Post on 17-Oct-2020
Water Sources and Demand Patterns in
Mupfure Catchment: The case of Ward VIII in Mhondoro Communal Area
By
Daniel Tevera and Phillip Kundishora
IWRMS Project
2000
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Table of Contents Contents Page 1.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................2 1.1. Background ...................................................................................................................2 1.2 Aims and Importance of the Study.................................................................................2 1.3 Research Methodology...................................................................................................3 1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...............................................................................4 2.0. Water Policies In Zimbabwe.....................................................................................5 2.1. Water Institutions..........................................................................................................5 2.2. Water Legislation..........................................................................................................5 3.0 The Study Area ............................................................................................................7 3.1. Background ...................................................................................................................7 3.1. The Resource Base........................................................................................................9 4.0 Research Findings ......................................................................................................12 4.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents ....................................................................12 4.2 Water Sources and Utilisation Patterns........................................................................16 4.2.1 Overview of the Main Water Sources .......................................................................16 4.2.2 Water Utilisation Patterns ........................................................................................19 4.2.3 Main Sources of Water..............................................................................................20 4.2.4 Time Taken To Walk To And From Main Water Sources .........................................22 4.2.5 Preference For Main Water Source ..........................................................................23 4.2.6 Sources Of Water For Drinking And Cooking..........................................................25 4.2.7 Sources Of Water For Bathing And Washing Clothes ..............................................27 4.2.8 Sources Of Water For Gardening .............................................................................28 4.2.9 Sources Of Water For Construction .........................................................................31 4.3 Water Demand Patterns And Collection Modes..........................................................32 4.3.1 Water Demand Patterns............................................................................................32 4.3.2 Water Collection .......................................................................................................34 4.4 Water Quality...............................................................................................................37 4.5 Primary Water Per Capita Demand..............................................................................39 5.0 Summary Of Main Findings .....................................................................................40 5.1 Policy Recommendations.............................................................................................41 6.0 Annexes .......................................................................................................................42 Annex 1: The Questionnaire ..............................................................................................42 Annex 2: Report on the Process of Community Consultation...........................................47 Annex 3: Flow diagram of the Mupfure Water Management............................................49 References .........................................................................................................................50
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List of Figures Figure 3.1: Land Tenure Categories in Mupfure Catchment ...............................................8 Figure 3.2: Landuse Types in Ward VIII ...........................................................................11 Figure 3.3: Settlement Patterns in Ward VIII ....................................................................12 Figure 4.1: Population Density in Mhondoro Communal Land ........................................14
List of Tables
Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Mhondoro Communal Area (1992) ...........................13 Table 4.2: Household Size in the Study Area ....................................................................15 Table 4.3: Frequency of Return Visits ...............................................................................15 Table 4.4: Characteristics of Selected Borehole wells in Ward VIII .................................18 Table 4.5: Uses of Water ...................................................................................................20 Table 4.6: Livestock...........................................................................................................20 Table 4.7: Main Sources of Water .....................................................................................21 Table 4.8: Time to Walk to and from Main Water Sources...............................................23 Table 4:9 Preference of Main Water Source......................................................................24 Table 4:10 Main Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking..........................................25 Table 4.11: Main Source of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes ..............................28 Table 4.12 Main Sources of Water for Gardening.............................................................30 Table 4.13: Main Source of Water for Construction .........................................................31 Table 4.15: People Who Collect Water for the Household .............................................34 Table 4.16: Method of Carrying Water..............................................................................35 Table 4.17: Days When More Water is Collected .............................................................36 Table 4.18: Times of the Year When More Water is Collected ........................................37 Table 4.19: Storing Water..................................................................................................37 Table 4.20: Problems with Water Quality .........................................................................38 Table 4.21: Treatment of Water.........................................................................................38 Table 4.22: Disinfection of Water .....................................................................................39 Table 4.23: Amount of Water Collected per Day ..............................................................40
Acronyms AGRITEX: Agriculture and Extension Services* CL: Communal Land DDF: District Development Fund DWR: Department of Water Resources GPS: Global Positioning System IWRMS: Integrated Water Resources Management System LSCFA: Large Scale Commercial Farming Area NGO: Non Governmental Organisation RA: Resettlement Area SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Scientists SSCFA: Small Scale Commercial Farming Area WHO: World Health Organisation ZANU-PF: Zimbabwe African National Union, Patriotic Front ZINWA: Zimbabwe National Water Authority
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1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background
In Zimbabwe water is a limited resource with many competing uses and its distribution is
very uneven. It is mainly used for irrigation, domestic, industrial, commercial, waste and
waste water disposal, recreation, hydropower generation, fisheries and wildlife and nature
preservation purposes. It has been noted that given the current population growth of 3.1
% the internal water resources amounting to 253 km3, would be sufficient only up to 2025
(CSO 1992, Nilsson and Hammer 1996). Some areas, mainly the commercial farming
areas, are better endowed with water resources than others. About 60% of the land in
Zimbabwe is classified as eroded to some extent, and most of the eroded area is in
communal areas, which also receive low rainfall. Most communal areas are characterised
with water scarcity while most commercial farmers have abundant water resources
(Nilsson and Hammer 1996).
1.2 Aims and Importance of the Study
The Mhondoro survey is part of the Integrated Water Resources Management System
(IWRMS) project, which is being undertaken in the Mupfure catchment, and is funded by
the European Union. The survey aimed to investigate the water sources and demand
patterns in Ward VIII (Mhondoro Communal Lands) in the Mupfure catchment. To
achieve this, the following information was obtained:
(a) the various uses of water in the ward;
(b) the main sources of water for different uses, with specific reference on the nature of
the sources, the distance to the water sources, and the reasons for preferring the main
water sources;
(c) the collection of water, in terms of the time when the water is collected, the people
who collect the water, the means used and the way the water is stored before use;
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(d) the amount of water collected by each household per day, in order to determine the
per capita demand of water in the ward; and
(e) the quality of the water that is available;
An assessment of the quantity and quality of the available water resources is an essential
prerequisite for water resource development management. The above information will,
therefore, assist in developing appropriate institutions for effective management,
allocation and protection of the available water resources, especially in areas with limited
water resources. Effective management of water resources will ensure sustainability in the
water sector, will reduce environmental damage and poverty alleviation in communal
areas through increased agricultural production.
1.3 Research Methodology
Questionnaires were the main survey instrument designed to capture the necessary
information were administered, at the household level, in the ward. The questionnaire
(Annex 1) was directed to any adult member of the household with knowledge of the
sources and uses of water in the household. The questionnaires were administered by a
team comprising University of Zimbabwe students and high school leavers with at least 5
‘O’ Level passes. The enumerators were trained prior to the survey in order to improve
the data collection process. The global positioning system (GPS) was used to capture the
exact locations of the main water sources and the homesteads. The positions or waypoints
marked using the GPS were downloaded into a computer in order to produce digital maps
showing water demand patterns in the study area.
The survey intended to cover all the households in the ward. However, a few homesteads
were left out because at some households there was no one to interview during the time of
the survey, partly because the survey was carried out when most households were
engaged in farming activities. Other households were left out because the members were
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reluctant to respond to the interviews. In all, 1465 households representing more than 90
% of all the households in the ward, were interviewed. The total population of ward
constitutes about 10 % of the total population in the Mhondoro communal area (Table
4.1).
After the interviews the SPSS package was used to generate the required cross
tabulations. This package was chosen because its versatility to handle various
computational steps ranging from data listings, tabulations and several statistical
analyses.
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This report presents the results of a survey carried out in the Mhondoro communal lands
(Mupfure catchment) from March to April 1999. The study investigated the varied
sources of water in the ward in terms of the nature of the source, and the distance of the
water source from the homestead. The quality of the water and the frequency and method
of carrying water to the homestead are also investigated. The total amount of water
collected per day and the per capita demand of water is also analysed. All this information
will provide a balance sheet required for the proper management and allocation of water
resources in the area.
The estimation of per capita demand of water was based on the water brought to the
homestead only. As a result, water used for other purposes other than those undertaken
within the homestead is not accounted for in this report. Thus, water used for activities
such as clothes washing, bathing, gardening and animal watering, which are mainly done
away from the homestead is not accounted for. In addition, the daily or seasonal
variations associated with the use of water, are not assessed in a quantitative manner in
this report. Only the information on the days of the week or times of the year when more
or less water is collected was obtained, and not the actual amounts of water collected
when the demand is either high or low.
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2.0. WATER POLICIES IN ZIMBABWE
2.1. Water Institutions
Several actors are involved in various aspects of water resources management and
development in Zimbabwe. Within the public sector, the Department of Water Resources
(DWR), under the Ministry of Lands and Water Resources, has the overall responsibility
for the planning of national water resources development (Chatora, et al 1995). The
department is responsible for all Government water supply facilities, including the
planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of water related infrastructure.
