Water Sources and Demand Patterns in Mupfure Catchment ... · 2 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background In...

Water Sources and Demand Patterns in

Mupfure Catchment: The case of Ward VIII in Mhondoro Communal Area

By

Daniel Tevera and Phillip Kundishora

IWRMS Project

2000

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Table of Contents Contents Page 1.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................2 1.1. Background ...................................................................................................................2 1.2 Aims and Importance of the Study.................................................................................2 1.3 Research Methodology...................................................................................................3 1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study ...............................................................................4 2.0. Water Policies In Zimbabwe.....................................................................................5 2.1. Water Institutions..........................................................................................................5 2.2. Water Legislation..........................................................................................................5 3.0 The Study Area ............................................................................................................7 3.1. Background ...................................................................................................................7 3.1. The Resource Base........................................................................................................9 4.0 Research Findings ......................................................................................................12 4.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents ....................................................................12 4.2 Water Sources and Utilisation Patterns........................................................................16 4.2.1 Overview of the Main Water Sources .......................................................................16 4.2.2 Water Utilisation Patterns ........................................................................................19 4.2.3 Main Sources of Water..............................................................................................20 4.2.4 Time Taken To Walk To And From Main Water Sources .........................................22 4.2.5 Preference For Main Water Source ..........................................................................23 4.2.6 Sources Of Water For Drinking And Cooking..........................................................25 4.2.7 Sources Of Water For Bathing And Washing Clothes ..............................................27 4.2.8 Sources Of Water For Gardening .............................................................................28 4.2.9 Sources Of Water For Construction .........................................................................31 4.3 Water Demand Patterns And Collection Modes..........................................................32 4.3.1 Water Demand Patterns............................................................................................32 4.3.2 Water Collection .......................................................................................................34 4.4 Water Quality...............................................................................................................37 4.5 Primary Water Per Capita Demand..............................................................................39 5.0 Summary Of Main Findings .....................................................................................40 5.1 Policy Recommendations.............................................................................................41 6.0 Annexes .......................................................................................................................42 Annex 1: The Questionnaire ..............................................................................................42 Annex 2: Report on the Process of Community Consultation...........................................47 Annex 3: Flow diagram of the Mupfure Water Management............................................49 References .........................................................................................................................50

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List of Figures Figure 3.1: Land Tenure Categories in Mupfure Catchment ...............................................8 Figure 3.2: Landuse Types in Ward VIII ...........................................................................11 Figure 3.3: Settlement Patterns in Ward VIII ....................................................................12 Figure 4.1: Population Density in Mhondoro Communal Land ........................................14

List of Tables

Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Mhondoro Communal Area (1992) ...........................13 Table 4.2: Household Size in the Study Area ....................................................................15 Table 4.3: Frequency of Return Visits ...............................................................................15 Table 4.4: Characteristics of Selected Borehole wells in Ward VIII .................................18 Table 4.5: Uses of Water ...................................................................................................20 Table 4.6: Livestock...........................................................................................................20 Table 4.7: Main Sources of Water .....................................................................................21 Table 4.8: Time to Walk to and from Main Water Sources...............................................23 Table 4:9 Preference of Main Water Source......................................................................24 Table 4:10 Main Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking..........................................25 Table 4.11: Main Source of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes ..............................28 Table 4.12 Main Sources of Water for Gardening.............................................................30 Table 4.13: Main Source of Water for Construction .........................................................31 Table 4.15: People Who Collect Water for the Household .............................................34 Table 4.16: Method of Carrying Water..............................................................................35 Table 4.17: Days When More Water is Collected .............................................................36 Table 4.18: Times of the Year When More Water is Collected ........................................37 Table 4.19: Storing Water..................................................................................................37 Table 4.20: Problems with Water Quality .........................................................................38 Table 4.21: Treatment of Water.........................................................................................38 Table 4.22: Disinfection of Water .....................................................................................39 Table 4.23: Amount of Water Collected per Day ..............................................................40

Acronyms AGRITEX: Agriculture and Extension Services* CL: Communal Land DDF: District Development Fund DWR: Department of Water Resources GPS: Global Positioning System IWRMS: Integrated Water Resources Management System LSCFA: Large Scale Commercial Farming Area NGO: Non Governmental Organisation RA: Resettlement Area SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Scientists SSCFA: Small Scale Commercial Farming Area WHO: World Health Organisation ZANU-PF: Zimbabwe African National Union, Patriotic Front ZINWA: Zimbabwe National Water Authority

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1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background

In Zimbabwe water is a limited resource with many competing uses and its distribution is

very uneven. It is mainly used for irrigation, domestic, industrial, commercial, waste and

waste water disposal, recreation, hydropower generation, fisheries and wildlife and nature

preservation purposes. It has been noted that given the current population growth of 3.1

% the internal water resources amounting to 253 km3, would be sufficient only up to 2025

(CSO 1992, Nilsson and Hammer 1996). Some areas, mainly the commercial farming

areas, are better endowed with water resources than others. About 60% of the land in

Zimbabwe is classified as eroded to some extent, and most of the eroded area is in

communal areas, which also receive low rainfall. Most communal areas are characterised

with water scarcity while most commercial farmers have abundant water resources

(Nilsson and Hammer 1996).

1.2 Aims and Importance of the Study

The Mhondoro survey is part of the Integrated Water Resources Management System

(IWRMS) project, which is being undertaken in the Mupfure catchment, and is funded by

the European Union. The survey aimed to investigate the water sources and demand

patterns in Ward VIII (Mhondoro Communal Lands) in the Mupfure catchment. To

achieve this, the following information was obtained:

(a) the various uses of water in the ward;

(b) the main sources of water for different uses, with specific reference on the nature of

the sources, the distance to the water sources, and the reasons for preferring the main

water sources;

(c) the collection of water, in terms of the time when the water is collected, the people

who collect the water, the means used and the way the water is stored before use;

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(d) the amount of water collected by each household per day, in order to determine the

per capita demand of water in the ward; and

(e) the quality of the water that is available;

An assessment of the quantity and quality of the available water resources is an essential

prerequisite for water resource development management. The above information will,

therefore, assist in developing appropriate institutions for effective management,

allocation and protection of the available water resources, especially in areas with limited

water resources. Effective management of water resources will ensure sustainability in the

water sector, will reduce environmental damage and poverty alleviation in communal

areas through increased agricultural production.

1.3 Research Methodology

Questionnaires were the main survey instrument designed to capture the necessary

information were administered, at the household level, in the ward. The questionnaire

(Annex 1) was directed to any adult member of the household with knowledge of the

sources and uses of water in the household. The questionnaires were administered by a

team comprising University of Zimbabwe students and high school leavers with at least 5

‘O’ Level passes. The enumerators were trained prior to the survey in order to improve

the data collection process. The global positioning system (GPS) was used to capture the

exact locations of the main water sources and the homesteads. The positions or waypoints

marked using the GPS were downloaded into a computer in order to produce digital maps

showing water demand patterns in the study area.

The survey intended to cover all the households in the ward. However, a few homesteads

were left out because at some households there was no one to interview during the time of

the survey, partly because the survey was carried out when most households were

engaged in farming activities. Other households were left out because the members were

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reluctant to respond to the interviews. In all, 1465 households representing more than 90

% of all the households in the ward, were interviewed. The total population of ward

constitutes about 10 % of the total population in the Mhondoro communal area (Table

4.1).

After the interviews the SPSS package was used to generate the required cross

tabulations. This package was chosen because its versatility to handle various

computational steps ranging from data listings, tabulations and several statistical

analyses.

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This report presents the results of a survey carried out in the Mhondoro communal lands

(Mupfure catchment) from March to April 1999. The study investigated the varied

sources of water in the ward in terms of the nature of the source, and the distance of the

water source from the homestead. The quality of the water and the frequency and method

of carrying water to the homestead are also investigated. The total amount of water

collected per day and the per capita demand of water is also analysed. All this information

will provide a balance sheet required for the proper management and allocation of water

resources in the area.

The estimation of per capita demand of water was based on the water brought to the

homestead only. As a result, water used for other purposes other than those undertaken

within the homestead is not accounted for in this report. Thus, water used for activities

such as clothes washing, bathing, gardening and animal watering, which are mainly done

away from the homestead is not accounted for. In addition, the daily or seasonal

variations associated with the use of water, are not assessed in a quantitative manner in

this report. Only the information on the days of the week or times of the year when more

or less water is collected was obtained, and not the actual amounts of water collected

when the demand is either high or low.

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2.0. WATER POLICIES IN ZIMBABWE

2.1. Water Institutions

Several actors are involved in various aspects of water resources management and

development in Zimbabwe. Within the public sector, the Department of Water Resources

(DWR), under the Ministry of Lands and Water Resources, has the overall responsibility

for the planning of national water resources development (Chatora, et al 1995). The

department is responsible for all Government water supply facilities, including the

planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance of water related infrastructure.

In the communal areas the Water Division of the District Development Fund (DDF) is

responsible for siting and drilling of borehole wells for potable water supplies and stock

watering as well as the design and construction of small dams. DDF is also responsible

for the operation and maintenance of these facilities. The Department of Agricultural,

Technical and Extension Services (Agritex) is responsible for both large scale and

smallholder irrigation development (Chatora, et al 1995).

