Demographics of the HEds professionals who participated in the study are
presented in Table 2. Of the 63 who responded to the OCI survey, 33 responded to the
OCI Ideal survey. They represented faculty, directors, chairs and deans at non-profit
and for-profit colleges and universities. The number of years spent at their current
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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organizations ranged from less than 6 months to more than 15 years.
Table 2. Demographics of Respondents
Demographic OCI
Current OCI Ideal
(n=63) (n=33) Age
30 - 39 10% 6%
40 - 49 35% 24%
50 - 59 30% 36%
60 or over 17% 30%
nd* 8% 3%
Gender
Female 43% 45%
Male 52% 55%
nd* 5% -
Years with Organization
Less than 6 months 5% 6%
6 months to 1 year 3% 0%
1 to 2 years 16% 18%
2 to 4 years 17% 24%
4 to 6 years 6% 9%
6 to 10 years 13% 18%
10 to 15 years 13% 9%
More than 15 years 22% 15%
nd* 5% -
Organization Level
Faculty/Professor 40% 45%
Director 24% 12%
Department Chair 6% 6%
Associate. Dean 6% 6%
Dean 11% 9%
Provost/Dean Academic Affairs 2% 3%
nd* 11% 18%
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Table 2. Demographics of Respondents (continued)
Demographic OCI Current
OCI Ideal
(n=63) (n=33)
Education
Bachelor’s degree 2% 3%
Master’s degree 21% 15%
Doctorate degree 52% 58%
MD 2% 3%
MD/PhD 19% 18%
Other 2% -
nd* 3% 3%
Institutional Type
For-profit, Public 17% 12%
For- profit, Private 21% 24%
Not-for-profit, Public 38% 33%
Not-for-profit, Private 16% 18%
nd* 8% 12%
Institutional Level
Associate's College 3% 3%
Bachelor's College 6% 6%
Master's College/University 35% 36%
Doctorate-granting University 46% 48%
Special Focus Institution 2% -
nd* 8% 6%
*not determined
Differences Between Current and Ideal HEds Organizational Culture Profiles
Undesirable gaps in percentile scores between Current (Fig. 2 Left) and Ideal
(Fig. 2 Right) were found in all twelve styles on the HEds OCI profiles (Table 3).
Extensions of the Constructive styles fell below the 73rd percentile in the current profile
while rising above the 92nd percentile in the ideal (Table 3). Passive/Defensive styles
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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extended above 54% in the current profile while remaining less than 15% in the ideal
(Table 3). The lowest gap between current and ideal was in the Oppositional style
norms which extended to 67% in the current profile, only 10% higher than ideal (Table
3). This is consistent with cultural norm requirements of “high reliability” organizations.
Figure 2. Current vs. Ideal HEds OCI® Profiles
Current Culture Ideal Culture
Note: Research and development by Robert A. Cooke, Ph.D. and J. Clayton Lafferty, Ph.D. Copyright © 1973-2011 by Human Synergistics International. All rights reserved.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Note: OCI style names and descriptions from Robert A. Cooke and J. Clayton Lafferty, Organizational Culture Inventory®, Human Synergistics International. Copyright © 1987-2011. All rights reserved. Adapted by permission.
Differences Between Non-Profit and For-Profit HEds in Organizational Culture
As compared to the current Non-Profits OCI profile (Fig. 3 Upper Left), the
current For-Profit profile (Fig. 3 Lower Left) had wider extensions along several of the
Aggressive/Defensive and Passive/Defensive styles. As compared to the ideal Non-
Profit profile (Fig. 3 Upper Right), the ideal For-Profit profile (Fig. 3 Lower Right) had a
narrower extension on the Oppositional style but wider extensions on the 7 remaining
Table 3. GAP ANALYSIS FOR HEds ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE STYLES
STYLE
PERCENTILE SCORE
CLUSTER IDEAL CURRENT GAP
HUMANISTIC-ENCOURAGING 98 73 -25 CONSTRUCTIVE
ACHIEVEMENT 98 67 -31 CONSTRUCTIVE
SELF-ACTUALIZING 98 61 -37 CONSTRUCTIVE
AFFILIATIVE 92 55 -37 CONSTRUCTIVE
OPPOSITIONAL 57 67 10 AGGRESSIVE/DEFENSIVE
COMPETITIVE 31 63 32 AGGRESSIVE/DEFENSIVE
PERFECTIONISTIC 23 52 29 AGGRESSIVE/DEFENSIVE
POWER 23 50 27 AGGRESSIVE/DEFENSIVE
AVOIDANCE 15 59 44 PASSIVE/DEFENSIVE
DEPENDENT 14 55 41 PASSIVE/DEFENSIVE
CONVENTIONAL 10 54 44 PASSIVE/DEFENSIVE
APPROVAL 9 55 46 PASSIVE/DEFENSIVE
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Defensive styles. The Constructive cluster extensions were similar in Non-Profit and
For-Profit HEds (Fig. 3 Upper Left vs. Lower Left, and Upper Right vs. Lower Right).