In the communal areas the Water Division of the District Development Fund (DDF) is
responsible for siting and drilling of borehole wells for potable water supplies and stock
watering as well as the design and construction of small dams. DDF is also responsible
for the operation and maintenance of these facilities. The Department of Agricultural,
Technical and Extension Services (Agritex) is responsible for both large scale and
smallholder irrigation development (Chatora, et al 1995).
Other public sector agencies linked with water related aspects such as environment, local
government, health, hydro-power and national planning are also involved in the water
sector. Private sector agencies play an essential role in representing various stakeholders’
interests and are also involved in research and training (Nilsson and Hammer, 1996).
2.2. Water Legislation
According to the 1976 Water Act, all water, other than private water, is vested in the state
or President and shall not be abstracted, apportioned, controlled, diverted or used
otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of the Act. Private water is regarded as
water which rises, drains or falls naturally on any land so long as it remains on the land
and does not join any public stream. Public water is all water found on or below the bed
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of a public stream including marshes, wells, swamps or vleis forming the source or found
on the course of a public stream (Madamombe and Merka 1997, Republic of Zimbabwe
1994). The Act entitles any person who has access to a public stream to use public water
for domestic purposes only. The use of water for any other purposes like agricultural
purposes, institutional purposes (recreational clubs, boarding schools, etc.), mining
purposes and any other large scale uses require specific authority in terms of the Water
Act.
The allocation of rights to use public water under the 1976 Water Act, is based on the
Prior Appropriation Doctrine, whereby the person who makes the first application to use
public water has priority over subsequent applicants (van der Zaag and Nyagwambo
1998). Thus, water rights are granted on a first come first served basis.
However, the 1976 Water Act has failed to fulfill its main objective of protecting and
controlling water resources efficiently. Manzungu (1997), noted that the Act does not
reflect the new political and social realities and is responsible for the absence of effective
conflict management and resolution mechanisms. The priority system which espouses the
principle of first come first served basis in granting water rights, and first come last out
during periods of water scarcity is also a major weakness. During periods of water
scarcity such as droughts some potential water users will be denied access, since all the
river flow may become fully committed before they get water.
The Zimbabwean Water Act has been blamed, by some, for the inequalities in the
distribution of water resources throughout the country. Kambudzi (1997) noted that the
majority of the people in the communal lands were denied access to essential productive
water, and has contributed to low productivity, increased poverty and environmental
degradation in these areas. Above 70% of the population have limited access to water
resources from major irrigation schemes (Chenje and Johnson 1996).
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The weaknesses associated with the 1976 Water Act have rendered it inefficient in the
proper management of water resources. As a result new features in the management of
water resources have been proposed. These changes are governed by the proposed
amendment of the 1976 Water Act and the formation of the Zimbabwe National Water
Authority (ZINWA) (Kagoro 1997, van der Zaag and Nyagwambo 1998). The proposed
Water Act aims to:
a) reverse environmental degradation by securing water courses, basins, watersheds and
catchment areas;
b) broaden access to available rural water agro-water with a view to enhancing land
productivity, harvests and incomes; and
c) enhance the local, community management of water and its utilisation.
Under the proposed new system the country will be divided on the basis of river
catchments as opposed to the former classification based on administrative criteria.
Management of water resources in the catchment will be done by the catchment and sub-
catchment councils (Kagoro 1997). This approach seems logical and will encourage that
upstream uses will not interfere with downstream uses and this will also ensure that water
is used for its best purposes.
3.0 THE STUDY AREA
3.1. Background
The study was carried out in Ward VIII of Mhondoro communal area which lies in the
Mupfure catchment about 100 km to the south west of Harare. The Mupfure catchment
has a diversity of landuse classes including, Large Scale Commercial Farming Areas
(LSCFA), Small Scale Commercial Farming Areas (SSCFA), Resettlement Areas (RAs)
and Communal Lands (CLs). The large scale commercial farms and the communal areas
are the dominant landuse patterns in the catchment. The large scale commercial farms
occupy the area around Beatrice north, Gadzema, Selous, Suri Suri, Mupfure and part of
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Norton. The communal lands in the catchment are, Chihota, Mhondoro, Magondi,
Zvimba, Chirau, and Mupfure (Figure 3.1).
There is great disparity between the communal and the commercial farming areas, the
latter are used extensively, occupy areas of high rainfall and fertile soils and good
physical infrastructure, while the former are in areas of low and variable rainfall and low
fertility. Most public water resources are developed or allocated for use especially
irrigation in large scale commercial farms.
Figure 3.1: Land Tenure categories in Mupfure Catchment
Large Scale Commercial Farms
Mhondoro
Mupfure
Magondi
Angwa South
Chihota
Chirau
Hartley
Zowa
Sachuru
Musengezi
Acton
Umfuli
Zvimba
Chitomborwizi
Reynold
Chenjiri
Chegutu 6
Muda
Marirangwe
RingaLSCFA
ChimbwandaRutara Hills
N
Communal Area
Large Scale Commercial Farming Area
Recreational Park and Safari Area
Resettlement Area
Small Scale Commercial Farming Area
40 0 40 80 Kilometres
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3.1. The Resource Base
The Mhondoro communal area is typical of most communal areas found in Zimbabwe in
terms of climatic conditions, soil characteristics and population densities. The Mhondoro
communal land with a total area of about 1 304 km2, constitutes 11% of the Mupfure
catchment. It is situated in natural farming region III, and enjoys a mean annual rainfall of
740 mm which falls between November and March. Crop cultivation, without irrigation,
is only possible during the rainy season. Most streams and shallow water sources are
seasonal and they dry up during the dry season because evapotranspiration exceeds
precipitation amounts. There are no water rights in the Mhondoro communal land despite
the existence of major tributaries such as the Nyangweni, Nyawiye and Nyundo rivers
(Mazvimavi 1998).
The Mhondoro Communal area is located on granatoid rocks which are generally resistant
to weathering. As a result the soils are mainly sandy, and deficient in organic matter.
According to the 1992 census the total population in the Mhondoro communal area was
70 059 giving rise to a population density of 54 persons per km2. A major problem in the
area is soil erosion caused by overgrazing and recurrent droughts which reduces
vegetation cover. Most households rely on dryland agriculture on land holdings averaging
2.0 hectares (Mehretu, 1994).
A combination of poor soils, high population pressure and persistent droughts has
resulted in widespread poverty in the area. Poverty has led to over-exploitation of natural
resources and environmental stress in the area.
The borehole wells drilled in the granatoid rocks dominant in the Mhondoro communal
lands generally yield low amounts of water ranging from 0.5 to 100 cubic metres per day,
depending on the season. As a result the water from these borehole wells is mostly used
for domestic purposes such as drinking, cooking, bathing and washing.
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Ownership of the local natural resources is characterised by the communal tenure system,
which is based on common access to resources (Murombedzi 1990). Thus resources like
water and land are communally owned and all members of the community are not denied
access. Hardin (1968), in ‘the tragedy of the commons’, argued that such a tenure system
will result in resource depletion since individuals in a community will try by all means to
maximise exploitation of the resources for their benefit while negative impacts will be
shared by the whole community. However, it has been argued that the communal tenure
system that exists in Zimbabwe is not an open access regime since there are institutional
arrangements that regulate access to the common property. Thus potential resource users
that are not members of the community are denied access to the resource (Murombedzi
1990, Berkes and Farvar 1989).
Ward VIII is one of the ten wards in Mhondoro communal lands. Formerly, Ward VIII
consisted of Chivero M, and about a third of Chivero C wards prior to amalgamation in
1998 (Table 4.1). The ward is bounded by the Nyawiye River to the east, the Mupfure
River to the south and large scale commercial farms to the north and west (Figure 4.1). It
has a total area of 113.36 km2 constituting 9 % of the Mhondoro communal land. The
total population of the ward constitutes about 10 % of the total population in the
Mhondoro communal area (Table 4.1).
Generally, the ward is characterised by a gently sloping terrain. However, there are some
variations in topography within the ward. The terrain is gentle in the north, while the
extreme southern parts are hilly. Besides the Nyawiye River, the Nyamakondo and the
Gonzo are the other main rivers that drain the ward. Only the areas adjacent to and river
valleys still have considerable vegetation. Most of the area, at the river interfluves is
under cultivation (Figure 3.2).
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Figure 3.2: Landuse Types in Ward VIII
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Zvido Store
Maruma B.C.
Mhuriro B.C.
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Mupfumira B.C.
Gonza Sc.
Mavhudzi Sc.
Chingwere Sc.
Makuvatsine Sc.
St Saviours Sc.
Mutimusakwa Sc.