Other public sector agencies linked with water related aspects such as environment, local

government, health, hydro-power and national planning are also involved in the water

sector. Private sector agencies play an essential role in representing various stakeholders’

interests and are also involved in research and training (Nilsson and Hammer, 1996).

2.2. Water Legislation

According to the 1976 Water Act, all water, other than private water, is vested in the state

or President and shall not be abstracted, apportioned, controlled, diverted or used

otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of the Act. Private water is regarded as

water which rises, drains or falls naturally on any land so long as it remains on the land

and does not join any public stream. Public water is all water found on or below the bed

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of a public stream including marshes, wells, swamps or vleis forming the source or found

on the course of a public stream (Madamombe and Merka 1997, Republic of Zimbabwe

1994). The Act entitles any person who has access to a public stream to use public water

for domestic purposes only. The use of water for any other purposes like agricultural

purposes, institutional purposes (recreational clubs, boarding schools, etc.), mining

purposes and any other large scale uses require specific authority in terms of the Water

Act.

The allocation of rights to use public water under the 1976 Water Act, is based on the

Prior Appropriation Doctrine, whereby the person who makes the first application to use

public water has priority over subsequent applicants (van der Zaag and Nyagwambo

1998). Thus, water rights are granted on a first come first served basis.

However, the 1976 Water Act has failed to fulfill its main objective of protecting and

controlling water resources efficiently. Manzungu (1997), noted that the Act does not

reflect the new political and social realities and is responsible for the absence of effective

conflict management and resolution mechanisms. The priority system which espouses the

principle of first come first served basis in granting water rights, and first come last out

during periods of water scarcity is also a major weakness. During periods of water

scarcity such as droughts some potential water users will be denied access, since all the

river flow may become fully committed before they get water.

The Zimbabwean Water Act has been blamed, by some, for the inequalities in the

distribution of water resources throughout the country. Kambudzi (1997) noted that the

majority of the people in the communal lands were denied access to essential productive

water, and has contributed to low productivity, increased poverty and environmental

degradation in these areas. Above 70% of the population have limited access to water

resources from major irrigation schemes (Chenje and Johnson 1996).

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The weaknesses associated with the 1976 Water Act have rendered it inefficient in the

proper management of water resources. As a result new features in the management of

water resources have been proposed. These changes are governed by the proposed

amendment of the 1976 Water Act and the formation of the Zimbabwe National Water

Authority (ZINWA) (Kagoro 1997, van der Zaag and Nyagwambo 1998). The proposed

Water Act aims to:

a) reverse environmental degradation by securing water courses, basins, watersheds and

catchment areas;

b) broaden access to available rural water agro-water with a view to enhancing land

productivity, harvests and incomes; and

c) enhance the local, community management of water and its utilisation.

Under the proposed new system the country will be divided on the basis of river

catchments as opposed to the former classification based on administrative criteria.

Management of water resources in the catchment will be done by the catchment and sub-

catchment councils (Kagoro 1997). This approach seems logical and will encourage that

upstream uses will not interfere with downstream uses and this will also ensure that water

is used for its best purposes.

3.0 THE STUDY AREA

3.1. Background

The study was carried out in Ward VIII of Mhondoro communal area which lies in the

Mupfure catchment about 100 km to the south west of Harare. The Mupfure catchment

has a diversity of landuse classes including, Large Scale Commercial Farming Areas

(LSCFA), Small Scale Commercial Farming Areas (SSCFA), Resettlement Areas (RAs)

and Communal Lands (CLs). The large scale commercial farms and the communal areas

are the dominant landuse patterns in the catchment. The large scale commercial farms

occupy the area around Beatrice north, Gadzema, Selous, Suri Suri, Mupfure and part of

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Norton. The communal lands in the catchment are, Chihota, Mhondoro, Magondi,

Zvimba, Chirau, and Mupfure (Figure 3.1).

There is great disparity between the communal and the commercial farming areas, the

latter are used extensively, occupy areas of high rainfall and fertile soils and good

physical infrastructure, while the former are in areas of low and variable rainfall and low

fertility. Most public water resources are developed or allocated for use especially

irrigation in large scale commercial farms.

Figure 3.1: Land Tenure categories in Mupfure Catchment

Large Scale Commercial Farms

Mhondoro

Mupfure

Magondi

Angwa South

Chihota

Chirau

Hartley

Zowa

Sachuru

Musengezi

Acton

Umfuli

Zvimba

Chitomborwizi

Reynold

Chenjiri

Chegutu 6

Muda

Marirangwe

RingaLSCFA

ChimbwandaRutara Hills

N

Communal Area

Large Scale Commercial Farming Area

Recreational Park and Safari Area

Resettlement Area

Small Scale Commercial Farming Area

40 0 40 80 Kilometres

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3.1. The Resource Base

The Mhondoro communal area is typical of most communal areas found in Zimbabwe in

terms of climatic conditions, soil characteristics and population densities. The Mhondoro

communal land with a total area of about 1 304 km2, constitutes 11% of the Mupfure

catchment. It is situated in natural farming region III, and enjoys a mean annual rainfall of

740 mm which falls between November and March. Crop cultivation, without irrigation,

is only possible during the rainy season. Most streams and shallow water sources are

seasonal and they dry up during the dry season because evapotranspiration exceeds

precipitation amounts. There are no water rights in the Mhondoro communal land despite

the existence of major tributaries such as the Nyangweni, Nyawiye and Nyundo rivers

(Mazvimavi 1998).

The Mhondoro Communal area is located on granatoid rocks which are generally resistant

to weathering. As a result the soils are mainly sandy, and deficient in organic matter.

According to the 1992 census the total population in the Mhondoro communal area was

70 059 giving rise to a population density of 54 persons per km2. A major problem in the

area is soil erosion caused by overgrazing and recurrent droughts which reduces

vegetation cover. Most households rely on dryland agriculture on land holdings averaging

2.0 hectares (Mehretu, 1994).

A combination of poor soils, high population pressure and persistent droughts has

resulted in widespread poverty in the area. Poverty has led to over-exploitation of natural

resources and environmental stress in the area.

The borehole wells drilled in the granatoid rocks dominant in the Mhondoro communal

lands generally yield low amounts of water ranging from 0.5 to 100 cubic metres per day,

depending on the season. As a result the water from these borehole wells is mostly used

for domestic purposes such as drinking, cooking, bathing and washing.

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Ownership of the local natural resources is characterised by the communal tenure system,

which is based on common access to resources (Murombedzi 1990). Thus resources like

water and land are communally owned and all members of the community are not denied

access. Hardin (1968), in ‘the tragedy of the commons’, argued that such a tenure system

will result in resource depletion since individuals in a community will try by all means to

maximise exploitation of the resources for their benefit while negative impacts will be

shared by the whole community. However, it has been argued that the communal tenure

system that exists in Zimbabwe is not an open access regime since there are institutional

arrangements that regulate access to the common property. Thus potential resource users

that are not members of the community are denied access to the resource (Murombedzi

1990, Berkes and Farvar 1989).

Ward VIII is one of the ten wards in Mhondoro communal lands. Formerly, Ward VIII

consisted of Chivero M, and about a third of Chivero C wards prior to amalgamation in

1998 (Table 4.1). The ward is bounded by the Nyawiye River to the east, the Mupfure

River to the south and large scale commercial farms to the north and west (Figure 4.1). It

has a total area of 113.36 km2 constituting 9 % of the Mhondoro communal land. The

total population of the ward constitutes about 10 % of the total population in the

Mhondoro communal area (Table 4.1).

Generally, the ward is characterised by a gently sloping terrain. However, there are some

variations in topography within the ward. The terrain is gentle in the north, while the

extreme southern parts are hilly. Besides the Nyawiye River, the Nyamakondo and the

Gonzo are the other main rivers that drain the ward. Only the areas adjacent to and river

valleys still have considerable vegetation. Most of the area, at the river interfluves is

under cultivation (Figure 3.2).

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Figure 3.2: Landuse Types in Ward VIII

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Zvido Store

Maruma B.C.

Mhuriro B.C.

Mahororo B.C.

Mupfumira B.C.

Gonza Sc.

Mavhudzi Sc.

Chingwere Sc.

Makuvatsine Sc.

St Saviours Sc.

Mutimusakwa Sc.

2 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers

N

Cultivated Land

Medium Bush

Rivers

The settlements are mainly linear, along rivers and roads. For example, a linear pattern of

settlement stretches from north to south along the western bank of the Nyawiye river. The

same pattern is found along the Nyamakondo river. However, some settlement clusters

are found, especially in the north western part of the ward (Figure 3.3). The dominance of

the linear settlement is likely to present problems in the provision of community water

sources like communal borehole wells. This is mainly because such facilities need to be

centrally located in an area (e.g. at the village level), and in a linear settlement, some

households at the extreme ends of the village will have to travel longer distances to

access the centrally located water sources than in a clustered settlement. The rivers and

fields which divide the linear settlements make it difficult to access water sources on the

other side because they are difficult to cross. Thus water sources on the other side of

fields or streams may not be utilised even though they are not far from the settlements.

