Post on 24-Feb-2021
Flight Testing: Measurements & Design
Tianshu Liu
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI 49008, USA
• Flight testing is the process of gathering information (or data)
which will accurately describe the capabilities of a particular
type of airplane, and which can be used to accurately predict
and optimize the use of all airplanes of that same type
in future missions.
What is Flight Testing?
• Flight testing of research airplanes constitutes the gathering of
data in regions of the flight environment where little past
information has been obtained. This information is then used to
design future airplanes that can operate safely
in this new environment.
• Flight testing is at the end of the aircraft design process and
is a unique part of it.
Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?
This guy, human flapper??
Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?
Otto Lilienthal??
Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?
Wright Brothers??
Who is the First Flight Testing Engineer?
They are the true masters!
Further Deduction: Archaeopteryx
W= 2.5 N
Muscle Power < 50% Deduction:
Sustainable Flapping Flight
Take-off from ground???
Further Deduction: Pterosauers
W =126-292 N
Deduction:
Sustainable Flapping Flight Take-off from ground???
Flight Testing in Aeronautical Education
Although playing an important role in the design of aircraft,
flight testing is not included in traditional curriculum of
aeronautical engineering education, and few universities offer
such a course.
Current Status:
Difficulties in Offering the Flight Testing Class:
It is partially due to the high cost for maintaining and operating
a fully instrumented experimental aircraft for flight testing.
Flight Testing at Western Michigan University
AAE 459: “Flight Test Engineering and Design” (Note: it was originally developed by Prof. Arthur Hoadley
during the collaborations with NASA Dryden Flight Center)
Textbook: “Flight Testing of Fixed Wing Aircraft”
by R. D. Kimberlin, AIAA, 2000
Reference: “Introduction to Flight Test Engineering”
by D. T. Ward, Elsevier, 1993
Experimental Aircraft Cessna R182
(Applied Aerodynamics Laboratory)
Registration number: N1817R, Serial number: R18200571
Engine: Lycoming O-540-J3C5D, Serial number: L-20434-40A
Propeller: McCAULEY B2D34C214, Serial number: 785587
Engine: LYC O-540-J3C5D
75% Cruise: 156 kts
Wingspan: 35 ft
Horsepower: 235
Stall: 50 kts
Length: 28.33 ft
Rec’md TBO: 200 hrs
Range: 520 nm
Height: 8.75 ft
Basic Parameters of Cessna R182
Std Fuel: 61 gal
Ser Ceiling: 14,300 ft
Empty Wt: 1782 lbs
Max Fuel: 80 gal
Takeoff: 820 ft
Gross Wt: 3100 lbs
Landing: 600 ft
AR: 7.5
Wing Area: 173.6 ft2
Cockpit of Cessna R182
Airdata Boom
Onboard Instrument
Onboard Instrument
Onboard Instrument
Onboard Power Unit
Flight Testing Data Output
“Houston, we have a problem!” --- Apollo 13
Problem:
The Cessna 182 was grounded in 2004 since its engine
has not been overhauled for eight years.
Cost for engine overhaul: $25,000 (+)
Annual check & insurance: $8,000 (+)
Student’s lab fee: $5,000 (-)
Sad Conclusion:
Flight testing class using the Cessna 182 is not
economically sustainable without support from WMU.
Proposed Alternative:
Unmanned Air Vehicle (UAV) Flight Testing Platform
Strong Student Reactions:
“I believe that no UAV should be necessary. I spend so much money
to come to Western to get what they call a quality, well rounded
education. One of the most exciting parts about the program was
getting to go up in an aircraft as I would in working in the real world.
What a great preparation for what would be to come, performing real
experiments. If the Cessna does not get up and working again for
the program it appears to me that the program is truly going downhill
like everyone in my class is afraid of.” --- STUDENT #1
“The 459 class and the flight testing program is what helps distinguish
WMU’s Aero program over other universities. I believe that flying
the 182 is a far better learning experience then the UAV.”
--- STUDENT #2
Solution: Cirrus SR20 Provided by College of Aviation
College of Aviation of WMU
The College of Aviation offers the only comprehensive aviation program at a
public university in Michigan, and with over 900 undergraduate students, is
one of the largest (top 3) aviation programs in the nation. Backed by over 60
years of history and our strong industry reputation, the College of Aviation is
fast becoming a powerful force in the future of aviation training.