2 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers
N
Cultivated Land
Medium Bush
Rivers
The settlements are mainly linear, along rivers and roads. For example, a linear pattern of
settlement stretches from north to south along the western bank of the Nyawiye river. The
same pattern is found along the Nyamakondo river. However, some settlement clusters
are found, especially in the north western part of the ward (Figure 3.3). The dominance of
the linear settlement is likely to present problems in the provision of community water
sources like communal borehole wells. This is mainly because such facilities need to be
centrally located in an area (e.g. at the village level), and in a linear settlement, some
households at the extreme ends of the village will have to travel longer distances to
access the centrally located water sources than in a clustered settlement. The rivers and
fields which divide the linear settlements make it difficult to access water sources on the
other side because they are difficult to cross. Thus water sources on the other side of
fields or streams may not be utilised even though they are not far from the settlements.
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Figure 3.3: Settlement Patterns in Ward VIII
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2 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers
N
Cultivated Land
Medium Bush
Rivers
# Homesteads
4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents
In order to understand fully the water utilisation patterns in the ward it is essential to
outline the demographic characteristics of the ward. This is necessary because it provides
the basis for planning since the changes in the population structure will influence water
utilisation patterns.
13
Ward VIII, with a population density of 65 persons per km2, is one of the most densely
populated wards in the Mhondoro communal area and in 1992 had 1504 households with
a total population of 7342 (CSO 1994). However, during the survey period, 1465
households constituting a total population of 8044 were interviewed in the ward (Table
4.1). The difference in the number of households between the 1992 census and the
Mhondoro survey of 1999 is attributable to the decline in the number of households due
to factors such as out-migration from the ward and deaths of the bread winners which
leads to the amalgamation of some households. Using the above figures, the rate of
population increase in the ward from 1992 to 1999 is 9.6 % and the average annual
growth rate during this period is 1.4 %. This growth rate, although low compared to other
communal lands in Zimbabwe, will increase the demand for water resources. Thus, if the
development of water resources is not proportional to the rate of population growth, the
ward will experience water shortage in future.
Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Mhondoro Communal Area (1992) Current Name Previous Name Area
(km2) Households Males Females Total
Population Population Density (persons/ km2)
Ward I Nherera A and Nherera B
135.44 1378 3441 3984 7425 54.82
Ward II Ngezi C and Ngezi D
229.28 1833 4431 5274 9705 42.33
Ward III Murombedzi 90.72 1184 2864 3042 5906 65.10 Ward IV Mashayamombe and
Ward XXII 169.66 1880 4290 4699 8989 52.98
Ward V Rwizi F 107.22 810 1945 2205 4150 38.71 Ward VI Gora 67.54 530 1249 1466 2715 40.1984 Ward VII Mashayamombe P
and Mashayamombe K
165.98 1700 4045 4604 8649 52.10869
Ward VIII Chivero M and 1/3 of Chivero C
113.36 1504 3393 3949 7342 64.76711
Ward IX Chivero O and 2/3 of Chivero C
95.89 1199 2737 3170 5907 61.60184
Ward X Nyamweda and Nyamweda P
128.88 1901 4193 5078 9271 71.93513
Total 1 303.97 13 919 32 588 37 471 70 059 53.72746 Source: Compiled by the authors
14
Figure 4.1: Population Density in Mhondoro Communal Land
42
53
52
55
72
65
39
62
65
40Ward II
Ward IV
Ward I
Ward VII
Ward X
Ward V
Ward VIII
Ward IX
Ward III
Ward VI
9705
89898649
7425
9271
7342
4150
5918
5906
2715
S
N
EW
Population DensityPersons/square kilometre
< 42
43- 53
53 - 55
56- 65
> 66
10 0 10 20 Kilometres
The household size ranges from 1 to 22 members and the mean is 5.6. Out of the 8044
people who normally reside in the ward; 6 % are below 3 years of age; 48 % are in the 3
15
to 18 years age group; 38 % are in the 19 to 59 years age group; and 8 % are above 60
years (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2: Age Composition of the Surveyed Population in the Study Area Age Group Number of People Percentage Below 3 489 6 3-18 3 825 48 19-59 3 083 38 Above 60 647 8 Total 8 044 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
Table 4.2 shows that the school going age constitutes the highest number of people in the
ward (48%), and the infants and the elderly constitute a small percentage(6%). As such
the pattern of water demand in the ward is most likely to correlate with the school
timetable. Selective outmigration from the ward accounts for the imbalanced sex ratios
(53 % female). This imbalance in the sex ratio is a result of the relatively high migration
of males to urban and mining centres in search of employment opportunities. This view is
supported by the fact that 58 % of the households have at least one member living outside
the ward in nearby urban centres especially Harare, Chegutu, Norton, Mubayira growth
point and the Hartley Platinum mine near Chegutu. The centres are all within a radius of
120 km from the ward.
Table 4.3: Frequency of Return Visits Frequency
Number Percentage
At Least Once a Month 415 41.7 During Public Holidays 351 35.2 During School Holidays 67 6.7 Other 164 16.4 Total 997 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
16
Out of the 997 households with at least one member of the family living or working away
41.7 % reported that the migrants return at least once a month (about 12-20 times /
annum); 35.2 % reported that they return during public holidays (6-7 times / annum); 6.7
% during school holidays (3 times / annum). and 16 % reported that the frequency of
return is spontaneous and quite irregular (Table 4.3). Most of those who return at least
once a month do so during the weekends and this has the effect of increasing water
demand during weekends because with more people at the homestead the demand for
water increases.
4.2 Water Sources and Utilisation Patterns
4.2.1 Overview of the Main Water Sources
The survey results show that the quality and quantity of water and distance to water
sources all influence water demand patterns in the study area. The finding is consistent
with Drangert’s (1993) assumptions regarding water consumption patterns. He postulated
that:
a) people prefer clean safe water sources when they are provided;
b) villagers will naturally use clean water sources more than unsafe and old water
sources;
c) villagers will stop using unsafe water sources when new sources are provided;
d) villagers will use more water when new water sources are provided nearer to their
homes;
e) villagers with clean water sources nearer to their homes will save a lot of human
energy needed to collect and store water resources; and
f) new water sources mean more equal access to water resources and therefore few
conflicts over water resources.
Given the above assumptions it is essential to outline the sources of water in Ward VIII.
Sakupwanya (1997) has shown that 69% of the Zimbabwean population reside in
17
communal areas and they rely on groundwater as the main source of water for domestic
purposes. In the ward, the main sources of ground water used for domestic purposes
include, protected wells, unprotected wells and communal borehole wells.
During the rainy season both protected and unprotected wells are the dominant sources of
water in the ward mainly (Figure 4.2). Both are 3-5 metre deep “wells”, usually dug near
the homestead. However, some of the borehole wells are very deep such that they rarely
dry up even during prolonged drought periods. The main difference between protected
and unprotected wells is that protected ones usually have brick walls and their mouths
(tops) are protected with a concrete slab, often covered with a lid to avoid litter, while
unprotected wells are mainly open and exposed to litter and are often used by both
livestock and human beings. In addition, winches or windlasses are used for drawing
water from most protected wells. Since most of the protected and unprotected wells are
privately owned access to these sources is commonly restricted to family members and, in
some cases, neighbouring homesteads. Consequently, the digging and maintenance costs
are met by the owner.
Communal borehole wells are also a common source of water in the ward. These
borehole wells are used by one or more villages, to collect water mainly for domestic
purposes. In cases where they are entirely used by institutions, such as schools, villagers
are invariablydenied access to use water from the borehole well. Since most borehole
wells are communally owned and were drilled by the DDF, which is a government
department in the Ministry of Water Resources, the criteria used when selecting sites
were ground water availailability and centrality in order to make the borehole wells easily
accesible to the highest number of users as possible. Water from the communal borehole
wells is drawn using a hand pump. At most borehole wells, there is a sink whose purpose
is to facilitate the washing of clothes. It was noted during the survey that some of the
borehole wells in the ward were not functional as they had broken down due to poor
maintenance and overuse.
18
The drilling of borehole wells in most communal lands of Zimbabwe pre-dates the post
colonial period. The main difference lies in the limited number of wells before
independence, most of which were severely damaged during the war of liberation of the
late 1970s. At the end of the war in 1980, reconstruction work related to water supplies in
the communal areas was placed high on the priority list of the ZANU-PF led government.
Over 3500 borehole wells throughout the country were repaired between April 1980 and
June 1981 (Dore et. al. 1984). As the reconstruction programme phased out during the
mid 1980s emphasis has shifted to regular construction of new water supplies.
The construction of borehole wells and other water related infrastructure in the communal
areas is mainly organised by the District Development Fund (DDF), Non Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and different donor agencies (Nilsson and Hammer 1996). Despite
the efforts of the above organisations to provide water to rural communities the
distribution of water supply infrastructure remains uneven and up to 40% of the
communal areas population lacks access to adequate potable water (Nilsson and Hammer,
1996).