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Figure 3.3: Settlement Patterns in Ward VIII

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2 0 2 4 6 8 Kilometers

N

Cultivated Land

Medium Bush

Rivers

# Homesteads

4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.1 Demographic Profile of the Respondents

In order to understand fully the water utilisation patterns in the ward it is essential to

outline the demographic characteristics of the ward. This is necessary because it provides

the basis for planning since the changes in the population structure will influence water

utilisation patterns.

13

Ward VIII, with a population density of 65 persons per km2, is one of the most densely

populated wards in the Mhondoro communal area and in 1992 had 1504 households with

a total population of 7342 (CSO 1994). However, during the survey period, 1465

households constituting a total population of 8044 were interviewed in the ward (Table

4.1). The difference in the number of households between the 1992 census and the

Mhondoro survey of 1999 is attributable to the decline in the number of households due

to factors such as out-migration from the ward and deaths of the bread winners which

leads to the amalgamation of some households. Using the above figures, the rate of

population increase in the ward from 1992 to 1999 is 9.6 % and the average annual

growth rate during this period is 1.4 %. This growth rate, although low compared to other

communal lands in Zimbabwe, will increase the demand for water resources. Thus, if the

development of water resources is not proportional to the rate of population growth, the

ward will experience water shortage in future.

Table 4.1: Demographic Profile of Mhondoro Communal Area (1992) Current Name Previous Name Area

(km2) Households Males Females Total

Population Population Density (persons/ km2)

Ward I Nherera A and Nherera B

135.44 1378 3441 3984 7425 54.82

Ward II Ngezi C and Ngezi D

229.28 1833 4431 5274 9705 42.33

Ward III Murombedzi 90.72 1184 2864 3042 5906 65.10 Ward IV Mashayamombe and

Ward XXII 169.66 1880 4290 4699 8989 52.98

Ward V Rwizi F 107.22 810 1945 2205 4150 38.71 Ward VI Gora 67.54 530 1249 1466 2715 40.1984 Ward VII Mashayamombe P

and Mashayamombe K

165.98 1700 4045 4604 8649 52.10869

Ward VIII Chivero M and 1/3 of Chivero C

113.36 1504 3393 3949 7342 64.76711

Ward IX Chivero O and 2/3 of Chivero C

95.89 1199 2737 3170 5907 61.60184

Ward X Nyamweda and Nyamweda P

128.88 1901 4193 5078 9271 71.93513

Total 1 303.97 13 919 32 588 37 471 70 059 53.72746 Source: Compiled by the authors

14

Figure 4.1: Population Density in Mhondoro Communal Land

42

53

52

55

72

65

39

62

65

40Ward II

Ward IV

Ward I

Ward VII

Ward X

Ward V

Ward VIII

Ward IX

Ward III

Ward VI

9705

89898649

7425

9271

7342

4150

5918

5906

2715

S

N

EW

Population DensityPersons/square kilometre

< 42

43- 53

53 - 55

56- 65

> 66

10 0 10 20 Kilometres

The household size ranges from 1 to 22 members and the mean is 5.6. Out of the 8044

people who normally reside in the ward; 6 % are below 3 years of age; 48 % are in the 3

15

to 18 years age group; 38 % are in the 19 to 59 years age group; and 8 % are above 60

years (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Age Composition of the Surveyed Population in the Study Area Age Group Number of People Percentage Below 3 489 6 3-18 3 825 48 19-59 3 083 38 Above 60 647 8 Total 8 044 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

Table 4.2 shows that the school going age constitutes the highest number of people in the

ward (48%), and the infants and the elderly constitute a small percentage(6%). As such

the pattern of water demand in the ward is most likely to correlate with the school

timetable. Selective outmigration from the ward accounts for the imbalanced sex ratios

(53 % female). This imbalance in the sex ratio is a result of the relatively high migration

of males to urban and mining centres in search of employment opportunities. This view is

supported by the fact that 58 % of the households have at least one member living outside

the ward in nearby urban centres especially Harare, Chegutu, Norton, Mubayira growth

point and the Hartley Platinum mine near Chegutu. The centres are all within a radius of

120 km from the ward.

Table 4.3: Frequency of Return Visits Frequency

Number Percentage

At Least Once a Month 415 41.7 During Public Holidays 351 35.2 During School Holidays 67 6.7 Other 164 16.4 Total 997 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

16

Out of the 997 households with at least one member of the family living or working away

41.7 % reported that the migrants return at least once a month (about 12-20 times /

annum); 35.2 % reported that they return during public holidays (6-7 times / annum); 6.7

% during school holidays (3 times / annum). and 16 % reported that the frequency of

return is spontaneous and quite irregular (Table 4.3). Most of those who return at least

once a month do so during the weekends and this has the effect of increasing water

demand during weekends because with more people at the homestead the demand for

water increases.

4.2 Water Sources and Utilisation Patterns

4.2.1 Overview of the Main Water Sources

The survey results show that the quality and quantity of water and distance to water

sources all influence water demand patterns in the study area. The finding is consistent

with Drangert’s (1993) assumptions regarding water consumption patterns. He postulated

that:

a) people prefer clean safe water sources when they are provided;

b) villagers will naturally use clean water sources more than unsafe and old water

sources;

c) villagers will stop using unsafe water sources when new sources are provided;

d) villagers will use more water when new water sources are provided nearer to their

homes;

e) villagers with clean water sources nearer to their homes will save a lot of human

energy needed to collect and store water resources; and

f) new water sources mean more equal access to water resources and therefore few

conflicts over water resources.

Given the above assumptions it is essential to outline the sources of water in Ward VIII.

Sakupwanya (1997) has shown that 69% of the Zimbabwean population reside in

17

communal areas and they rely on groundwater as the main source of water for domestic

purposes. In the ward, the main sources of ground water used for domestic purposes

include, protected wells, unprotected wells and communal borehole wells.

During the rainy season both protected and unprotected wells are the dominant sources of

water in the ward mainly (Figure 4.2). Both are 3-5 metre deep “wells”, usually dug near

the homestead. However, some of the borehole wells are very deep such that they rarely

dry up even during prolonged drought periods. The main difference between protected

and unprotected wells is that protected ones usually have brick walls and their mouths

(tops) are protected with a concrete slab, often covered with a lid to avoid litter, while

unprotected wells are mainly open and exposed to litter and are often used by both

livestock and human beings. In addition, winches or windlasses are used for drawing

water from most protected wells. Since most of the protected and unprotected wells are

privately owned access to these sources is commonly restricted to family members and, in

some cases, neighbouring homesteads. Consequently, the digging and maintenance costs

are met by the owner.

Communal borehole wells are also a common source of water in the ward. These

borehole wells are used by one or more villages, to collect water mainly for domestic

purposes. In cases where they are entirely used by institutions, such as schools, villagers

are invariablydenied access to use water from the borehole well. Since most borehole

wells are communally owned and were drilled by the DDF, which is a government

department in the Ministry of Water Resources, the criteria used when selecting sites

were ground water availailability and centrality in order to make the borehole wells easily

accesible to the highest number of users as possible. Water from the communal borehole

wells is drawn using a hand pump. At most borehole wells, there is a sink whose purpose

is to facilitate the washing of clothes. It was noted during the survey that some of the

borehole wells in the ward were not functional as they had broken down due to poor

maintenance and overuse.

18

The drilling of borehole wells in most communal lands of Zimbabwe pre-dates the post

colonial period. The main difference lies in the limited number of wells before

independence, most of which were severely damaged during the war of liberation of the

late 1970s. At the end of the war in 1980, reconstruction work related to water supplies in

the communal areas was placed high on the priority list of the ZANU-PF led government.

Over 3500 borehole wells throughout the country were repaired between April 1980 and

June 1981 (Dore et. al. 1984). As the reconstruction programme phased out during the

mid 1980s emphasis has shifted to regular construction of new water supplies.

The construction of borehole wells and other water related infrastructure in the communal

areas is mainly organised by the District Development Fund (DDF), Non Governmental

Organisations (NGOs) and different donor agencies (Nilsson and Hammer 1996). Despite

the efforts of the above organisations to provide water to rural communities the

distribution of water supply infrastructure remains uneven and up to 40% of the

communal areas population lacks access to adequate potable water (Nilsson and Hammer,

1996).

Most of the 23 borehole wells in the study area (Figure 4.3) were drilled during the first

decade after independence in the 1980s. Table 4.4 shows that the borehole wells drilled in

the ward are at least 35 metres compared to most protected and unprotected wells which

are very shallow. As a result most households depend on borehole wells as sources of

water during the dry season and during periods of drought.

Table 4.4: Characteristics of Selected Borehole wells in Ward VIII Location

Water Quality

Main Geology Depth (m) Date Drilled

Gonza Sec School Fresh Hard Rock 45 19/07/87 Chingwere School - Hard Rock 39 19/08/89 Marisamhuka - Granite 45 29/01/83 Marisamhuka School Fresh Granite 36 11/01/85 Mupfumira Fresh Ironstone 48 01/02/83 Source: Mazvimavi (1998)

19

Rivers and streams the other sources of water used by the local population in the study

area. However, most of them are seasonal and provide water during the rainy season only.