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Figure 3. Non-Profit vs. For-Profit HEds Organizational Culture Profiles
Current OCI® Culture
Non-Profit N = 34
Ideal OCI® Culture
Non-Profit N = 17
Current OCI® Culture For-Profit
N = 24
Ideal OCI® Culture
For-Profit N = 12
Note: Research and development by Robert A. Cooke, Ph.D. and J. Clayton Lafferty, Ph.D. Copyright © 1973-2011 by Human Synergistics International. All rights reserved.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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Implications of the cultural gaps on outcomes
People at HEds experience both the negative and positive consequences of their
organization’s cultures. Comments from 35 respondents offered insightful suggestions
for effecting change in higher education (Human Synergistics Inc., 2011, April), calling
for “systematic changes starting with mission/vision, hiring and reward systems”. One
wrote: “Make everyone in the pipeline at educational institutions better educated in
best-practices, more accountable for their outcomes and for meeting targets; and hold a
higher standard for quality teaching and for grading students”. Others echoed:
“Emphasize independent, critical thinking, and place greater responsibility for adaptive
learning on the student”, “Communicate initiatives timely and thoroughly”. The
participants’ comments were harmonious and can be summed up as a call to promote
“systems and processes that support: good governance; understanding stakeholders’
needs; strong culture of continuous improvement; organizational culture that values and
respects individuals and promotes their learning and professional development; strong
data-driven planning; organizational agility; integrity in word and deeds”.
Quantitative analysis of the organizational outcomes revealed desirable gaps in
several areas and undesirable gaps in others. Intention to stay, personal customer
service, satisfaction and personally recommending the HEd as a good place to work all
fell well above the historical average; while organizational customer service, role clarity
and role conflict fell well below the historical average.
Both the qualitative and quantitative cultural outcome measures indicate a need
for changes in structures, systems, technologies, and skills/qualities of the HEds.
Respondents urged, “Focus on students and their needs. Ask yourself, how can
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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creating a great experience (learning and otherwise) make the student grow more?
How does that student's experience help our institution grow and become better?”
Some were concerned that “Higher education is no longer about the students, but about
the business…” (Human Synergistics Inc., 2011, April). These comments highlight the
importance for HEds to become more service oriented. Low scores along service
quality measures indicate the need for the establishment of service-oriented procedures
and norms, evaluation and possible re-engineering of core processes, customer-service
training, and the revision of reward systems (to reinforce goal attainment) (Szumal,
2003).
Recommendations
Recommendations for Leading Cultural Change
We recommend that both for-profit and non-profit HEds implement strategies used
by organizational leaders seeking to effect change (Blanchard, 1997 and Reigle 2001):
1) Use belief systems (vision, mission, core values) and performance measures to
strike an effective balance between creativity and control. Become living symbols of
the newly minted organizational culture and assist executives to fulfill this
requirement by providing training and appropriate feedback systems.
2) Plan for, create and celebrate progress and work accomplishments.
3) Enlist people who are highly talented, intelligent, energetic, tenacious, and who are
committed to placing the interests of the organization above their own self-interests.
4) Empower change enthusiasts with communication and consultation skills.
5) Establish effective conflict resolution processes.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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6) Convey a sense of urgency by increasing awareness of the need for change.
7) Identify, replace or eliminate rules and policies (i.e. compensation, performance-
appraisal systems, organizational priorities) that are incompatible with the new
vision. Implement open-door policy.