Most of the 23 borehole wells in the study area (Figure 4.3) were drilled during the first
decade after independence in the 1980s. Table 4.4 shows that the borehole wells drilled in
the ward are at least 35 metres compared to most protected and unprotected wells which
are very shallow. As a result most households depend on borehole wells as sources of
water during the dry season and during periods of drought.
Table 4.4: Characteristics of Selected Borehole wells in Ward VIII Location
Water Quality
Main Geology Depth (m) Date Drilled
Gonza Sec School Fresh Hard Rock 45 19/07/87 Chingwere School - Hard Rock 39 19/08/89 Marisamhuka - Granite 45 29/01/83 Marisamhuka School Fresh Granite 36 11/01/85 Mupfumira Fresh Ironstone 48 01/02/83 Source: Mazvimavi (1998)
19
Rivers and streams the other sources of water used by the local population in the study
area. However, most of them are seasonal and provide water during the rainy season only.
The lack of major dams in the ward, but some households obtain their water from a dam
which is outside the ward belonging to Chibero Agricultural College. Animals also drink
water from this dam especially during the dry season when most streams and rivers dry
up.
Roof water harvesting is a source of water for some households, especially those that
have some houses with zinc roofs. However, it is used as a source of water by only 3.6 %
of the households (Table 4.5). Some households have managed to install hand pumps on
protected wells which then become private borehole wells. At Mutimusakwa Secondary
School, to the south east of the ward, there is a tap, from where a few households get
their water.
4.2.2 Water Utilisation Patterns Water is used for a variety of purposes in the ward, and the most common uses are;
drinking, cooking, people washing, washing clothes, animal watering, gardening and
construction (Table 4.5). All the households in the ward use water for drinking, cooking,
people washing, and clothes washing. However, 59 % use water for gardening, 56.5 % for
construction and 37.9 % for animal watering at the homestead.
Animal watering at the homestead is mainly undertaken by the households that keep,
fowls and pigs and to some extent goats. Cattle are usually driven to the river or stream in
order to drink water. Some of the water uses such as clothes washing, garden watering,
construction and, to some extent, bathing are not regularly done. Furthermore, some of
the uses, such as bathing and clothes washing, if done in a river or stream, are non-
consumptive uses, such that the actual amount of water used is difficult to determine. The
irregularities or fluctuations and the non consumptive uses associated with the water
utilisation make it difficult to calculate the per capita demand of water per day.
20
Table 4.5: Uses of Water
Use of Water Number of Households Percentage of Households
Drinking 1465 100 Cooking 1465 100 People Washing 1465 100 Washing Clothes 1465 100 Animal Watering 555 37.9 Gardening 865 59 Construction 828 56.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)
In addition to the uses of water outlined above some water is used for livestock watering
and dipping. Cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and pigs are the main types of livestock in the
ward. In all, there are 4817 cattle, 1637 goats, 90 donkeys, 32 pigs and 29 sheep among
all the interviewed households (Table 4.6). Rivers, streams and seasonal ponds are the
main sources of drinking water for livestock watering.
Table 4.6: Livestock
Livestock Total Number of Livestock
Cattle 4817 Goats 1637 Sheep 29 Donkeys 90 Pigs 32 Source: Survey Results (1999)
4.2.3 Main Sources of Water.
This section assesses the rankings given to different water sources in the ward, either as
the first main water source or the second main water source. The first main water source
is that source which is preferred most by the household, while the second main water
source is the one which is used, either as a source of water for uses which are not of
21
major importance or as an alternative in cases where the first main water source will not
be functional.
The protected well is the first main water source for 36.9 % of the 1465 households that
were interviewed in the ward. The communal borehole well is the first main water source
for 33.9 %; the unprotected well for 25.5 %; the private borehole well for 2.2 %; the
stream for 1.1 %; the main river for 0.3 %; the permanent dam for 0.1 % and the
community tap for 0.1 % as well (Table 4.7)
Table 4.7: Main Sources of Water
Sources of Water First Main
Water Source (n)
First Main Water Source
(%)
Second Main Water Source
(n)
Second Main Water Source
(%)
Protected Well 540 36.9 81 9.1 Unprotected Well 374 25.5 296 33.4 Communal Borehole well 496 33.9 262 29.5 Main River 4 0.2 12 1.4 Stream 16 1.1 128 14.4 Permanent Dam 2 0.1 6 0.7 Seasonal Pond 0 0 54 6.1 Private Borehole well 32 2.2 9 1 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 32 3.6 Community Tap 1 0.1 7 0.8 Total 1465 100 887 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
The protected well is ranked first, as the first main water source in the ward. As shown in
Table 4.9 the distance to the water source and the water quality are the two main variables
that are considered when choosing the water source. As such, the protected well is the
most convenient source of water for most households in the ward, because it provides
clean water and in most cases protected wells are nearer to the homesteads.
Borehole wells also provide clean water, but because they may not be nearer to all
homesteads, they are ranked second, as the main water sources. Clean water, which is
mainly used for cooking and drinking influences the choice of a water source. Therefore,
22
the sources which provide water for cooking and drinking seem to be the main water
sources for most households. Even where other sources are nearer to the homesteads, they
may not be regarded as the main water sources, if they do not provide water for cooking
and drinking.
The unprotected well, which is ranked third as the first main water source in the ward is
mainly used by households that do not have easy access to either borehole wells or
protected wells. However, the unprotected wells are alternative water sources for many
households, and are ranked first, as the second main water sources in the ward. They are
ranked the second main water sources by 33.4 % of the households. This is so because
they are mainly used to collect water for other purposes besides cooking and drinking.
The communal borehole well is ranked second as the second main water source in the
ward mainly because when the protected wells and the unprotected wells dry up people
will use borehole wells. Streams are ranked third as the second main water source in the
ward mainly because, like unprotected wells, they are a source of water for other purposes
besides cooking and drinking especially during the rainy season. The other sources with
lower ranks either as the first main or the second main water sources are those which are
very few in the ward and are used by few households.
4.2.4 Time Taken to Walk To and From Main Water Sources
This section analyses the perceived time taken to and from the water source. This time
does not include the time taken in the queue when fetching the water, but, it is the
perceived time taken when walking to and from the main water source. The perceived
time is important in this analysis because it is the one which influences decision making
and not the actual time Table 4.8 shows that time is considered as an important factor in
choosing the main water source by 84 % of all the interviewed households.
23
Table 4.8: Time to Walk to and from Main Water Sources
Time First Main Water Source
(n)
First Main Water Source
(%)
Second Main Water Source
(n)
Second Main Water Source
(%)
< 10 Minutes 518 35.4 206 23.3 10-30 Minutes 738 50.4 425 48 31-60 Minutes 163 11.1 196 22.1 > 60 Minutes 46 3.1 58 6.6 Total 1465 100 885 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
The perceived time taken to walk to and from the first main water source ranges from 1
minute to 3 hours and the average time is 19 minutes. Table 4.6 shows that 85.8 % of the
households perceive that they take 30 minutes or less to walk to and from the first main
water source. This shows that there are many water sources in the ward. Some water
sources are within the homesteads making it possible for some households to take only 1
minute to walk to and from the main water source. Although the water sources in the
ward are many, their distribution is very uneven and this explains why some people
perceive that they walk for more than an hour to and from the main water source. The
people who walk long distances to the water sources are mainly those who have recently
settled in remote areas within the ward, like the southern part.
4.2.6 Preference for Main Water Source
A variety of factors influence the choice of the main water source by different households
(Table 4.9). Out of the 1465 households that ware interviewed 84.2 % prefer their main
water source because it is the closest water source. This implies that many people will
avoid walking longer distances to collect water, most likely because they want to reserve
time for other economic activities.
Water quality is the second most important factor influencing the choice of the main
water source, with 74.5 % of the households preferring their main water sources because
24
the water is better and cleaner. This explains why the communal borehole well and the
protected well are the most favoured sources of cooking and drinking water in the ward.
The trip to and from the water source is considered an important factor in choosing the
main water source by 47.6 % of the households in the ward. Physical factors such as steep
slopes, rivers, swamps and other physical barriers can make the journey to and from the
water source very difficult. Fields may also make the journey to the water source difficult,
in the sense that they have to be avoided if there are some crops. As a result some
households may prefer distant water sources if the trip is easy.
The availability of water at the source is also an important factor in selecting the main
water source, with 45.8 % of the households preferring their main water source because
there is lots of water. People will avoid sources where they may wait in queues for a long
time in order to fetch water. This is also related to the easy with which the container fills,
which influences 30.4 % of the households in choosing their main water source. At some
sources it may be difficult to fill the container, for instance where water yield from a
borehole well is low or where a tin used to fetch water from a well may be small or
leaking. This will also result in more time being spend when collecting water. Some
people prefer their main water source for no obvious reasons, such as they have always
used the source. Thus in cases where a new source becomes available people may still use
the traditional water source which might not necessarily be the optimum one. The choice
of the main water source may also be influenced by social factors such as the people met
on the way to and at the water source. However, these two factors are not very significant
as they were cited by only 6.2 % of the respondents.