The lack of major dams in the ward, but some households obtain their water from a dam

which is outside the ward belonging to Chibero Agricultural College. Animals also drink

water from this dam especially during the dry season when most streams and rivers dry

up.

Roof water harvesting is a source of water for some households, especially those that

have some houses with zinc roofs. However, it is used as a source of water by only 3.6 %

of the households (Table 4.5). Some households have managed to install hand pumps on

protected wells which then become private borehole wells. At Mutimusakwa Secondary

School, to the south east of the ward, there is a tap, from where a few households get

their water.

4.2.2 Water Utilisation Patterns Water is used for a variety of purposes in the ward, and the most common uses are;

drinking, cooking, people washing, washing clothes, animal watering, gardening and

construction (Table 4.5). All the households in the ward use water for drinking, cooking,

people washing, and clothes washing. However, 59 % use water for gardening, 56.5 % for

construction and 37.9 % for animal watering at the homestead.

Animal watering at the homestead is mainly undertaken by the households that keep,

fowls and pigs and to some extent goats. Cattle are usually driven to the river or stream in

order to drink water. Some of the water uses such as clothes washing, garden watering,

construction and, to some extent, bathing are not regularly done. Furthermore, some of

the uses, such as bathing and clothes washing, if done in a river or stream, are non-

consumptive uses, such that the actual amount of water used is difficult to determine. The

irregularities or fluctuations and the non consumptive uses associated with the water

utilisation make it difficult to calculate the per capita demand of water per day.

20

Table 4.5: Uses of Water

Use of Water Number of Households Percentage of Households

Drinking 1465 100 Cooking 1465 100 People Washing 1465 100 Washing Clothes 1465 100 Animal Watering 555 37.9 Gardening 865 59 Construction 828 56.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)

In addition to the uses of water outlined above some water is used for livestock watering

and dipping. Cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys and pigs are the main types of livestock in the

ward. In all, there are 4817 cattle, 1637 goats, 90 donkeys, 32 pigs and 29 sheep among

all the interviewed households (Table 4.6). Rivers, streams and seasonal ponds are the

main sources of drinking water for livestock watering.

Table 4.6: Livestock

Livestock Total Number of Livestock

Cattle 4817 Goats 1637 Sheep 29 Donkeys 90 Pigs 32 Source: Survey Results (1999)

4.2.3 Main Sources of Water.

This section assesses the rankings given to different water sources in the ward, either as

the first main water source or the second main water source. The first main water source

is that source which is preferred most by the household, while the second main water

source is the one which is used, either as a source of water for uses which are not of

21

major importance or as an alternative in cases where the first main water source will not

be functional.

The protected well is the first main water source for 36.9 % of the 1465 households that

were interviewed in the ward. The communal borehole well is the first main water source

for 33.9 %; the unprotected well for 25.5 %; the private borehole well for 2.2 %; the

stream for 1.1 %; the main river for 0.3 %; the permanent dam for 0.1 % and the

community tap for 0.1 % as well (Table 4.7)

Table 4.7: Main Sources of Water

Sources of Water First Main

Water Source (n)

First Main Water Source

(%)

Second Main Water Source

(n)


(%)

Protected Well 540 36.9 81 9.1 Unprotected Well 374 25.5 296 33.4 Communal Borehole well 496 33.9 262 29.5 Main River 4 0.2 12 1.4 Stream 16 1.1 128 14.4 Permanent Dam 2 0.1 6 0.7 Seasonal Pond 0 0 54 6.1 Private Borehole well 32 2.2 9 1 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 32 3.6 Community Tap 1 0.1 7 0.8 Total 1465 100 887 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

The protected well is ranked first, as the first main water source in the ward. As shown in

Table 4.9 the distance to the water source and the water quality are the two main variables

that are considered when choosing the water source. As such, the protected well is the

most convenient source of water for most households in the ward, because it provides

clean water and in most cases protected wells are nearer to the homesteads.

Borehole wells also provide clean water, but because they may not be nearer to all

homesteads, they are ranked second, as the main water sources. Clean water, which is

mainly used for cooking and drinking influences the choice of a water source. Therefore,

22

the sources which provide water for cooking and drinking seem to be the main water

sources for most households. Even where other sources are nearer to the homesteads, they

may not be regarded as the main water sources, if they do not provide water for cooking

and drinking.

The unprotected well, which is ranked third as the first main water source in the ward is

mainly used by households that do not have easy access to either borehole wells or

protected wells. However, the unprotected wells are alternative water sources for many

households, and are ranked first, as the second main water sources in the ward. They are

ranked the second main water sources by 33.4 % of the households. This is so because

they are mainly used to collect water for other purposes besides cooking and drinking.

The communal borehole well is ranked second as the second main water source in the

ward mainly because when the protected wells and the unprotected wells dry up people

will use borehole wells. Streams are ranked third as the second main water source in the

ward mainly because, like unprotected wells, they are a source of water for other purposes

besides cooking and drinking especially during the rainy season. The other sources with

lower ranks either as the first main or the second main water sources are those which are

very few in the ward and are used by few households.

4.2.4 Time Taken to Walk To and From Main Water Sources

This section analyses the perceived time taken to and from the water source. This time

does not include the time taken in the queue when fetching the water, but, it is the

perceived time taken when walking to and from the main water source. The perceived

time is important in this analysis because it is the one which influences decision making

and not the actual time Table 4.8 shows that time is considered as an important factor in

choosing the main water source by 84 % of all the interviewed households.

23

Table 4.8: Time to Walk to and from Main Water Sources

Time First Main Water Source

(n)

First Main Water Source

(%)


(n)


(%)

< 10 Minutes 518 35.4 206 23.3 10-30 Minutes 738 50.4 425 48 31-60 Minutes 163 11.1 196 22.1 > 60 Minutes 46 3.1 58 6.6 Total 1465 100 885 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

The perceived time taken to walk to and from the first main water source ranges from 1

minute to 3 hours and the average time is 19 minutes. Table 4.6 shows that 85.8 % of the

households perceive that they take 30 minutes or less to walk to and from the first main

water source. This shows that there are many water sources in the ward. Some water

sources are within the homesteads making it possible for some households to take only 1

minute to walk to and from the main water source. Although the water sources in the

ward are many, their distribution is very uneven and this explains why some people

perceive that they walk for more than an hour to and from the main water source. The

people who walk long distances to the water sources are mainly those who have recently

settled in remote areas within the ward, like the southern part.

4.2.6 Preference for Main Water Source

A variety of factors influence the choice of the main water source by different households

(Table 4.9). Out of the 1465 households that ware interviewed 84.2 % prefer their main

water source because it is the closest water source. This implies that many people will

avoid walking longer distances to collect water, most likely because they want to reserve

time for other economic activities.

Water quality is the second most important factor influencing the choice of the main

water source, with 74.5 % of the households preferring their main water sources because

24

the water is better and cleaner. This explains why the communal borehole well and the

protected well are the most favoured sources of cooking and drinking water in the ward.

The trip to and from the water source is considered an important factor in choosing the

main water source by 47.6 % of the households in the ward. Physical factors such as steep

slopes, rivers, swamps and other physical barriers can make the journey to and from the

water source very difficult. Fields may also make the journey to the water source difficult,

in the sense that they have to be avoided if there are some crops. As a result some

households may prefer distant water sources if the trip is easy.

The availability of water at the source is also an important factor in selecting the main

water source, with 45.8 % of the households preferring their main water source because

there is lots of water. People will avoid sources where they may wait in queues for a long

time in order to fetch water. This is also related to the easy with which the container fills,

which influences 30.4 % of the households in choosing their main water source. At some

sources it may be difficult to fill the container, for instance where water yield from a

borehole well is low or where a tin used to fetch water from a well may be small or

leaking. This will also result in more time being spend when collecting water. Some

people prefer their main water source for no obvious reasons, such as they have always

used the source. Thus in cases where a new source becomes available people may still use

the traditional water source which might not necessarily be the optimum one. The choice

of the main water source may also be influenced by social factors such as the people met

on the way to and at the water source. However, these two factors are not very significant

as they were cited by only 6.2 % of the respondents.

Table 4:9 Preference of Main Water Source

Reason for Preference Number of Households

Percentage of Households

Closest Source 1233 84.2 Easiest Trip 698 47.6 Cleaner and Better Water 1091 74.5 Lots of Water 671 45.8

25

Container Fills Easily 445 30.4 People you Meet at the Source 73 5 People you Meet on the Way 17 1.2 Always Used the Source 238 16.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)

4.2.6 Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking People in the ward usually use the same source of water to collect water for cooking and

drinking. As a result there are no significant differences in the proportion of households

using different sources to get water for drinking and cooking, since clean water is

required for both purposes (Table 4.10). Usually the water for cooking and drinking is

collected using the same container.