The College of Aviation's vision is to establish and maintain state-of-the-art,
world-class professional aviation programs that are among the best in the
world. We are examining the very ways we teach and pioneering revolutionary
new methods of instruction designed to improve a pilot's ability to fly and to
work efficiently with a crew. The College of Aviation produces graduates who
think critically, communicate effectively, and participate meaningfully and
ethically in the dynamic field of aviation.
Cirrus Specifications
• Max Gross Wt: 3,000 lbs
• Empty Weight: 2,070 lbs
• Useful Load: 930 lbs
• Fuel Capacity: 56 gal
• Fixed Tricycle Gear
• Maximum Operating Altitude: 17,500 Feet
• Maximum Range: 882 nm
Performance
• Takeoff Distance: 1,341 ft
• Takeoff Distance (50' object): 2,064 ft
• Landing Ground Roll: 1,014 ft
• Landing Over 50' Object: 2,040 ft
• Climb Rate: 900 ft/min
• Stall Speed (w/flaps): 56 KIAS
• Cruise speed: 156 KTAS – @8,000 feet and 75% power
• 55% Power @(10,000 Ft): 5.4 hr, 768 nm
• Cruise Range (w/reserve): 1,341 ft
Geometry
• Length: 26”
• Height: 8’6”
• Wingspan: 35’7”
• Wing Area: 135 sq ft
• Cabin Length: 130”
• Cabin Width: 49”
• Cabin Height 50”
Engine: Continental IO-360-ES
• Engine HP: 200 BHP @2700 rpm
• Propeller: 76” two blade constant speed
• Fuel Burn: 10.5 gallons per hour
All Glass Cockpit
• The Avidyne FlightMax EX5000C
• FlightMax Entegra Primary Flight Display (PFD)
• Main: GARMIN GNS 430 GPS/nav/comm
• Backup: GARMIN GNC 250XL GPS/comm
Avidyne Engine Data Log; DAU Software ID: 311
########
TIME LAT LON E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 OILT OILP RPM
15:50:42 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -67 0 0
15:50:48 0 0 1000 1021 999 1017 1008 1045 205 212 210 209 203 200 137 47 1160
15:50:54 0 0 1006 1035 1007 1026 1015 1053 207 213 210 210 204 200 138 47 1160
15:50:54 0 0 1013 1039 1012 1030 1022 1062 208 215 211 211 205 202 139 47 1160
15:51:00 0 0 1020 1046 1019 1038 1028 1069 209 216 211 212 206 203 140 47 1160
15:51:06 0 0 1026 1051 1023 1041 1032 1074 210 217 212 212 207 204 141 47 1160
15:51:12 0 0 1032 1052 1028 1044 1036 1079 212 218 212 213 208 205 142 47 1160
15:51:18 0 0 1035 1058 1031 1047 1040 1081 213 220 213 214 210 206 143 47 1160
15:51:24 0 0 1032 1054 1021 1034 1027 1058 214 221 213 215 211 207 143 44 940
15:51:30 0 0 990 1013 987 998 991 979 215 222 213 216 211 208 144 41 750
15:51:36 46.839 -92.2009 968 991 971 984 976 935 215 222 213 217 211 208 144 42 760
15:51:42 46.839 -92.2009 954 982 968 979 970 936 216 223 213 217 212 208 145 42 760
15:51:48 46.839 -92.2009 949 979 967 974 968 963 217 224 213 217 212 209 146 41 760
15:51:54 46.839 -92.2009 948 976 964 973 965 969 217 224 213 218 212 209 146 41 760
15:52:00 46.839 -92.2009 949 973 960 968 962 963 218 225 214 219 212 209 146 41 760
15:52:06 46.839 -92.2009 946 973 958 968 965 955 219 226 214 219 213 210 147 41 760
15:52:12 46.839 -92.2009 946 971 957 968 966 961 219 226 214 219 213 210 147 41 760
15:52:18 46.839 -92.2009 944 970 960 965 968 965 220 227 214 220 213 210 147 41 760
15:52:30 46.839 -92.2009 944 968 958 965 970 961 221 227 214 220 214 210 148 41 760
15:52:36 46.839 -92.2009 941 966 958 963 965 936 221 228 215 221 214 210 148 41 780
15:52:42 46.839 -92.2009 940 966 958 967 965 974 222 229 215 221 214 210 148 42 790
OAT MAP FF USED AMP1 AMP2 AMPB MBUS EBUS
-58 0 0 0 0 0 -99 0 0
-58 13.3 3.2 0 33 0 12 27.8 27
-58 13.3 3.2 0 32 0 11 27.8 27
-58 13.3 3.1 0 32 0 11 27.8 27
-58 13.3 3.1 0 31 0 10 27.8 27
-58 13.3 3.2 0 31 0 10 27.9 27
-58 13.3 3.2 0 30 0 10 27.9 27
-58 13.3 3.2 0 29 0 9 27.9 27
