Post on 13-Jan-2016
TAMING THE
TAKS TEST
Objective Two
• Biology– All 6 Kingdoms (everything about them)– Prokaryote vs Eukaryote– Cell Parts and Functions– Taxonomy– ATP– Homeostasis– Osmosis– Body Systems and Functions– DNA (everything about it)
What Makes You Alive?• Organized into
cells.
• Grow and develop.
• Respond to the environment.
• Use energy
• Reproduce
Cells are organized into. . .• Tissues, like types of
cells
• Tissue layers form organs
• Organs that work together form organ systems
• Organ systems that work together make an organism
6 Kingdoms – Largest groupings of living things
Animalia
PlantaeFungi
Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryote• One Cell • No Nucleus• No membrane bounded
organelles• HAS DNA• 1 um in diameter• ONLY BACTERIA
(MONERANS)
Eukaryote• One or More Cells• Contains a Nucleus• Has membrane bounded
organelles• HAS DNA• 5 um to 50-100um in
diameter• EVERYTHING ELSE
protists, fungi, plants, animals (you are an Eukaryote)
Cell Part Function Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the cell
Cell Wall Provide structure and support (plants)
Nucleus Control center of the cell
Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis, makes chemical energy (plants)
Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell
Ribosome Organelle makes proteins
Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins
Vacuole Stores water and/or waste
Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts
Cytoplasm Jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Nuclear Membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus
Nucleolus Makes ribosomes; located in the nucleus
Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration – provides energy
Plant Cells have, and Animal Cells don’t
• Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis
• Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support
• Very large vacuoles to store extra water
This is a typical plant cell
• It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole.
• Why do plants need large vacuoles?
•ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.
52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will —
F be softer
G grow at a faster rate
H be thinner
J photosynthesize at a faster rate
These would indicate more water, not less
What an Animal Cell Looks Like
• Circled in shape• NO CELL WALL• NO CHLOROPLAST• HAS LYSOSOMES• HAS CENTRIOLES
• MITOCHONDRIA used for Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis vs
Cellular Respiration
• Plants go through Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Plants use chloroplast & sunlight for Photosynthesis
Plants use mitochondria for Cellular Respiration
• Animals go through Cellular RespirationAnimals use mitochondria
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
This is photosynthesis
Carbon + Water Produces Glucose & Oxygen Dioxide (sugar)---------------------------------------- ------------------------------------
Reactants Products
Sunlight
Plants do photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon + Water + Energy
(sugar) Dioxide
---------------------------- ---------------------------------------------
Reactants Products
***All living things use mitochondria for cellular respiration***
They are OPPOSITES!
Photosynthesis reactants are cellular respiration products…Cellular respiration reactants are photosynthesis products…
DO YOU GET IT?
Let’s Describe
All 6
Kingdoms!
Animal Kingdom
• Multicellular heterotrophic
• This kingdom includes all vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla)
• Insects, jellyfish, people are all animals
Kingdom PlantaeMulticellular and
autotrophicMeans that all plants
perform photosynthesis This kingdom includes
mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, fruit trees, shrubs, most garden plants, most crops, wildflowers)
Kingdom Fungi
• Multicellular and some single-cells
• Most of these organisms are decomposers
• Includes mushrooms, yeasts and infections like athlete's foot
Protists
Kingdom Protista: largest source of food and oxygen for the entire planet. Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates. Described as Unicellular Eukaryotes
2 Kingdoms of Bacteria“Prokaryotes”
• Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes which are often decomposers
• Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular Prokaryotes from extreme environments.
Is Bacteria Bad or Good?
• Bacteria is both…we know of the bad bacteria that causes Strepthroat…BUT what are some good bacteria…– Ecoli is found in your digestive system to help
break down your food
8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with —F growth
G defense
H digestion
J respiration
• Kingdom Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members
• The best answer here is H, since digestion systems of mammals contain bacteria.
• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses, not help them.
MAJOR WORDS YOU MUST KNOW!
• Prokaryote – one celled, bacteria, no nucleus
• Eukaryote – one or more cells, everything besides bacteria, true nucleus
• Decomposer – breaks down dead materials
• Autotrophic – makes its own food (plants)• Heterotrophic – cannot make its own food,
has to go get its food (animals)
Taxonomy-how to classify lifeB io log ica l C lass ifica tion
Genus Genus
Genus
Family
Order
Family
Order
C lass
Genus Genus
Family Family
Order
C lass
Phylla
Genus Genus
Genus Genus
Family
Order
Genus
Family
Order
C lass
Family
Genus Genus
Genus Genus
Family
Order
C lass
Phylla
K ingdom
49 Which of these classifications is most specific?
A Family
B Genus
C Phylum
D Order
The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are:
Kingdoms (5)
Phylla
Class
Order
Family
Genus
species
Binomial Classification
• Living things are given a two-part scientific name. This 2-part name is also the species name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized, and the second, which is the species, part of the scientific name is never capitalized.
• Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names.
• Your scientific name is Homo sapiens
12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the —
F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus
Related in biological terms means family, genus, species.
F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki
G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax
H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens
J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus
• Genus is always a capital letter,
species is lower case.
• Most closely related would be in the
same genus, Rana.
• ANSWER? • H
What is ATP?
• Another word for Energy!
• Stands for Adenosine Triphosphate
Homeostasis
• This is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism.
• Control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained.
Homeostasis Examples
• What happens when you are hot? Why?
• What happens when you are cold? Why?
How does our CELLS go through Homeostasis?