Table 4:10 Main Sources of Water for Drinking and Cooking

Main Source of Water

Number of Households (Dry

Season)

Percentage of Households (Dry

Season)

Number of Households (Rainy

Season)

Percentage of Households (Rainy

Season)

Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Drinking Cooking Communal Borehole well

739 738 50.4 50.4 389 384 26.6 26.2

Protected Well 436 435 29.8 29.7 547 548 37.3 37.4 Unprotected Well 243 244 16.6 16.7 453 454 30.9 31 Private Borehole well 37 37 2.5 2.5 40 40 2.7 2.7 Main River 4 4 0.3 0.3 3 3 0.2 0.2 Stream 4 5 0.3 0.3 9 11 0.6 0.8 Permanent Dam 2 2 0.1 0.1 2 2 0.1 0.1 Seasonal Pond 0 0 0 0 2 2 0.1 0.1 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 0 0 20 21 1.4 1.4 Total 4165 1465 100 100 1465 1465 100 100

Source: Survey Results (1999)

Out of the interviewed households 50.4 % use the communal borehole well as their main

source of water for drinking during the dry season, from May to November, 29.8 % use

the protected well and 16.6 % use the unprotected well. The private borehole well is used

by 2.5 % of the households as the main source of drinking water during the dry season,

0.3 % get their water from the main river; and 0.3 % again use the stream. Only 0.1 % use

a permanent dam as their main source of drinking water during the dry season.

26

The communal borehole well is used as the main source of drinking water during the dry

season mainly because the other sources of water will dry up during the dry season. These

other sources, especially the protected and unprotected wells, will dry up either because

of their shallow depths or their poor sites on low yielding ground.

The main river and the stream are mainly used as sources of drinking water by households

in areas where borehole wells and other alternative sources are far from their homesteads.

This is mainly the case in the extreme southern part of the ward, where the people get

their water from the Mupfure, Gonza and the Nyamakondo Rivers. The borehole well

which must serve this area is located at Mahororo Shopping Centre (Figure 4.3). The

borehole well in this area is not centrally located as a result most households have to walk

great distances in order to collect water. In addition to the great distance, the terrain in

this area in rugged, making it difficult to carry 20 litres of water on the head.

During the rainy season 29.8 % of the households use the protected well as the main

source of drinking water and 30.9 % the unprotected well. Few households use the

communal borehole well as their main water source during the rainy season, i.e. 26.6 %

compared to 50.4 % during the dry season. The protected and the unprotected wells are

used by more households as the main sources of drinking water mainly because they are

nearer to the homesteads (Figure 4.2). This can be supported by the fact that 84% of the

households prefer their main water source because it is the closest source (Table 4.9). As

a result, whenever water is available nearer to the homestead people will get drinking

water from these nearest source. This tends to leave them with more time to engage in

other activities such as farming and gathering wood for fuel.

Although most households get their water for drinking and cooking from protected and

unprotected wells during the rainy season some still get their water from the communal

borehole wells because they consider water quality to be an important factor mainly with

regard to drinking and cooking water. Table 4.9 shows that 74.5% of the households

prefer their main water source because the water is cleaner and better. The communal

27

borehole wells supply clean and better water because they are well protected. Unlike the

communal borehole wells, other sources of water especially unprotected wells, seasonal

ponds, streams and rivers are susceptible to rubbish in the form of leaves which are blown

to the water sources by wind and runoff which may enter the sources leading to the

deposition of organic and inorganic matter, thereby affecting water quality.

Roof water harvesting and the seasonal ponds are used by some households as main

sources of drinking and cooking water during the rainy season. The seasonal pond is

used by 0.1 % of the households and roof water harvesting by 2.7 %.

4.2.7 Sources of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes

From Table 4.11 it can be noted that there are no significant differences on the sources of

water for bathing and clothes washing. The communal borehole well is used by the

largest number of households as the main water source for people and clothes washing

during the dry season. Out of the 1465 households in the ward, 43 % use the communal

borehole well as their main water source for washing clothes and bathing. This is mainly

because the communal borehole wells can supply water throughout the year, compared to

the other sources which may dry up during the dry season. Most communal borehole

wells also have a sink which is constructed nearby, where clothes can be washed. This

enables people to do their washing clothes without carrying water for long distances. The

protected and unprotected wells are used by 29% and 20% of the households respectively,

as sources of water for clothes washing during the dry season. The other sources are used

by a small percentage of households as sources of water for bathing and washing clothes

during the dry season (Table 4.11).

28

Table 4.11: Main Source of Water for Bathing and Washing Clothes

Main Source of Water Number of Households (Dry

Season)


Season)

Number of Households

(Rainy Season)


Season)

Bathing Clothes wash




Protected Well 427 431 29.1 29.4 492 500 33.6 34.1 Unprotected Well 291 288 19.9 19.7 515 515 35.2 35.2 Communal Borehole well 633 638 43.2 43.5 236 238 16.1 16.2 Main River 9 8 0.7 0.5 12 10 0.8 0.7 Stream 61 58 4.2 4 122 115 8.3 7.8 Permanent Dam 5 4 0.3 0.3 3 2 0.2 0.2 Seasonal Pond 5 5 0.3 0.3 26 25 1.8 1.7 Private Borehole well 34 33 2.3 2.3 34 35 2.3 2.3 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 0 0 25 25 1.7 1.8 Total 1465 1465 100 100 1465 1465 100 100

Source: Survey Results (1999) During the rainy season the unprotected well is used by the largest number of households

as the main water source for bathing and washing clothes. The unprotected well is the

most preferred because water quality is not a major consideration when collecting water

for bathing and washing clothes. The stream becomes a main water source for people and

clothes washing for a considerable number of households during the rainy season. It is

used by 8 % of the households as a main water source for these purposes (Table 4.11). It

is preferred because water will be available in the steams during the rainy season and

people do not carry water at all (where washing is done in the steam) or they do not carry

water for long distances (where they carry the water and do the washing near the stream).

4.2.8 Sources of Water for Gardening

The historical imbalances in the distribution of land and water resources and the resultant

mismatch between the location of irrigable soils and the water potential of the land has

led to the exclusion of many communal farmers from irrigation agriculture. Horticulture

is the only form of agriculture that involves irrigation among most households in the

29

communal areas. In Ward VIII, the main horticultural crops include vegetables, tomatoes

and onions. The gardens, where these crops are grown are mainly owned by individual

families, and are generally small, about 300 square metres on average. The crops grown,

are mainly for consumption at home, but in some cases they are sold either to

neighbouring families or the produce is send to the markets in nearby urban centres such

as Chegutu and Norton.

The gardens are mainly located close to the homesteads and this makes it easy to protect

them from animals and thieves. However, in some cases they are situated close to rivers

and streams where water can be obtained easily. Where the gardens are not adjacent to a

river or stream, there is usually a protected or unprotected well within the garden which

makes the watering of the crops easy. In most cases water used for gardening does not

reach the homestead, and has not been included in the water demand computations

produced in this report.

Gardening is carried out throughout the year (Table 4.12). Out of the 1465 households,

49.9 % do their gardening during the dry season and 56.6 % during the rainy season.

Slightly less than 50% of the respondents did their gardening during the dry season

mainly because there will be limited water resources. Out of the 658 households that use

water for gardening during the dry season 42.9 % get their water from unprotected wells,

24.6 % from protected wells, 18. 7 % from the communal borehole wells and 6.1 % from

the stream. However, because of the government policy which prohibits stream-bank

cultivation the stream is becoming very unpopular as a source of water for gardening. The

other sources are used by a smaller percentage of households as main sources of water for

gardening during the dry season.

30

Table 4.12 Main Sources of Water for Gardening


Season)


Season)


(Rainy Season)


Season)

Protected Well 162 24.6 190 22.9 Unprotected Well 282 42.9 450 54.2 Main River 12 1.8 11 1.3 Stream 40 6.1 63 7.6 Permanent Dam 5 0.8 4 0.5 Seasonal Pond 22 3.3 47 5.7 Communal Borehole well 123 18.7 48 5.8 Private Borehole well 12 1.8 11 1.3 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 6 0.7 Total 658 100 830 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

The unprotected well is used by 54.2 % of the households as the main source of water for

gardening during the rainy season. The protected well by 22.9 %; the stream by 7.6 %; the

communal borehole well by 5.8 % and the seasonal pond by 5.7 % (Table 4.12). A large

percentage of households use the unprotected and protected wells as their main water for

gardening during the dry season. In most cases a small portion of land around the

protected or unprotected well is fenced and vegetables are grown using water from these

sources. Usually these water sources are nearer to the homestead. The stream is also used

by a considerable number of households as a source of water for gardening during both

the rainy season and the dry seasons. The households using streams as sources of water

for gardening usually have their gardens by the side of the stream to avoid carrying water

for long distances.

The communal borehole well which is used by the majority of the households as the main

source of water for cooking, drinking, people washing and clothes washing, is not

dominant as the main source of water for gardening in the study area. Although

communal borehole wells usually supply water throughout the year, the rural

communities usually restrict borehole well water to basic uses such as drinking, cooking,

people washing and clothes washing. As a result the households which engage in

gardening activities will use other sources of water which are not communally owned.

31

This shows that the people in the communal areas have their institutional arrangements

that regulate access to common property.