-58 12.6 2.4 0 25 0 5 27.4 26.4
-58 14.1 1.7 0 12 0 -5 26 25.4
-58 13.8 1.7 0 13 0 -4 25.8 25.1
-58 13.7 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.7 25.1
-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.7 25
-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.6 24.9
-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -4 25.6 24.9
-58 13.8 1.7 0 14 0 -3 25.6 24.9
-58 13.7 1.7 0 15 0 -3 25.6 24.9
-58 13.7 1.7 0.1 14 0 -3 25.5 24.8
-58 13.8 1.7 0.1 14 0 -3 25.5 24.8
-58 13.6 1.7 0.1 15 0 -3 25.5 24.9
-58 13.4 1.8 0.1 17 0 -1 25.6 24.9
Avidyne Engine Data Log File
Demonstration of the EMAX Analysis Program
• It can be mounted almost anywhere.
Appareo Systems: Portable Flight Data Recorder (Appareo Systems, www.Appareo.com)
• It improves upon GPS technology
by utilizing MEMS gyroscopes,
accelerometers, barometric pressure,
and a solid state compass.
• Resting on the dash or suctions to a
window, it is independent on
anything on aircraft.
The 2½" GAU™ (Geospatial Awareness Unit) is
compact, portable, and easy to take from plane
to plane.
The precision data captured by the GAU:
Roll
Pitch
Yaw
Orientation
G-Forces
Magnetic Heading
Altitude
GPS with WAAS
Synthetic Vision Visualization
Synthetic Vision Visualization:
Cirrus in Flight (1)
Synthetic Vision Visualization:
Cirrus in Flight (2)
GAU 1000 Flight Recorder
Sensors Main Features:
Fixed and removable memory allows for quick memory swapping and memory upgrades
Yaw, pitch and roll gyros capture high rate turns, spins, and abrupt changes in heading
Yaw, pitch and roll accelerometers capture the true g-forces and your angle of attack
Solid state magnetic compass gives the most accurate heading possible
Altimeter supplemented with a barometric pressure sensor
Integrated Rechargeable Battery
GPS with WAAS Updated 4 times per second
Internal Components
WAAS – Wide Area Augmentation System
WAAS enabled GPS receiver gives the best vertical precision available in a portable GPS
Integrated battery and charging system optimizes the life of your battery, so you don’t have to replace batteries as often.
Comparisons between GAU 1000 and GAU 500
Degree of mounting flexibility
Types of Data Recorders
GAU 1000
GAU 500 Used by GA, sport, glider, and student/flight instructor pilots
Used by aerobatics, air races, competition, & instrument flight instruction
The range of sophisticated sensors
Range of motion that can be accurately replayed
Shortcomings of Cirrus+GAU
• Without a boom, true airspeed, AOA and yaw angle
cannot directly measured since the Cirrus is not
an experimental aircraft.
• Calibrated airspeed data are manually recorded
since digital flight data cannot be downloaded from
the current Avidyne system. Future versions allow
extraction of flight data.
Flight Testing Methods
and
Examples
Standard Atmosphere and
Atmospheric Parameters
256.5
SLp/)h(p
Pressure ratio:
Density ratio:
256.4
SL/)h(
Temperature ratio:
)1000/h(0226.01T/)h(T SL
For the height h < 11 km,
For the height h > 11 km,
Standard Atmosphere and
Atmospheric Parameters
c
c1
c hhTR
gexp
Pressure ratio:
Density ratio:
c/
where 225.0c 752.0c K66.216Tc
K/s/m97.286R 22
1
Normalized Atmospheric Parameters as a
Function of Altitude
Standard Atmospheric Properties
)1(1025.44h 19.03
p
Pressure altitude:
Density altitude:
)1(1025.44h 22.03
Definitions of Altitudes
The true altitude is of interest to the pilot for purposes of terrain
clearance. Density or pressure altitude is of much more significance
for performance determination. The true altitude which corresponds to
a given density altitude may vary considerably from day to day.