Table 4:9 Preference of Main Water Source
Reason for Preference Number of Households
Percentage of Households
Closest Source 1233 84.2 Easiest Trip 698 47.6 Cleaner and Better Water 1091 74.5 Lots of Water 671 45.8
25
Container Fills Easily 445 30.4 People you Meet at the Source 73 5 People you Meet on the Way 17 1.2 Always Used the Source 238 16.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)
4.2.6 Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking People in the ward usually use the same source of water to collect water for cooking and
drinking. As a result there are no significant differences in the proportion of households
using different sources to get water for drinking and cooking, since clean water is
required for both purposes (Table 4.10). Usually the water for cooking and drinking is
collected using the same container.
Table 4:10 Main Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking
Main Source of Water
Number of Households (Dry
Season)
Percentage of Households (Dry
Season)
Number of Households (Rainy
Season)
Percentage of Households (Rainy
Season)
Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Communal Borehole well
739 738 50.4 50.4 389 384 26.6 26.2
Protected Well 436 435 29.8 29.7 547 548 37.3 37.4 Unprotected Well 243 244 16.6 16.7 453 454 30.9 31 Private Borehole well 37 37 2.5 2.5 40 40 2.7 2.7 Main River 4 4 0.3 0.3 3 3 0.2 0.2 Stream 4 5 0.3 0.3 9 11 0.6 0.8 Permanent Dam 2 2 0.1 0.1 2 2 0.1 0.1 Seasonal Pond 0 0 0 0 2 2 0.1 0.1 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 0 0 20 21 1.4 1.4 Total 4165 1465 100 100 1465 1465 100 100
Source: Survey Results (1999)
Out of the interviewed households 50.4 % use the communal borehole well as their main
source of water for drinking during the dry season, from May to November, 29.8 % use
the protected well and 16.6 % use the unprotected well. The private borehole well is used
by 2.5 % of the households as the main source of drinking water during the dry season,
0.3 % get their water from the main river; and 0.3 % again use the stream. Only 0.1 % use
a permanent dam as their main source of drinking water during the dry season.
26
The communal borehole well is used as the main source of drinking water during the dry
season mainly because the other sources of water will dry up during the dry season. These
other sources, especially the protected and unprotected wells, will dry up either because
of their shallow depths or their poor sites on low yielding ground.
The main river and the stream are mainly used as sources of drinking water by households
in areas where borehole wells and other alternative sources are far from their homesteads.
This is mainly the case in the extreme southern part of the ward, where the people get
their water from the Mupfure, Gonza and the Nyamakondo Rivers. The borehole well
which must serve this area is located at Mahororo Shopping Centre (Figure 4.3). The
borehole well in this area is not centrally located as a result most households have to walk
great distances in order to collect water. In addition to the great distance, the terrain in
this area in rugged, making it difficult to carry 20 litres of water on the head.
During the rainy season 29.8 % of the households use the protected well as the main
source of drinking water and 30.9 % the unprotected well. Few households use the
communal borehole well as their main water source during the rainy season, i.e. 26.6 %
compared to 50.4 % during the dry season. The protected and the unprotected wells are
used by more households as the main sources of drinking water mainly because they are
nearer to the homesteads (Figure 4.2). This can be supported by the fact that 84% of the
households prefer their main water source because it is the closest source (Table 4.9). As
a result, whenever water is available nearer to the homestead people will get drinking
water from these nearest source. This tends to leave them with more time to engage in
other activities such as farming and gathering wood for fuel.
Although most households get their water for drinking and cooking from protected and
unprotected wells during the rainy season some still get their water from the communal
borehole wells because they consider water quality to be an important factor mainly with
regard to drinking and cooking water. Table 4.9 shows that 74.5% of the households
prefer their main water source because the water is cleaner and better. The communal
27
borehole wells supply clean and better water because they are well protected. Unlike the
communal borehole wells, other sources of water especially unprotected wells, seasonal
ponds, streams and rivers are susceptible to rubbish in the form of leaves which are blown
to the water sources by wind and runoff which may enter the sources leading to the
deposition of organic and inorganic matter, thereby affecting water quality.
Roof water harvesting and the seasonal ponds are used by some households as main
sources of drinking and cooking water during the rainy season. The seasonal pond is
used by 0.1 % of the households and roof water harvesting by 2.7 %.
4.2.7 Sources of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes
From Table 4.11 it can be noted that there are no significant differences on the sources of
water for bathing and clothes washing. The communal borehole well is used by the
largest number of households as the main water source for people and clothes washing
during the dry season. Out of the 1465 households in the ward, 43 % use the communal
borehole well as their main water source for washing clothes and bathing. This is mainly
because the communal borehole wells can supply water throughout the year, compared to
the other sources which may dry up during the dry season. Most communal borehole
wells also have a sink which is constructed nearby, where clothes can be washed. This
enables people to do their washing clothes without carrying water for long distances. The
protected and unprotected wells are used by 29% and 20% of the households respectively,
as sources of water for clothes washing during the dry season. The other sources are used
by a small percentage of households as sources of water for bathing and washing clothes
during the dry season (Table 4.11).
28
Table 4.11: Main Source of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes
Main Source of Water Number of Households (Dry
Season)
Percentage of Households (Dry
Season)
Number of Households
(Rainy Season)
Percentage of Households (Rainy
Season)
Bathing Clothes wash
Bathing Clothes wash
Bathing Clothes wash
Bathing Clothes wash
Protected Well 427 431 29.1 29.4 492 500 33.6 34.1 Unprotected Well 291 288 19.9 19.7 515 515 35.2 35.2 Communal Borehole well 633 638 43.2 43.5 236 238 16.1 16.2 Main River 9 8 0.7 0.5 12 10 0.8 0.7 Stream 61 58 4.2 4 122 115 8.3 7.8 Permanent Dam 5 4 0.3 0.3 3 2 0.2 0.2 Seasonal Pond 5 5 0.3 0.3 26 25 1.8 1.7 Private Borehole well 34 33 2.3 2.3 34 35 2.3 2.3 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 0 0 25 25 1.7 1.8 Total 1465 1465 100 100 1465 1465 100 100
Source: Survey Results (1999) During the rainy season the unprotected well is used by the largest number of households
as the main water source for bathing and washing clothes. The unprotected well is the
most preferred because water quality is not a major consideration when collecting water
for bathing and washing clothes. The stream becomes a main water source for people and
clothes washing for a considerable number of households during the rainy season. It is
used by 8 % of the households as a main water source for these purposes (Table 4.11). It
is preferred because water will be available in the steams during the rainy season and
people do not carry water at all (where washing is done in the steam) or they do not carry
water for long distances (where they carry the water and do the washing near the stream).
4.2.8 Sources of Water for Gardening
The historical imbalances in the distribution of land and water resources and the resultant
mismatch between the location of irrigable soils and the water potential of the land has
led to the exclusion of many communal farmers from irrigation agriculture. Horticulture
is the only form of agriculture that involves irrigation among most households in the
29
communal areas. In Ward VIII, the main horticultural crops include vegetables, tomatoes
and onions. The gardens, where these crops are grown are mainly owned by individual
families, and are generally small, about 300 square metres on average. The crops grown,
are mainly for consumption at home, but in some cases they are sold either to
neighbouring families or the produce is send to the markets in nearby urban centres such
as Chegutu and Norton.
The gardens are mainly located close to the homesteads and this makes it easy to protect
them from animals and thieves. However, in some cases they are situated close to rivers
and streams where water can be obtained easily. Where the gardens are not adjacent to a
river or stream, there is usually a protected or unprotected well within the garden which
makes the watering of the crops easy. In most cases water used for gardening does not
reach the homestead, and has not been included in the water demand computations
produced in this report.
Gardening is carried out throughout the year (Table 4.12). Out of the 1465 households,
49.9 % do their gardening during the dry season and 56.6 % during the rainy season.
Slightly less than 50% of the respondents did their gardening during the dry season
mainly because there will be limited water resources. Out of the 658 households that use
water for gardening during the dry season 42.9 % get their water from unprotected wells,
24.6 % from protected wells, 18. 7 % from the communal borehole wells and 6.1 % from
the stream. However, because of the government policy which prohibits stream-bank
cultivation the stream is becoming very unpopular as a source of water for gardening. The
other sources are used by a smaller percentage of households as main sources of water for
gardening during the dry season.