4.2.9 Sources of Water for Construction

Out of the 1465 households in the ward 45% reported that they use water for construction

during the dry season and 53% during the wet season. Out of those who use water for

construction during the dry season 30 % get the water from the protected well; 28. 5 from

the unprotected well; 26.4 from the communal borehole well and 10.5 from the stream

(Table 4.13). During the rainy season 40.2 % use the protected well as the main source of

water for construction; 28.4 use the unprotected well; 13.8 the stream and 11.2 % the

communal borehole well. Many households get water for construction from privately

owned sources to avoid conflicts with others especially during the dry season. However,

the stream is also used as a main water source to collect water for construction, mainly

during the rainy season when the water will be available in streams. The contribution of

the water that is used for Construction to the total per capita consumption of water must

be treated with caution since Construction is not done frequently.

Table 4.13: Main Source of Water for Construction


Season)


(Dry Season)

Number of Households (Rainy

Season)

percentage of Households

(Rainy Season)

Protected Well 188 28.5 218 28.4 Unprotected Well 198 30 309 40.2 Main River 8 1.2 7 0.9 Stream 69 10.5 106 13.8 Permanent Dam 12 1.8 8 1 Seasonal Pond 2 0.3 20 2.6 Communal Borehole well 174 26.4 86 11.2 Private Borehole well 9 1.3 9 1.2 Roof Water Harvesting 0 0 5 0.7 Total 660 100 768 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

32

4.3 Water Demand Patterns and Collection Modes 4.3.1 Water Demand Patterns As already noted above there is only one tap which supplies water to a few households in

the ward. As a result most households have to fetch water from distant water sources. In

order to achieve a spatial assessment of water demand, the ward has been divided into

zones, that share the same water sources, especially during the dry season. The

demarcation of these areas is based on the assumption that each household will collect

water from the nearest source, except where physical barriers, mainly slopes and rivers

pose difficulties in carrying water. Using this format the ward has been delimited into 21

zones, annotated by numbers (Figures 4.2 and 4.3).

Figure 4.2 shows the location of the main water sources in relation to the homesteads.

These are the protected wells, unprotected wells, borehole wells, streams and rivers. The

other sources highlighted in the previous sections have been disregarded because they

affect few households.

There are many protected and unprotected wells compared to borehole wells in the ward.

These two sources, which are the dominant sources of water for a variety of purposes

during the rainy season, are located at or nearer to the homesteads. The concentration of

protected and unprotected wells in the ward is mainly because of the limited costs

associated with their construction. When digging the protected and unprotected wells

usually the distance from the homestead is given preference rather than the geological

nature of the area. Since most protected and unprotected wells are closer to the

homesteads most households do not walk long distances to collect water.

However, during the dry season most of the protected and unprotected wells dry up and

people depend on communal borehole wells for their water needs, as a result the pattern

of water demand will change. Communal borehole wells which rarely dry up become the

main sources of water for most households during the dry season.

33

There are 23 communal borehole wells in the ward. However, some of them are reported

to be inefficient either because they are not functional for most of the time or the pumps

are not efficient. Although most households do not walk long distances during the rainy

season in order to fetch water the pattern will change during the dry season. For example,

the households in the zones marked 1;3; 4; 6; 11; 16; 18; and 20 will walk long distances

during the dry season to collect water. This is mainly due to, either the scattered or linear

pattern of settlement in these areas. In zone 11 most households are located far away

from the borehole well. Thus, during the dry season, when most wells dry, the people in

this area have to fetch their water from the communal borehole well at Mahororo

Shopping Centre. The terrain in this area is also unfavourable and fetching water from

such a distant source is quite problematic. The lack of communal borehole wells in this

area also force some households to resort to streams and rivers as sources of water. The

same problem is faced by the people who have recently settled in the north western part

of zone 1. Since water from the streams is susceptible to contamination, this poses a

health risk to the people in the area.

In areas where the settlements are clustered, such as in zones 8; 9; 17 and 21, most

households can access the borehole wells without walking long distances. It can therefore,

be inferred that the scattered or linear patterns of settlement in most communal areas

make the provision of services, such as water difficult.

Besides the nature of settlement, the siting of borehole wells in the ward is questionable.

Most borehole wells were sunk nearer to schools or business centres, with little regard of

the location of most homesteads. At St Saviours School, for example, there are two

communal borehole wells which are located away from areas of population concentration.

Although there is need to provide water at such centres also there is need to decentralise

the provision of water sources.

34

4.3.2 Water Collection It has been observed that water is not collected randomly, instead many households

collect water several times a day during fixed times. Out of all the interviewed

households 98.6 % collect water in the morning; 46.6 % in the afternoon 83.5 % in the

evening and 32.5 % just when the water is needed (Table 4.14). Many households collect

water in the morning mainly because water collected on a particular day will be used on

that day and little or no water will be left for use during the following day. Where the

source of water is not far, people prefer to fetch fresh water for another day than storing

water for use during the following day because the open containers, in which it is kept,

allow insects and house dust to contaminate the water.

Table 4.14: Time When Water is Collected

Time When Water is Collected Number of Households Percentage of Households

Morning 1445 98.6 Afternoon 683 46.6 Evening 1224 83.5 When Needed 476 32.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)

The pattern in Table 4.14 also indicates that water is mainly collected during the times

when people have their meals, that is in the morning, afternoon and the evening. The

water collected will be used for cooking and washing dishes after the meal. The

percentage of households that collect water in the afternoon is low, either because they

use surplus water which will be left in the morning or they do not prepare meals in the

afternoon but eat leftovers instead. The households that collect water just when it is

needed are mainly those with water sources within or nearer to the homesteads.

Table 4.15: People Who Collect Water for the Household



Women Only 36.9 541 Women and Children 32.8 480 Men Women and Children 19.2 282 Men Only 3.8 55

35

Children Only 7.3 107 Source: Survey Results (1999) In 36.9 % of the households water is collected by women only, in 32.8% by women and

children in 19.2% by men women and children in 7.3% by children and in 3.8% by men

only (Table 4.15). The figures clearly show that women are the group that is most

involved in the collection of water in the ward. However, contrary to the traditional belief

that the collection of water is done by the females only, males are also involved in the

collection of water. This is mainly because some households employ some school leavers

as workers, and these workers (even when they are males) are involved in the collection

of water.

The use of wheelbarrows in the collection of water (Table 4.16) also contributes to the

involvement of men and women in the collection of water. Three main methods are used

to carry water by different households in the ward. Those who carry water either on the

head or by hand constitute 71.9 % of the households. The wheelbarrow is used by 27.6 %

of the households while only 0.5 % use the donkey or oxcart (Table 4.16).

Table 4.16: Method of Carrying Water

Method of Carrying Water Number Of Households Percentage of Households

On Head/ by Hand 1053 71.9 Wheelbarrow 405 27.6 Donkey or Ox Cart 7 0.5 Source: Survey Results (1999)

Most people in the ward carry their water on the head or by hand mainly because the

water sources are not very far from most homesteads. As a result there are no major

difficulties in carrying water containers, and people can use small containers and make

many trips to collect water. The wheelbarrow is mainly used by households which are

further away from the water sources. Wheelbarrows are mainly used by those households

were men and children collect water. However, in some instances the use of

wheelbarrows is hindered by swamps and rugged or steep terrain.

36

Table 4.17 shows that the amount of water collected/ day/ household in the ward is very

variable.Saturday and Sundays are the days when households collect the highest amounts

of water mainly because that is when most people do wash their clothes. In addition some

children who go to school, and some people who normally stay or work away will be at

home thereby increasing the demand for water. On Thursdays there is medium demand

(9.7%) for water because it is the ‘resting day’ many people do not go to the fields but

tend to occupy themselves washing clothes, bathing and gardening..

Table 4.17: Days When More Water is Collected

Day When More Water is Collected



Demand Category

Monday 64 4.4 Low Demand Tuesday 24 1.6 Low Demand Wednesday 58 3.9 Low Demand Thursday 142 9.7 Medium Demand Friday 121 8.3 Medium Demand Saturday 608 41.5 High Demand Sunday 461 31.5 High Demand Source: Survey Results 1999

Out of all the households which indicated that they collected more water during some

times of the year, 46.9 % collect more water during the dry season, 7 % during the rain

season, 3.1 % during school and public holidays and 0.2 % during other times like when

there are social functions (Table 4.18). A large proportion of households collect more

water during the dry season mainly because there will be little or no farming activities and

there will be more time to collect water. Those who collect more water during the rainy

season do so mainly because more water will be available closer to their homesteads.

During public and school holidays more water is collected because there will be more

people at home and this will automatically increase the demand for water. As already

noted the variations in the pattern of collecting water make it difficult to calculate per

capita water demand water per day.

37

Table 4.18: Times of the Year When More Water is Collected

Time of The Year When More Water is Collected

Number of Households Percentage of Households

Rainy Season 103 7.0 Dry Season 687 46.9 School and Public Holidays 46 3.1 Other 3 0.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)

Most of the water that is collected is not used soon after collection but it will be stored for

later use. Out of all the households 85.2 % store their water in the containers used to

collect the water, 14.5 % in separate large containers and 0.3 % in a tank outside. Most

households store their water in the container used to collect the water mainly because the

water sources are nearer to the homesteads and as a result people prefer to fetch fresh

water whenever the water is needed rather than store water for future use.