However, aircraft performance is always the same at the same
density altitude.
Level Flight Performance
VS
KW2VSC
2
1P
23
0Dr
The power required for level flight:
1)eAR(K where
The equivalent airspeed:
VVe
To absorb the air density effect, the density ratio is
included in the equivalent airspeed.
“Oswald efficiency”
Power Required as a Function of Velocity
2/1
ST
e
)W/W(
VVIW
VIW and PIW
The standard airspeed:
The generalized power:
2/3
ST
r
)W/W(
PPIW
TW SW
the weights in the testing condition and the standard weight,
respectively.
The standard weight is typically the maximum take-off (T-O)
weight at the sea level.
where & are
Relation between VIW and PIW
)VIW(S
KW2)VIW(SC
2
1PIW
SL
2
S3
SL0D
With the generalized variables,
the power-speed relation is
The clear advantage is that the PIW-VIW relation does not
explicitly depend on the air density and testing weight. Thus, data
of the power and speed obtained at different altitudes and weights
collapses into a single curve.
A linear relation is
b)VIW(a)VIW)(PIW( 4
2
SL
S2
SL0D
ST )VIW(S
KW2)VIW(SC
W2
1
W
D
Similarly, with the generalized variables,
the lift-drag ratio is
S
WKW2)VIW(SC
W2
W)VIW(T
SL
TS4
SL0D
S
T2
Relation between Drag/Thrust and VIW
A convenient form for linear regression:
to determine the parasite drag coefficient and the Oswald
efficiency factor.
Determination of Engine Power in Flight
(From Teledyne)
Determination of Engine Power in Flight
(From Teledyne)
Determination of Engine Power in Flight
(From Teledyne)
Sample Projects: VIW-PIW Method
A typical project on the Cessna R182 is to
determine the parasite drag coefficient
and Oswald efficiency factor. The
quantities acquired during flight were the
dynamical pressure, thrust from the load
cell, angle of attack, pitch angle, and
ground speed. The actual data sampling
began once the aircraft had reached level
flight at 8000 ft. The pilot adjusted the
throttle to achieve calibrated airspeed of
130 kts, and then decreased the speed by
10 kts until the lowest speed 50 kts was
reached. The total time for the experiment
was about 60 minutes.
Thrust vs. VIW (Cessna 182R)
123.0C 0D
21.0e
Problem:
inaccurate
measurements of
the thrust by
using an
unproven load
cell
PIW vs. VIW (Cirrus SR-20)
023.0C 0D
62.0e
Lift and Drag Coefficients in Level Flight (Cessna 182R)
Application of Power-Velocity Relation to Bird Flight
(From Tobalske et al. Nature,
421/23, Jan. 2003, p. 363)
Airspeed Calibration
Pitot-static system
11p
q
)1(
p2V
)1/(
c
SL
Equivalent airspeed
Calibrated airspeed
11p
q
)1(
p2V
)1/(
SL
c
SL
SLcal
Airspeed Calibration
One of the major error sources in pitot-static systems is the
position error along with the instrument error and pressure lag
error. The position error is related to (1) the position of the
static source in the pressure field of the aircraft and (2) the
shape of the total pressure head or the flow direction relative
to it.
Errors:
To correct these errors, a pitot-static system has to
be calibrated.
Needs:
In-Flight Calibration Methods: speed course method,
tower flyby method,
pace method, radar method,
GPS method.