30
Table 4.12 Main Sources of Water for Gardening
Main Source of Water Number of Households (Dry
Season)
Percentage of Households (Dry
Season)
Number of Households
(Rainy Season)
Percentage of Households (Rainy
Season)
Protected Well 162 24.6 190 22.9 Unprotected Well 282 42.9 450 54.2 Main River 12 1.8 11 1.3 Stream 40 6.1 63 7.6 Permanent Dam 5 0.8 4 0.5 Seasonal Pond 22 3.3 47 5.7 Communal Borehole well 123 18.7 48 5.8 Private Borehole well 12 1.8 11 1.3 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 6 0.7 Total 658 100 830 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
The unprotected well is used by 54.2 % of the households as the main source of water for
gardening during the rainy season. The protected well by 22.9 %; the stream by 7.6 %; the
communal borehole well by 5.8 % and the seasonal pond by 5.7 % (Table 4.12). A large
percentage of households use the unprotected and protected wells as their main water for
gardening during the dry season. In most cases a small portion of land around the
protected or unprotected well is fenced and vegetables are grown using water from these
sources. Usually these water sources are nearer to the homestead. The stream is also used
by a considerable number of households as a source of water for gardening during both
the rainy season and the dry seasons. The households using streams as sources of water
for gardening usually have their gardens by the side of the stream to avoid carrying water
for long distances.
The communal borehole well which is used by the majority of the households as the main
source of water for cooking, drinking, people washing and clothes washing, is not
dominant as the main source of water for gardening in the study area. Although
communal borehole wells usually supply water throughout the year, the rural
communities usually restrict borehole well water to basic uses such as drinking, cooking,
people washing and clothes washing. As a result the households which engage in
gardening activities will use other sources of water which are not communally owned.
31
This shows that the people in the communal areas have their institutional arrangements
that regulate access to common property.
4.2.9 Sources of Water for Construction
Out of the 1465 households in the ward 45% reported that they use water for construction
during the dry season and 53% during the wet season. Out of those who use water for
construction during the dry season 30 % get the water from the protected well; 28. 5 from
the unprotected well; 26.4 from the communal borehole well and 10.5 from the stream
(Table 4.13). During the rainy season 40.2 % use the protected well as the main source of
water for construction; 28.4 use the unprotected well; 13.8 the stream and 11.2 % the
communal borehole well. Many households get water for construction from privately
owned sources to avoid conflicts with others especially during the dry season. However,
the stream is also used as a main water source to collect water for construction, mainly
during the rainy season when the water will be available in streams. The contribution of
the water that is used for Construction to the total per capita consumption of water must
be treated with caution since Construction is not done frequently.
Table 4.13: Main Source of Water for Construction
Main Source of Water Number of Households (Dry
Season)
Percentage of Households
(Dry Season)
Number of Households (Rainy
Season)
percentage of Households
(Rainy Season)
Protected Well 188 28.5 218 28.4 Unprotected Well 198 30 309 40.2 Main River 8 1.2 7 0.9 Stream 69 10.5 106 13.8 Permanent Dam 12 1.8 8 1 Seasonal Pond 2 0.3 20 2.6 Communal Borehole well 174 26.4 86 11.2 Private Borehole well 9 1.3 9 1.2 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 5 0.7 Total 660 100 768 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
32
4.3 Water Demand Patterns and Collection Modes 4.3.1 Water Demand Patterns As already noted above there is only one tap which supplies water to a few households in
the ward. As a result most households have to fetch water from distant water sources. In
order to achieve a spatial assessment of water demand, the ward has been divided into
zones, that share the same water sources, especially during the dry season. The
demarcation of these areas is based on the assumption that each household will collect
water from the nearest source, except where physical barriers, mainly slopes and rivers
pose difficulties in carrying water. Using this format the ward has been delimited into 21
zones, annotated by numbers (Figures 4.2 and 4.3).
Figure 4.2 shows the location of the main water sources in relation to the homesteads.
These are the protected wells, unprotected wells, borehole wells, streams and rivers. The
other sources highlighted in the previous sections have been disregarded because they
affect few households.
There are many protected and unprotected wells compared to borehole wells in the ward.
These two sources, which are the dominant sources of water for a variety of purposes
during the rainy season, are located at or nearer to the homesteads. The concentration of
protected and unprotected wells in the ward is mainly because of the limited costs
associated with their construction. When digging the protected and unprotected wells
usually the distance from the homestead is given preference rather than the geological
nature of the area. Since most protected and unprotected wells are closer to the
homesteads most households do not walk long distances to collect water.
However, during the dry season most of the protected and unprotected wells dry up and
people depend on communal borehole wells for their water needs, as a result the pattern
of water demand will change. Communal borehole wells which rarely dry up become the
main sources of water for most households during the dry season.
33
There are 23 communal borehole wells in the ward. However, some of them are reported
to be inefficient either because they are not functional for most of the time or the pumps
are not efficient. Although most households do not walk long distances during the rainy
season in order to fetch water the pattern will change during the dry season. For example,
the households in the zones marked 1;3; 4; 6; 11; 16; 18; and 20 will walk long distances
during the dry season to collect water. This is mainly due to, either the scattered or linear
pattern of settlement in these areas. In zone 11 most households are located far away
from the borehole well. Thus, during the dry season, when most wells dry, the people in
this area have to fetch their water from the communal borehole well at Mahororo
Shopping Centre. The terrain in this area is also unfavourable and fetching water from
such a distant source is quite problematic. The lack of communal borehole wells in this
area also force some households to resort to streams and rivers as sources of water. The
same problem is faced by the people who have recently settled in the north western part
of zone 1. Since water from the streams is susceptible to contamination, this poses a
health risk to the people in the area.
In areas where the settlements are clustered, such as in zones 8; 9; 17 and 21, most
households can access the borehole wells without walking long distances. It can therefore,
be inferred that the scattered or linear patterns of settlement in most communal areas
make the provision of services, such as water difficult.
Besides the nature of settlement, the siting of borehole wells in the ward is questionable.
Most borehole wells were sunk nearer to schools or business centres, with little regard of
the location of most homesteads. At St Saviours School, for example, there are two
communal borehole wells which are located away from areas of population concentration.
Although there is need to provide water at such centres also there is need to decentralise
the provision of water sources.
34
4.3.2 Water Collection It has been observed that water is not collected randomly, instead many households
collect water several times a day during fixed times. Out of all the interviewed
households 98.6 % collect water in the morning; 46.6 % in the afternoon 83.5 % in the
evening and 32.5 % just when the water is needed (Table 4.14). Many households collect
water in the morning mainly because water collected on a particular day will be used on
that day and little or no water will be left for use during the following day. Where the
source of water is not far, people prefer to fetch fresh water for another day than storing
water for use during the following day because the open containers, in which it is kept,
allow insects and house dust to contaminate the water.
Table 4.14: Time When Water is Collected
Time When Water is Collected Number of Households Percentage of Households
Morning 1445 98.6 Afternoon 683 46.6 Evening 1224 83.5 When Needed 476 32.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)
The pattern in Table 4.14 also indicates that water is mainly collected during the times
when people have their meals, that is in the morning, afternoon and the evening. The
water collected will be used for cooking and washing dishes after the meal. The
percentage of households that collect water in the afternoon is low, either because they
use surplus water which will be left in the morning or they do not prepare meals in the
afternoon but eat leftovers instead. The households that collect water just when it is
needed are mainly those with water sources within or nearer to the homesteads.
Table 4.15: People Who Collect Water for the Household
Percentage of Households
Number of Households
Women Only 36.9 541 Women and Children 32.8 480 Men Women and Children 19.2 282 Men Only 3.8 55
35
Children Only 7.3 107 Source: Survey Results (1999) In 36.9 % of the households water is collected by women only, in 32.8% by women and
children in 19.2% by men women and children in 7.3% by children and in 3.8% by men
only (Table 4.15). The figures clearly show that women are the group that is most
involved in the collection of water in the ward. However, contrary to the traditional belief
that the collection of water is done by the females only, males are also involved in the
collection of water. This is mainly because some households employ some school leavers
as workers, and these workers (even when they are males) are involved in the collection
of water.
The use of wheelbarrows in the collection of water (Table 4.16) also contributes to the
involvement of men and women in the collection of water. Three main methods are used
to carry water by different households in the ward. Those who carry water either on the
head or by hand constitute 71.9 % of the households. The wheelbarrow is used by 27.6 %
of the households while only 0.5 % use the donkey or oxcart (Table 4.16).
Table 4.16: Method of Carrying Water
Method of Carrying Water Number Of Households Percentage of Households
On Head/ by Hand 1053 71.9 Wheelbarrow 405 27.6 Donkey or Ox Cart 7 0.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)
Most people in the ward carry their water on the head or by hand mainly because the
water sources are not very far from most homesteads. As a result there are no major
difficulties in carrying water containers, and people can use small containers and make
many trips to collect water. The wheelbarrow is mainly used by households which are
further away from the water sources. Wheelbarrows are mainly used by those households
were men and children collect water. However, in some instances the use of
wheelbarrows is hindered by swamps and rugged or steep terrain.