Table 4.19: Storing Water

Storing Water Number of Households Percentage of Households

In a Container Used to Collect it 1248 85.2 In a Separate Large Container 212 14.5 In a Tank Outside 5 0.3 Source: Survey Results (1999)

4.4 Water Quality Out of the 889 households which indicated that they have problems with water quality

31.3 % have the problem of rubbish in water (Table 4.20). This problem is prevalent

among households which use unprotected water sources, such as the unprotected wells,

the seasonal ponds, the rivers and the streams. This rubbish is mainly in the form of

leaves deposited by wind and running water in these water sources. In some cases the

rubbish is in the form of small organisms which are found in water sources. The problems

of bad colour, bad taste and bad smell are usually a result of the rubbish which may

decompose in the water sources. The problem of people and animals tampering with

38

water is not prevalent in the ward mainly because the water sources, though not protected

from contamination, are not easily accessed by animals and children.

Table 4.20: Problems with Water Quality

Problem Number of Households


Bad Smell 105 11.8 Bad Colour 218 24.5 Bad Taste 173 19.5 Rubbish In Water 278 31.3 Animals Using Water Source 48 5.4 Children Playing In Water Source 30 3.4 People Bathing And Washing In Water Source 37 4.2 Source: Survey Results (1999)

To cope with the problem of poor water quality three main methods are used to improve

the quality (Table 4.21). These include boiling the water, allowing the sediments in the

water to settle or disinfecting the water before use. Allowing the water to settle is the

single most popular method because it is cost effective and does not require the use of

additional labour inputs.

Table 4.21: Treatment of Water

Method of Treatment Number of Households Percentage of Households

Boiling Water Before Use 208 29.4 Allowing water to Settle Before Use 254 35.8 Disinfecting Water Before Use 247 34.8 Total n=709 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

The 34.8% that use chemicals to disinfect the water use three main methods. These

include the use of soda, chlorine or paraffin. Soda is used by the majority of the

households mainly because it is cheaper than chlorine and does not make the water smell

badly as paraffin does (Table 4.22).

39

Table 4.22: Disinfection of Water

Method of Disinfection Number of Households Percentage of Households

Soda 243 90.3 Chlorine 20 7.5 Paraffin 6 2.2 Total n=269 100 Source: Survey Results (1999)

4.5 Primary Water Per Capita Demand The average amount of water collected daily by the 1465 households is 128 745 litres. On

average each household collects and uses 88 litres of water per day. With a total

population of 8044, the amount of water used per capita, per day, is 16 litres. This amount

refers to the water that is brought to the homestead only. This implies that it is the water

which is used for functions that are undertaken at the homestead. In most cases these are;

cooking, washing dishes, drinking, people washing and clothes washing. Thus the water

used for other purposes such as; washing clothes, washing people and gardening away

from the homestead, is not accounted for. In most cases where households are engaged in

gardening activities, they have some water sources at or near the site of the garden, and

the water that is used for gardening will not be carried to the homestead. When clothes

are washed is done at the homestead, more water will be fetched.

The total amount of water collected by each household per day is highly variable in the

ward. Table 4.23 shows that 40.3 % of the households collect between 30 and 60 litres of

water per day, 26.5 % collect between 61 and 100 litres, 24.7 % collect more than 100

litres and 8.5 % collects less than 30 litres per day. The variation of the total amount of

water collected per day is mainly due the differences in the number of people who

normally reside in the household.

40

Table 4.23: Amount of Water Collected per Day

Amount of Water Collected Per Day

Number of Households Percentage of Households

Less than 30 Litres 124 8.5 30-60 Litres 590 40.3 61-100 Litres 388 26.5 More than 100 Litres 363 24.7 Source: Survey Results (1999)

It must also be noted that the per capita consumption of water varies between the

households. The variation is largely a result of the differences in the social and economic

conditions of the households. Other factors like access to water may also lead to

differences in the per capita consumption of water. Households which do not have easy

access to water sources are likely to use less water than those households with easy access

to water sources.

5.0 Summary of Main Findings In Ward VIII, as well as elsewhere in the communal areas of Zimbabwe, people need

clean water, at least, to meet their domestic needs. Groundwater is the main source of

water for most domestic requirements. The only reliable sources of groundwater are the

communal borehole wells, since most wells dry up during the dry season. However, the

sitting and distribution of borehole wells in the ward is not even. Although rivers and

streams provide lots of water for a variety of purposes during the rainy season, most of

them dry up during the dry season.

In the ward, the average amount water per capita per day is 16 litres, which is well below

the amount recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) (50 litres per capita

per day). This average amount of water per capita is based on the water that is brought to

the homestead only. If water used for other purposes undertaken elsewhere, away from

the homestead, and the non-consumptive uses of water are taken into consideration, then

the average per capita demand per day is above 16 litres.

41

5.1 Policy Recommendations

It has been noted that borehole wells are the most reliable sources of clean water in the

ward. However, the costs associated with the drilling of borehole wells are very high,

such that it is not feasible to drill more borehole wells in the ward. There is therefore,

need to provide technical and financial assistance to enable households to dig their own

protected wells which can provide water throughout the year. An alternative is to

construct small to medium sized dams, since a lot of water will be lost as runoff during

the rainy season. These dams will supply water during the dry season when there will be

water scarcity. This will also enable smallholder farmers to irrigate their crops, and earn

more incomes.

The main aim in providing water resources in the communal areas is to improve the

economy of the people. As such there is need for an integrated planning of the land and

water resources planning in the communal areas. The land issue has been dominating

policy discussions in Zimbabwe since independence. However, the land issue must not be

separated from the water issue if sustainable development is to be achieved. There is

therefore, need to redress the dualist nature of the economy created by the colonial

governments in an integrated manner. With regard to land, redistribution will be a long

lasting solution, and this has to be accompanied by new feature in the management of

water resources. Improved access to land and water resources will, in the long term,

42

6.0 ANNEXES

Annex 1: The Questionnaire

SURVEY ON THE SOCIAL USE OF WATER A joint survey by the Universities of Zimbabwe and Southampton

LOCATION OF INTERVIEW:

WHO ARE YOU?We need to know this sothat we can plot your homeon the map.

Your surname (family name)

Name of head of household

Homestead code number

Name of interviewer

Date of interview

YOUR HOMESTEADThis lets us understand your water use How many buildings in the homestead? Number

Type(s) of roof: Thatched roof Zinc/Tin/Asbestos

Cement tiles Other roof (specify)

Tick several boxes if possible

How many people normally live in this homestead? Number

Are they male or female?(include children)

MaleNumber

FemaleNumber

What are their ages? (include children)

2 yrs or less 2-18 years

19-59 years 60 years or older

How many members of thehousehold live or work away?

How often do they return to this homestead?………………………………………………

1.2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

43

In the following section differentiate where appropriate between rain season and dry season activities

WHERE YOU COLLECT YOUR WATER MOST OF THE TIME

What is the MAIN source that you use to collect water for each purpose? ( several boxes if necessary)

ProtectedSpring

Unprotected Spring

Main River

Stream

PermanentDam

Seasonal Pond

Communal Borehole

Private Borehole

Roof water harvesting

Water supply by tap:

Community Tap

Homestead(Yard)

Inside House

If different water sources are used for different purposes, please specify by putting the appropriate letter(s) in the boxes above:

D = drinkingCW = clothes washing

C = cookingG = garden watering

PW = people washingB = building

Specify any others here:………………………………………………………………………….

How long does it take to walk to the the two main sources (identify which sources these are from the above list):

First source

During which times do you normally collect water? Not applicable if a homestead or house tap is used.

Do you just collect water when it is needed?

Dry Rainy seasonseason Rainy seasonseasonDry

8.

9.

Minutes Second source Minutes

Morning Afternoon Evening

10.

11.

Source Time Source Time

44

YOUR PREFERENCESWhy do you prefer to use your main water source? (tick several boxes)

Because it is the closest water source

Because it is the easiest trip (good path/ not steep etc)

Because the water there is better (cleaner)

Because there is lots of water (container fills easily)

Because it is easy to fill container (no pump/ good pump)

Because of the people you meet at the water source

Because of the people you meet on the way to the water source

Because your family has always used this water source

Other reasons:

Now explain to the surveyor where the water sources are so that they can be plotted on the map. Also plot on the map the route normally taken to the water sources.

COLLECTING WATER

Who collects the water for your household? (tick one box) Women only Women and children Men, women and children

How many trips are made each day to collect water? Number

How many people go on each trip to collect water and how much do they collect?

How many containers are filled on each trip to collect water?

How do you carry your water? On head/ by hand Wheelbarrow

12.

13.

Men only Children only

Number Litres

14.

15.

16.

17.

Other

…………………………………………………………………………………

Large containers (200 Litres)

Medium containers (25 litres)

Small containers (10 litres)

Donkey / Ox cart ………………………………………………….

45

Are there some days of the week when more or less water is collected?

More

Less

Are there some times of year when more or less water is collected?