GPS-Based Airspeed Calibration
Relationship between the GPS velocity vectors, wind
velocity vector and true airspeed
22
wy
2
wx )TAS()Vy()Vx(
Three Unknowns: True Airspeed (TAS)
Wind Velocity
)V,V( wywxw V
Flight path from GPS Data
Track 1:
Groud speed: 150 kts
Track 2:
Groud speed: 157 kts
Track 3:
Groud speed: 98 kts
Tracks 1, 2, 3:
Pressure altitude: 3713 ft
Calibrated airspeed vs. indicated airspeed (Cessna 182R)
Airspeed calibration was done in a
special case where the Cessna
R182 flew directly in headwind
and downwind legs. In this case,
the true airspeed equals to the
averaged ground speeds given by
GPS for the two legs at
approximately 7000 ft. A
proportional relation is found at
higher speeds. A deviation from
the linearity is observed at lower
speeds due to the effect of higher
angles of attack on the position
error. The airdata boom provided
the true airspeed and direction.
Climb Performance
The thrust horsepower in excess (FHP):
Vdt
dV
g
W
dt
dHW)DT(VFHPinexcess
The rate of climb (ROC) :
)dH/dV)(g/V(1
V]W/)DT[(
dt
dHROC
(From NASA Dryden)
(From NASA Dryden)
Takeoff and Landing
The aircraft acceleration in the ground roll :
RT)dt/dV)(g/W(
The total resistance:
)SqCW(SqeAR
CC)LW(DR L
2
L0D
The takeoff ground roll :
TimeLiftoff
0gTO dt)t(VS
Takeoff and Landing
(From NASA Dryden)
Landing Ground Roll and Air Distance
The takeoff ground roll:
The takeoff air distance:
The total distance over a 50-ft obstacle:
aLgLtotal SSS
2
V
)RT(g
WS
2
TD
mean
gL
g2
VV50
)RT(
WS
2
TD
2
50
mean
aL
Touch-down speed
Photogrammetric Method
(From NASA Dryden)
Example: Takeoff and Landing A takeoff and landing test of the Cessna R182 was conducted to measure
the takeoff/landing distance, takeoff/landing velocity, and time of
takeoff/landing. The liftoff time was about 27 seconds; the estimated
takeoff distance was about 850 ft that is consistent with 820 ft indicated in
the Cessna R182 handbook. At the takeoff time, the indicated airspeed was
135 ft/s. The altimeter on the aircraft was not sensitive enough to provide
altitude data with high resolution in takeoff.
Altitude and Angles in Takeoff and Landing of
the Cessna R182
Stick-Fixed Neutral Point
Stick-fixed static longitudinal stability is usually characterized
by the slope of the pitching moment curve as a function of the lift
coefficient for the entire aircraft, i.e.,
d
d1V
a
a
dC
dC
dC
dC
C
X
dC
dCtH
w
t
nacL
m
fusL
ma
L
.g.cm
C/X a the wing term that is a measure of the location of the wing
aerodynamics center (a.c.) in relation to the center of gravity
ta wa the lift curve slopes of the horizontal tail and wing
)C/l)(S/S(V twtH the tail volume coefficient
q/qtt the tail efficiency factor
d/d the change in downwash with angle of attack change
Definition of Stick-Fixed Neutral Point
When the slope is negative, the aircraft is statically stable,
0dC/dC L.g.cm
If the c.g. is moved such that the wing term is sufficiently
larger in the positive direction, a special point can be
reached such that
0dC/dC L.g.cm
0N
The c.g. in this case where the slope is zero is called the
stick-fixed neutral point
0
.g.c
L
.g.cmN
C
X
dC
dC
It is found that the stick-fixed static longitudinal
stability is related to the elevator position stability
through the elevator position equation
Determining Stick-Fixed Neutral Point
em
XL
m
L
e CdC
dC
dC
d
This indicates that the neutral
point corresponds to the point at .
Therefore, this provides a simpler
method to find the neutral point in
flight testing, i.e.,
0dC/d Le
Example: Determining Neutral Point
The neutral point of the Cessna R182 was measured using the method
described above. A water tank was placed in the equipment bay and the
water volume (or weight) was adjusted to change the c.g. location. The
water was sprayed out from the wingtip during flight after all the data were
taken for that weight or c.g. location. Since the weights of the pilot and test
engineer, aircraft empty weight and water tank weight are known, the c.g.
can be calculated. For the first test run, the aircraft had a full tank of water,
and its c.g. position was 43.27 inches. For the second run in which the water
was at the half full mark, the c.g. location was 42.22 inches. For the third
run in which the water tank was empty, the c.g. location was 41.35 inches.
The elevator deflection angle was calibrated before flight testing, showing a
linear relation between the angle and output counts.