36
Table 4.17 shows that the amount of water collected/ day/ household in the ward is very
variable.Saturday and Sundays are the days when households collect the highest amounts
of water mainly because that is when most people do wash their clothes. In addition some
children who go to school, and some people who normally stay or work away will be at
home thereby increasing the demand for water. On Thursdays there is medium demand
(9.7%) for water because it is the ‘resting day’ many people do not go to the fields but
tend to occupy themselves washing clothes, bathing and gardening..
Table 4.17: Days When More Water is Collected
Day When More Water is Collected
Number of Households
Percentage of Households
Demand Category
Monday 64 4.4 Low Demand Tuesday 24 1.6 Low Demand Wednesday 58 3.9 Low Demand Thursday 142 9.7 Medium Demand Friday 121 8.3 Medium Demand Saturday 608 41.5 High Demand Sunday 461 31.5 High Demand Source: Survey Results 1999
Out of all the households which indicated that they collected more water during some
times of the year, 46.9 % collect more water during the dry season, 7 % during the rain
season, 3.1 % during school and public holidays and 0.2 % during other times like when
there are social functions (Table 4.18). A large proportion of households collect more
water during the dry season mainly because there will be little or no farming activities and
there will be more time to collect water. Those who collect more water during the rainy
season do so mainly because more water will be available closer to their homesteads.
During public and school holidays more water is collected because there will be more
people at home and this will automatically increase the demand for water. As already
noted the variations in the pattern of collecting water make it difficult to calculate per
capita water demand water per day.
37
Table 4.18: Times of the Year When More Water is Collected
Time of The Year When More Water is Collected
Number of Households Percentage of Households
Rainy Season 103 7.0 Dry Season 687 46.9 School and Public Holidays 46 3.1 Other 3 0.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)
Most of the water that is collected is not used soon after collection but it will be stored for
later use. Out of all the households 85.2 % store their water in the containers used to
collect the water, 14.5 % in separate large containers and 0.3 % in a tank outside. Most
households store their water in the container used to collect the water mainly because the
water sources are nearer to the homesteads and as a result people prefer to fetch fresh
water whenever the water is needed rather than store water for future use.
Table 4.19: Storing Water
Storing Water Number of Households Percentage of Households
In a Container Used to Collect it 1248 85.2 In a Separate Large Container 212 14.5 In a Tank Outside 5 0.3 Source: Survey Results (1999)
4.4 Water Quality Out of the 889 households which indicated that they have problems with water quality
31.3 % have the problem of rubbish in water (Table 4.20). This problem is prevalent
among households which use unprotected water sources, such as the unprotected wells,
the seasonal ponds, the rivers and the streams. This rubbish is mainly in the form of
leaves deposited by wind and running water in these water sources. In some cases the
rubbish is in the form of small organisms which are found in water sources. The problems
of bad colour, bad taste and bad smell are usually a result of the rubbish which may
decompose in the water sources. The problem of people and animals tampering with
38
water is not prevalent in the ward mainly because the water sources, though not protected
from contamination, are not easily accessed by animals and children.
Table 4.20: Problems with Water Quality
Problem Number of Households
Percentage of Households
Bad Smell 105 11.8 Bad Colour 218 24.5 Bad Taste 173 19.5 Rubbish In Water 278 31.3 Animals Using Water Source 48 5.4 Children Playing In Water Source 30 3.4 People Bathing And Washing In Water Source 37 4.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)
To cope with the problem of poor water quality three main methods are used to improve
the quality (Table 4.21). These include boiling the water, allowing the sediments in the
water to settle or disinfecting the water before use. Allowing the water to settle is the
single most popular method because it is cost effective and does not require the use of
additional labour inputs.
Table 4.21: Treatment of Water
Method of Treatment Number of Households Percentage of Households
Boiling Water Before Use 208 29.4 Allowing water to Settle Before Use 254 35.8 Disinfecting Water Before Use 247 34.8 Total n=709 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
The 34.8% that use chemicals to disinfect the water use three main methods. These
include the use of soda, chlorine or paraffin. Soda is used by the majority of the
households mainly because it is cheaper than chlorine and does not make the water smell
badly as paraffin does (Table 4.22).
39
Table 4.22: Disinfection of Water
Method of Disinfection Number of Households Percentage of Households
Soda 243 90.3 Chlorine 20 7.5 Paraffin 6 2.2 Total n=269 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)
4.5 Primary Water Per Capita Demand The average amount of water collected daily by the 1465 households is 128 745 litres. On
average each household collects and uses 88 litres of water per day. With a total
population of 8044, the amount of water used per capita, per day, is 16 litres. This amount
refers to the water that is brought to the homestead only. This implies that it is the water
which is used for functions that are undertaken at the homestead. In most cases these are;
cooking, washing dishes, drinking, people washing and clothes washing. Thus the water
used for other purposes such as; washing clothes, washing people and gardening away
from the homestead, is not accounted for. In most cases where households are engaged in
gardening activities, they have some water sources at or near the site of the garden, and
the water that is used for gardening will not be carried to the homestead. When clothes
are washed is done at the homestead, more water will be fetched.
The total amount of water collected by each household per day is highly variable in the
ward. Table 4.23 shows that 40.3 % of the households collect between 30 and 60 litres of
water per day, 26.5 % collect between 61 and 100 litres, 24.7 % collect more than 100
litres and 8.5 % collects less than 30 litres per day. The variation of the total amount of
water collected per day is mainly due the differences in the number of people who
normally reside in the household.
40
Table 4.23: Amount of Water Collected per Day
Amount of Water Collected Per Day
Number of Households Percentage of Households
Less than 30 Litres 124 8.5 30-60 Litres 590 40.3 61-100 Litres 388 26.5 More than 100 Litres 363 24.7 Source: Survey Results (1999)
It must also be noted that the per capita consumption of water varies between the
households. The variation is largely a result of the differences in the social and economic
conditions of the households. Other factors like access to water may also lead to
differences in the per capita consumption of water. Households which do not have easy
access to water sources are likely to use less water than those households with easy access
to water sources.
5.0 Summary of Main Findings In Ward VIII, as well as elsewhere in the communal areas of Zimbabwe, people need
clean water, at least, to meet their domestic needs. Groundwater is the main source of
water for most domestic requirements. The only reliable sources of groundwater are the
communal borehole wells, since most wells dry up during the dry season. However, the
sitting and distribution of borehole wells in the ward is not even. Although rivers and
streams provide lots of water for a variety of purposes during the rainy season, most of
them dry up during the dry season.
In the ward, the average amount water per capita per day is 16 litres, which is well below
the amount recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) (50 litres per capita
per day). This average amount of water per capita is based on the water that is brought to
the homestead only. If water used for other purposes undertaken elsewhere, away from
the homestead, and the non-consumptive uses of water are taken into consideration, then
the average per capita demand per day is above 16 litres.
41
5.1 Policy Recommendations
It has been noted that borehole wells are the most reliable sources of clean water in the
ward. However, the costs associated with the drilling of borehole wells are very high,
such that it is not feasible to drill more borehole wells in the ward. There is therefore,
need to provide technical and financial assistance to enable households to dig their own
protected wells which can provide water throughout the year. An alternative is to
construct small to medium sized dams, since a lot of water will be lost as runoff during
the rainy season. These dams will supply water during the dry season when there will be
water scarcity. This will also enable smallholder farmers to irrigate their crops, and earn
more incomes.
The main aim in providing water resources in the communal areas is to improve the
economy of the people. As such there is need for an integrated planning of the land and
water resources planning in the communal areas. The land issue has been dominating
policy discussions in Zimbabwe since independence. However, the land issue must not be
separated from the water issue if sustainable development is to be achieved. There is
therefore, need to redress the dualist nature of the economy created by the colonial
governments in an integrated manner. With regard to land, redistribution will be a long
lasting solution, and this has to be accompanied by new feature in the management of
water resources. Improved access to land and water resources will, in the long term,
42
6.0 ANNEXES
Annex 1: The Questionnaire
SURVEY ON THE SOCIAL USE OF WATER A joint survey by the Universities of Zimbabwe and Southampton
LOCATION OF INTERVIEW:
WHO ARE YOU?We need to know this sothat we can plot your homeon the map.
Your surname (family name)
Name of head of household
Homestead code number
Name of interviewer
Date of interview
YOUR HOMESTEADThis lets us understand your water use How many buildings in the homestead? Number
Type(s) of roof: Thatched roof Zinc/Tin/Asbestos
Cement tiles Other roof (specify)
Tick several boxes if possible
How many people normally live in this homestead? Number
Are they male or female?(include children)
MaleNumber
FemaleNumber
What are their ages? (include children)
2 yrs or less 2-18 years
19-59 years 60 years or older
How many members of thehousehold live or work away?