STORING THE WATER

How is water stored?(Tick one box)

In the containerused to collect it

In a separatelarge container

In a tankoutside

WATER QUALITY

Do you have a problemwith water quality?(Tick one box)

Yes No Sometimes

What is the problem?(Tick several boxes)

Bad smell Bad colour Bad taste Rubbish inwater

Animals usingwater source

Children playing inwater source

Bathing and washingclothes in water source

Is water boiled before use(Tick one box)

Yes No Sometimes

Yes No Sometimes

Yes No Sometimes

Yes No Sometimes

Is water disinfectedbefore use(Tick one box)

Is water allowed to settlebefore use(Tick one box)

Is water treated by anyother method(Tick one box)

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

26.

25.

24.

23.

Others ………………………………………………………. Not applicable

Yes No

If yes state the days ………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………….

Yes NoMore

Less

If yes state the times ………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………….

If yes / sometimes specify ………………………………………………………………….

If yes / sometimes specify ………………………………………………………………….

46

HOUSEHOLD WATER USE

What is the water used for ? (Tick several boxes)

Drinking Cooking Washing people Washing clothes

Animals Gardening Building

LIVESTOCK USE OF WATER

How many livestock does yourhousehold have?

Cattle Goats Sheep

How many times are the cattle dipped each month?

Do you spray some of your animals?

Yes No Sometimes

COMMUNAL WATER USE

Is water used for any communal projects?

Vegetablegarden

Making buildingBlock

Community poultry unit

Other ………………………………………………………………………………………………..

PLEASE THANK THE RESPONDENTS FOR THEIR HELP

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

Donkeys Pigs Other…………...

During Winter …………………..……. During Summer ……………………………..

47

Annex 2: Report on the Process of Community Consultation prior to and during the Mhondoro Survey

a) Prior to the Survey Prior to the Mhondoro survey, research assistants comprising University of Zimbabwe

students and high school leavers with at least 5 ‘O’ Level passes were recruited. The

research assistants were trained on how to administer the questionnaire in Shona, the local

language in the area. A familialisation trip to the field (Ward VIII of Mhondoro Communal

Area) was made after the training. The trip aimed to educate the local community, mainly

through their local leaders, on the importance of the survey and to equip the enumerators

with necessary skills prior to the survey. After the familialisation tour problems faced by the

enumerators in the field were discussed and clarifications were made.

b) During the survey Sampling Method

The survey intended to cover all the households in the ward. As such, no sampling

procedure was followed during the survey. One questionnaire was administered at every

household. After every interview, a sticker with the name of the interviewer and the

questionnaire number was pasted on the front door of the house nearest to the entrance to

the homestead. This was done to avoid a situation whereby more than one questionnaire

was administered per household. This also enabled the capturing of the position of the

homestead and to further relate this to the questionnaire information since all the

information was entered into the (Global Positioning System) GPS.

The Interviews

Before interviewing the respondents, the enumerators introduced themselves, stated the

objective of their visit and asked for someone who could respond to the questionnaire.

Only adults with the knowledge of water sources, collection methods and the uses of

water in the homestead were interviewed. The questionnaires were administered in Shona

48

which is the local language in the study area. After the interview the interviewers thanked

the respondents, and sometimes asked for assistants where they did not know how to

proceed to the next household. This also enabled coverage of some households which

could have been left out in the survey because of either their hidden location, or in cases

where there were more than one household at the same homestead.

Capturing the Position of Homesteads and Main Water Sources

The global positioning system (GPS) was used to capture the exact location of the main

water sources and the homesteads. This was done by the team leader, who was also

responsible for supervising the research assistants. As already indicated, stickers left by

research assistants guided the one who was marking the location of the homesteads. After

marking the location of the homestead, the household members would show their main

water source and its location was marked as well, except when it was already marked i.e.

in cases were it was used by more than one household. During this process the position

and type of main water source was stated.

c) Concluding Remarks

The survey was a success, mainly because most of the people in the ward were

cooperative. In all 1465 households responded to the questionnaires. The success of the

project is mainly attributable to the motivation the local community got from their

leaders. Also, the efficiency of the research assistants and the clarity of the objectives of

the survey contributed to the success of the survey.

P. Kundishora

49

Annex 3: Flow diagram of the Mupfure Water Management FLOW DIAGRAM SHOWING THE INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE OF THE

GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY WATER MANAGEMENT

1. THE MINISTER RESPONSIBLE FOR WATER DEVELOPMENT (Ministry of Water and Rural Resources)

Responsibilities:a) To develop policies to guide the orderly and integrated planning of the optimum development, utilisation and protection of the country’s water resources in the national interest.b) To ensure the availability of water to all citizens for primary purposes and to meet the needs of aquatic and associated ecosystems particularly when there are competing demands.c) To ensure the equitable and efficient allocation of the available water resources in the national interests for the development of the rural, urban, industrial and mining and agricultural sectors.

2. THE NATIOANL WATER AUTHORITY (Department of Water Development)

Responsibilitiesa) To advice the Minister on the formulation of national policies on standards on: (i) water resources planning,

management and development; (ii) water quality and pollution control and environmental protection; (iii) hydrologyand hydrogeology; (iv) dam safety and borehole drilling; and (v) water pricing.

b) To assist and participate in or advice on any matter pertaining to the planning of the development, exploitation,protection and conservation of water resources.

c) To exploit, conserve and manage the water resources of Zimbabwe, with the objective of: (i) securing equitableaccessibility and efficient allocation and development of water resources; (ii) providing in both the short and longterm, adequate water on a cost effective basis; and (iii) taking appropriate measures to minimise the impacts ofdroughts, floods or other hazards.

d) To assist Rural District Councils and Urban Council with regards to the development and management of waterresources in areas under their jurisdiction and in particular, the provision of potable water.

e) To superintend Catchment Councils in the discharge of their functions under the Water Act, 1997.f) To operate and maintain any water works any water works owned or managed by the authority and to sell

any water from the same, to construct boreholes and to design and construction services.g) To provide consultancy services to Government and local authorities in connection with the exploitation

development management and distribution of water resources.h) To undertake research and develop a data base on hydrological issues of interest to Zimbabwe and publish

the findings.i) To promote co-operation in the management of international water resources.

3. CATCHMENT COUNCILS

Responsibilitiesa) To advise and assist the national Water authority in the preparation of catchment outline plans.b) To issue permits for the use of water in their catchment.c) To regulate and supervise the exercise of rights to the use of water in the catchment.d) To investigate disputes concerning abstraction, appropriation, control, diversion or use of water and make orders.e) To investigate and report waste of water.f) To ensure compliance with the Water Act.

4. SUB-CATCHMENT COUNCILS

Responsibilitya) To establish and maintain a regulatory framework within which persons in the area of its jurisdiction have access toboth surface and underground water

5. STAKEHOLDERS

50

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Common Property Resources and Community-based Sustainable Development, Belhaven Press, London.

Chatora, C., Taylor, P. and Hoevanaars, J.P.M. (1995) Identification Mission:

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Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (eds.) (1996) Water in Southern Africa, SADC/ IUCN/

SARDC, Maseru, Harare. CSO (1994) 1992 Population Census: Zimbabwe National Report, CSO, Harare,

Zimbabwe. Dore, D., Lium, T., Moyo ,S., Nypan, A. and Samset, K., (1984) Evaluation of the

District Development Fund , Zimbabwe, Rural Water Supply Reconciliation and Development Programme, Oslo.

El-Ashry, M.T. (1993) “Policies for Water Resources Management in Arid Regions” in

Biswas, A.K, Jellalli, M. and Stout, G.E. (eds) Water for Sustainable Development in the 21st Century, OUP, Oxford.

Hardin, G. (1968) ‘The Tragedy Of The Commons” Science, Vol. 162, pp. 1243-1248. Kambudzi, A.M. (1997) “Water Development or Water Democracy? in Nhira, C. and

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Mazvimavi, D. (1998) Water Resources Management in the Water Catchment Board

Pilot Areas, Phase 1: Data Collection, CASS, University of Zimbabwe. Mehretu, A. (1994) “Social Poverty Communal Areas”, in Rukuni, M. and Eicher,

C.K., Zimbabwe’s Agricultural Revolution, University of Zimbabwe Publications, Harare.

Murombedzi, J.C. (1990) Communal Land Tenure And Common Property Resource

Management: An Evaluation Of The Potential For Sustainable Common Property Resource Management In Zimbabwe’s Communal Lands, CASS, University of Zimbabwe.

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Nilsson, A. and Hammer, A. (1996) The Study Of Water Resources In Zimbabwe, Department Of Natural Resources.

Republic of Zimbabwe (1994) Irrigation Policy and Strategy, Ministry of lands

Agriculture and Water Development, FAO. Van der Zaag, P. and Nyagwambo, N.L. (1998) Water Allocation Criteria for the

Mupfure Catchment. Zinyama, L.M. and Whitlow, J.R. (1986) “Changing patterns of Population distribution

in Zimbabwe”, Geo Journal, Vol. 13, no 4, pp. 365-384. Zinyama, L.M. (1988) “Changes in settlement and landuse patterns in a subsistence

agricultural economy: a Zimbabwe case study, 1956-1984, Erdkunde, Vol. 42, No. 1, 1988.

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