8) Ensure inclusive involvement and participation in shaping the transformative
process.
9) Build trust by disseminating information to people in all roles and at all levels
throughout the organization.
10) Inspire imagination and creativity by safeguarding freedoms, encouraging risk-
taking and protecting research time.
11) Search constantly for newer and better ways to do everything.
12) Developing a shared vision and ensuring congruency of action.
13) Supporting one another and working with others. Encourage open-mindedness,
innovation and problem-solving.
Recommendations for Adopting and Adapting High Performance Practices
We recommend that both for-profit and non-profit Higher Education Institutions adopt
Pfeffer’s (1998) seven practices of high performing corporations to their business and
administrative divisions, while developing corresponding alternatives for their academic
divisions:
1) Employment security, or employment opportunity alternatives (externships,
internships, work-study, career development and placement services)
2) Selective hiring, or selective admission alternatives
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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3) Self-managed teams and decentralization of decision making, or participative
cultural alternatives (feedback, communication, consultation)
4) Comparatively high compensation contingent on organizational performance, or
academic support alternatives (grants, fellowships, scholarships)
5) Extensive training including leadership, management and communication skills
6) Reduced status distinctions and barriers
7) Extensive sharing of financial and performance information throughout the
organization
Recommendations for Reducing Defensive Cultural Styles and Promoting a
Constructive Organizational Culture:
Unresolved conflicts, de-motivation, work avoidance and high turnover are
consequences of Passive/Defensive organizational cultures where conflicts are
primarily resolved by either accommodation or withdrawal (Szumal, 2003). Insecurity,
disempowerment, disrespect, and punishment characterize Aggressive/Defensive
cultures as they value confrontation, criticism, coercion and overconfidence (Szumal,
2003). By contrast, flexibility, consultation, knowledge, reason and coordination are
features of Constructive organizational cultures as they encourage communication,
sharing and cooperation with others (Szumal, 2003).
We recommend that both for-profit and non-profit Higher Education Institutions
adopt the Human Synergistics International recommendations to cultivate Constructive
norms within organizations at the member, unit and organizational levels:
1) Ensure that all members are given the opportunity to work to their full potential
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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2) Balance expectations for taking initiative and thinking independently with those for
consensus and power sharing
3) Expect participation without domination
4) Elicit unique perspectives and concerns while working towards agreement
5) Value quality over quantity
6) Value creativity over conformity
7) Judge effectiveness at the system level rather than the component level
8) Practice empowerment and transformational leadership which are prescriptive
(guide and direct) rather than restrictive (constrain and prohibit) practices
9) Adopt approaches for continuous, system-wide, improvements including problem
solving, strategic planning, innovation, and benchmarking
10) Inspire innovation by allowing people to express themselves, experiment and learn
from mistakes
11) Increase accomplishments by encouraging people to set challenging goals, and by
providing them with necessary resources
12) Cultivate mentors by investing in training and development, and by providing
opportunities for expansion
13) Enhance cooperation by letting people communicate, get to know one another,
contribute and share ideas
14) Inculcate humanistic values of mutual encouragement and support
15) Develop organizational mechanisms to collect and respond to feedback, implement
good suggestions
16) Remember that education institutions are “Learning Organizations” which
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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emphasize creativity, individual development and systems thinking
17) Treat all members of the organization with respect and dignity
18) Provide equitable pathways for advancement (or alternative opportunities for
placement elsewhere)
Conclusion
This chapter profiles organizational culture in Higher Education Institutions.
Twelve cultural styles are analyzed, and differences between current and ideal
behavioral norms are identified as targets for organizational change in Non-Profit and
For-Profit colleges and universities. Recommendations are presented to assist
professionals in their efforts to implement strategies that would reduce the intensity of
eight Defensive patterns and promote four prescribed Constructive cultural styles.
Further studies are warranted to examine subgroup and sub divisional cultures within
educational institutions.
Acknowledgements
We thank all the distinguished respondents for their participation and input. We are
grateful to Sarah Peterson of Human Synergistics, Inc. for expert assistance.
Organizational Culture in Higher Education Zeine et al. 2011
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