Elevator deflection angle vs. CL
Slope vs. aircraft’s c.g.
Neutral Point of the Cessna 182R
Extrapolation gives
the neutral point 69.91 inches.
Phugoid
The phugoid mode is a long-period airspeed and altitude
oscillation (about 30 sec) at a near constant angle attack,
which is characterized by an alternatively climbing and diving
of the aircraft with airspeeds higher than trim at the bottom
and lower than trim at the top of oscillation. For the phugoid
dynamics, the characteristic equation is
0)u/L(gSDS 0uu
2
m/)/D(Du the change in drag with change in angle of attack
divided by aircraft mass
m/)/L(Lu the change in lift with change in angle of attack
divided by aircraft mass
0u the initial horizontal velocity or trim airspeed
Example: Phugoid Motion of the Cessna 182R
The oscillation of AOA was relatively small. The averaged amplitude ratio 1nn X/X was 1.4, and
thus the estimated damping ratio was 0.11. In this case, the lift-to-drag ratio was about 6.4. The phugoid
frequency was about 1/30 Hz and the natural frequency was about the same.
Flight testing serves as a unique and valuable addition to
aeronautical engineering education, which closely interfaces
between theory and practice in the final design stage of
aircraft. While many aerodynamic aspects of aircraft could
be investigated via wind tunnel testing, validation of the
overall aircraft behavior absolutely requires full-scale flight
testing. This demands aeronautical engineers, flight test
engineers in particular, who understand the underlying
theories and are able to undertake the necessary
measurements in flight. Students could consolidate the
theoretical knowledge of aerodynamics and flight dynamics
and control through the design and experimentation in real
flights.
Conclusions
Future Development
The future flight testing education will increasingly
rely on more sophisticated, portable instrument,
providing opportunities to conduct tests on a variety
of non-experimental aircraft in an affordable way.
UAV-based flight testing platform is promising, which
is also aligned with the active UAV research.
References: Liu, T. & Schulte, M. “Flight Testing Education
at Western Michigan University”, AIAA Paper, to be presented,
Reno 2007 [1] Kimberlin, R. D., “Flight Testing of Fixed-Wing Aircraft,” AIAA, Reston, VA, 2003
[2] Ward, D. T., “Introduction to Flight Test Engineering,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1993
[3] Landan, P. A., Ruble, M. and Vanderhyde, M. J., “Thrust Cell Redesign,” Senior Design Report,
Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 10, 2001
[4] Arraut, J. and Cooper, N., “Determining Parasite Drag Coefficient and Oswald Efficiency Factor,” AAE
459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan
University, April 16, 2001
[5] Booms, M., Borgyos, A. and Hulway, B., “PIW-VIW Method for Level Flight Test,” AAE 459 Project
Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 11,
2005
[6] Stangeland, M. and Macelt, M. J., “Lift Coefficient and Normalized Lift Coefficient vs. AOA for Flight
Test Aircraft,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering,
Western Michigan University, April 16, 1999
[7] Gary, D., “Using GPS to Accurately Establish True Airspeed,” National Test Pilot School, June 1998
(www.ntps.com)
[8] Warner, C., Hall, M., and Shorkey, J., “Airspeed Calibration and Relative Wind,” AAE 459 Project
Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April 15,
1998
[9] Nicol, E., Schmitz, J., and Schulte, M., “Climb Performance,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of
Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan University, April, 2005
[10] Anderson, J. D., “Aircraft Performance and Design,” McGraw-Hill, Boston, 1999
[11] Holuszko, M., Hovland, C., and Lowary, D., “Determine Takeoff and Landing Characteristics of a
Cessna Model R182,” AAE 459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering,
Western Michigan University, April 19, 1999
[12] Staelens, A. and Watthanasintham, M., “Determination of Neutral Point and Dynamic Stability,” AAE
459 Project Report, Department of Mechanical and Aeronautical Engineering, Western Michigan
University, April 19, 1999
[13] Garman, K. E. and Andrisani, D. A., “A Portable Data Acquisition Systems for Flight Testing Light
Aircraft,” AIAA Paper 2003-5618, Austin, TX, Aug. 2003
Acknowledgements
Thank the College of Aviation of Western Michigan
University and its administrative and technical staff
for their continued support to the class AAE 459.
Without their help, this unique class would be grounded.