How often do they return to this homestead?………………………………………………
1.2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
43
In the following section differentiate where appropriate between rain season and dry season activities
WHERE YOU COLLECT YOUR WATER MOST OF THE TIME
What is the MAIN source that you use to collect water for each purpose? ( several boxes if necessary)
ProtectedSpring
Unprotected Spring
Main River
Stream
PermanentDam
Seasonal Pond
Communal Borehole
Private Borehole
Roof water harvesting
Water supply by tap:
Community Tap
Homestead(Yard)
Inside House
If different water sources are used for different purposes, please specify by putting the appropriate letter(s) in the boxes above:
D = drinkingCW = clothes washing
C = cookingG = garden watering
PW = people washingB = building
Specify any others here:………………………………………………………………………….
How long does it take to walk to the the two main sources (identify which sources these are from the above list):
First source
During which times do you normally collect water? Not applicable if a homestead or house tap is used.
Do you just collect water when it is needed?
Dry Rainy seasonseason Rainy seasonseasonDry
8.
9.
Minutes Second source Minutes
Morning Afternoon Evening
10.
11.
Source Time Source Time
44
YOUR PREFERENCESWhy do you prefer to use your main water source? (tick several boxes)
Because it is the closest water source
Because it is the easiest trip (good path/ not steep etc)
Because the water there is better (cleaner)
Because there is lots of water (container fills easily)
Because it is easy to fill container (no pump/ good pump)
Because of the people you meet at the water source
Because of the people you meet on the way to the water source
Because your family has always used this water source
Other reasons:
Now explain to the surveyor where the water sources are so that they can be plotted on the map. Also plot on the map the route normally taken to the water sources.
COLLECTING WATER
Who collects the water for your household? (tick one box) Women only Women and children Men, women and children
How many trips are made each day to collect water? Number
How many people go on each trip to collect water and how much do they collect?
How many containers are filled on each trip to collect water?
How do you carry your water? On head/ by hand Wheelbarrow
12.
13.
Men only Children only
Number Litres
14.
15.
16.
17.
Other
…………………………………………………………………………………
Large containers (200 Litres)
Medium containers (25 litres)
Small containers (10 litres)
Donkey / Ox cart ………………………………………………….
45
Are there some days of the week when more or less water is collected?
More
Less
Are there some times of year when more or less water is collected?
STORING THE WATER
How is water stored?(Tick one box)
In the containerused to collect it
In a separatelarge container
In a tankoutside
WATER QUALITY
Do you have a problemwith water quality?(Tick one box)
Yes No Sometimes
What is the problem?(Tick several boxes)
Bad smell Bad colour Bad taste Rubbish inwater
Animals usingwater source
Children playing inwater source
Bathing and washingclothes in water source
Is water boiled before use(Tick one box)
Yes No Sometimes
Yes No Sometimes
Yes No Sometimes
Yes No Sometimes
Is water disinfectedbefore use(Tick one box)
Is water allowed to settlebefore use(Tick one box)
Is water treated by anyother method(Tick one box)
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
26.
25.
24.
23.
Others ………………………………………………………. Not applicable
Yes No
If yes state the days ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….
Yes NoMore
Less
If yes state the times ………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………….
If yes / sometimes specify ………………………………………………………………….
If yes / sometimes specify ………………………………………………………………….
46
HOUSEHOLD WATER USE
What is the water used for ? (Tick several boxes)
Drinking Cooking Washing people Washing clothes
Animals Gardening Building
LIVESTOCK USE OF WATER
How many livestock does yourhousehold have?
Cattle Goats Sheep
How many times are the cattle dipped each month?
Do you spray some of your animals?
Yes No Sometimes
COMMUNAL WATER USE
Is water used for any communal projects?
Vegetablegarden
Making buildingBlock
Community poultry unit
Other ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
PLEASE THANK THE RESPONDENTS FOR THEIR HELP
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Donkeys Pigs Other…………...
During Winter …………………..……. During Summer ……………………………..
47
Annex 2: Report on the Process of Community Consultation prior to and during the Mhondoro Survey
a) Prior to the Survey Prior to the Mhondoro survey, research assistants comprising University of Zimbabwe
students and high school leavers with at least 5 ‘O’ Level passes were recruited. The
research assistants were trained on how to administer the questionnaire in Shona, the local
language in the area. A familialisation trip to the field (Ward VIII of Mhondoro Communal
Area) was made after the training. The trip aimed to educate the local community, mainly
through their local leaders, on the importance of the survey and to equip the enumerators
with necessary skills prior to the survey. After the familialisation tour problems faced by the
enumerators in the field were discussed and clarifications were made.
b) During the survey Sampling Method
The survey intended to cover all the households in the ward. As such, no sampling
procedure was followed during the survey. One questionnaire was administered at every
household. After every interview, a sticker with the name of the interviewer and the
questionnaire number was pasted on the front door of the house nearest to the entrance to
the homestead. This was done to avoid a situation whereby more than one questionnaire
was administered per household. This also enabled the capturing of the position of the
homestead and to further relate this to the questionnaire information since all the
information was entered into the (Global Positioning System) GPS.
The Interviews
Before interviewing the respondents, the enumerators introduced themselves, stated the
objective of their visit and asked for someone who could respond to the questionnaire.
Only adults with the knowledge of water sources, collection methods and the uses of
water in the homestead were interviewed. The questionnaires were administered in Shona
48
which is the local language in the study area. After the interview the interviewers thanked
the respondents, and sometimes asked for assistants where they did not know how to
proceed to the next household. This also enabled coverage of some households which
could have been left out in the survey because of either their hidden location, or in cases
where there were more than one household at the same homestead.
Capturing the Position of Homesteads and Main Water Sources
The global positioning system (GPS) was used to capture the exact location of the main
water sources and the homesteads. This was done by the team leader, who was also
responsible for supervising the research assistants. As already indicated, stickers left by
research assistants guided the one who was marking the location of the homesteads. After
marking the location of the homestead, the household members would show their main
water source and its location was marked as well, except when it was already marked i.e.
in cases were it was used by more than one household. During this process the position
and type of main water source was stated.
c) Concluding Remarks
The survey was a success, mainly because most of the people in the ward were
cooperative. In all 1465 households responded to the questionnaires. The success of the
project is mainly attributable to the motivation the local community got from their
leaders. Also, the efficiency of the research assistants and the clarity of the objectives of
the survey contributed to the success of the survey.
P. Kundishora
49
Annex 3: Flow diagram of the Mupfure Water Management FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE
GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY WATER MANAGEMENT
1. THE MINISTER RESPONSIBLE FOR WATER DEVELOPMENT (Ministry of Water and Rural Resources)
Responsibilities:a) To develop policies to guide the orderly and integrated planning of the optimum development, utilisation and protection of the country’s water resources in the national interest.b) To ensure the availability of water to all citizens for primary purposes and to meet the needs of aquatic and associated ecosystems particularly when there are competing demands.c) To ensure the equitable and efficient allocation of the available water resources in the national interests for the development of the rural, urban, industrial and mining and agricultural sectors.
2. THE NATIOANL WATER AUTHORITY (Department of Water Development)
Responsibilitiesa) To advice the Minister on the formulation of national policies on standards on: (i) water resources planning,
management and development; (ii) water quality and pollution control and environmental protection; (iii) hydrologyand hydrogeology; (iv) dam safety and borehole drilling; and (v) water pricing.
b) To assist and participate in or advice on any matter pertaining to the planning of the development, exploitation,protection and conservation of water resources.
c) To exploit, conserve and manage the water resources of Zimbabwe, with the objective of: (i) securing equitableaccessibility and efficient allocation and development of water resources; (ii) providing in both the short and longterm, adequate water on a cost effective basis; and (iii) taking appropriate measures to minimise the impacts ofdroughts, floods or other hazards.
d) To assist Rural District Councils and Urban Council with regards to the development and management of waterresources in areas under their jurisdiction and in particular, the provision of potable water.
e) To superintend Catchment Councils in the discharge of their functions under the Water Act, 1997.f) To operate and maintain any water works any water works owned or managed by the authority and to sell
any water from the same, to construct boreholes and to design and construction services.g) To provide consultancy services to Government and local authorities in connection with the exploitation
development management and distribution of water resources.h) To undertake research and develop a data base on hydrological issues of interest to Zimbabwe and publish
the findings.i) To promote co-operation in the management of international water resources.
3. CATCHMENT COUNCILS
Responsibilitiesa) To advise and assist the national Water authority in the preparation of catchment outline plans.b) To issue permits for the use of water in their catchment.c) To regulate and supervise the exercise of rights to the use of water in the catchment.d) To investigate disputes concerning abstraction, appropriation, control, diversion or use of water and make orders.e) To investigate and report waste of water.f) To ensure compliance with the Water Act.
4. SUB-CATCHMENT COUNCILS
Responsibilitya) To establish and maintain a regulatory framework within which persons in the area of its jurisdiction have access toboth surface and underground water
5. STAKEHOLDERS
50
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