• All Eukaryotic cells have Cell Membranes. A Cell Membrane’s job is to let nutrients in and out of the cell. This function is called Permeability. Basically you can say “it has the ability to be permanent”. Which means the cell membrane gets to decide if it wants the nutrient and does it want it to stay in forever.
Transporting into Cells -
• Passive movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion.
• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.
Diffusion
Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O
Osmosis
• Osmosis is the movement of WATER across a selective permeable membrane
Hypertonic Hypotonic Isotonic
34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the
ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells
and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg?
F Coagulation
G Sodium pump
H Active transport
J Osmosis
Means to clump together – Incorrect
Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy
to do this since it kills the cell.
This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin EggSalt Water Urchin Egg)
Functions and
Major Organs of the
Body Systems
Skeletal System
• Bones are to – Support &
structure – Make blood cells – Allow movement – Muscle
attachments– Ligaments hold
joints together
Muscular System• 3 types of muscles
– Smooth, involuntary – Striated, voluntary – Cardiac, heart
muscle somewhat like both above
• Allow for movement • Attached by tendons
above and below joints
17 Which structure in the upper arm isresponsible for raising the lower arm?A 1B 2C 3D 4
In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2.
4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:
Nervous System - 1 Consists of brain and
spinal chord Voluntary, you control
and choose Involuntary, allows parts
to keep functioning without you knowing
Nerve cells send and receive information . .
Nervous System - 2
Nerve cells have 3 parts – Axon – Sends
signal – Cell Body –
controls cell functions
– Dendrite – Receives signal from another
– Synapse – space between cells
Nervous System - 3
• Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain.
• This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.
Circulatory System - 1This system helps to
connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another.
Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart.
The heart pumps the blood
Circulatory System - 2• The top parts of the
heart receive blood – Atrium
• The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricles
• Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.
A circulatory system
B integumentary system
C excretory system
D endocrine system
29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the —
Endocine system does not transport anything. So . . .
Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and H2O, not food. So . .
Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .
The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is . .
25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the —
A excretory system
B immune system
C respiratory system
D integumentary system
Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2
Immune (Lymphatic) System - 1• Your immune system protects you
from infections and illness • 1st Order Non-specific includes
skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears
• 2nd Order includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.
Immune (Lymphatic) System - 2
• Two main types of immunity
• ACTIVE – body makes its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies
• PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby
6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?
F Helper T cells
G Liver cells
H GABA-receptor cells
J Red blood cells
Digestive System
• Digestion is the process by which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so the body can use them to build and nourish cells and to provide energy.
• Digestion begins in the mouth, when you chew and swallow, and is completed in the small intestine.
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth, development and puberty, tissue function, and also plays a part in determining mood.
Integumentary SystemThe Integumentary system has
many functions: • Protects the body's internal
living tissues and organs • Protects against invasion by
infectious organisms • Protects the body from
dehydration • Protects the body against
abrupt changes in temperature • Helps dispose of waste
materials • Acts as a receptor for touch,
pressure, pain, heat and cold • Stores water, fat, and vitamin
D.
This is the skin, and skin derivatives; (hair, nails, glands and receptors).
Excretory (Urinary) System
• The job of the excretory system is to remove various produced by the body. The removal is known as excreation. It is important for the body to remove these various waste, also known as toxic, because toxic build up can lead to servere death.
Reproductive System
• The reproductive system is a system of organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of reproduction.
• A combination of genetic material between two individuals allows for the possibility of greater genetic fitness of the offspring.
Respiratory System
• The respiratory system consists of the airways, the lungs, and the respiratory muscles that mediate the movement of air into and out of the body.
• Within the alveolar system of the lungs, molecules of oxygen and carbon dioxide are passively exchanged, by diffusion, between the gaseous environment and the blood.
What is DNA?
• Deoxyribonucleic acid– Carries all instructions for an organism
P
S
P
P
S
S
S
P
A T
C G
T A
Nitrogen bases
A = T
C = G
What is the Ladder made of?
Phosphates, Sugars, and Nitrogen bases
The Stuff of Life
• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or twisted ladder
• The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine.
What is the DNA base pair rule?
24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strandwill be —F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'H 3' AGATGCATC 5'J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'
In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C
5' AGATGCATC 3‘
TCTACGTAG
• Base pair each letter by the above rule.
• So the answer is:
• F
38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism? F Amount of adenine
G Number of sugars
H Sequence of nitrogen bases
J Strength of hydrogen bonds
This is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases, it can’t code for anything by itself.
Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar, so this is not correct.
Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.
Genetic Code • All of the information to
make a new organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell.
• Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid.
• Chromosomes contain genes each of which codes for a single protein. There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each chromosome.
DNAWhat is a Nucleotide?3 parts
one sugar one phosphate one nitrogen base
(a,t,c,or g)
Replication
• “Copy Machine”The process of copying DNA is called Replication
• DNA is copied to DNA
Happens in the nucleus of the cell!
Transcription . . . • DNA is changed into RNA
• RNA does not know T (thymine), so RNA uses U (uracil)
• Transcription starts in the nucleus and then takes the information to the ribosome.
Translation . . . Code into words • Changes RNA into
Proteins (words)• mRNA takes the code
from the nucleus to the Ribosome where it pairs with Transfer RNA to put Amino Acids into chains called proteins.
What does this chart represent?
It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be mRNA.
53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are —
A Q and T B R and SC Q and R D Q and S
To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding. Between Q and T, only 4 levels are
the same – Between R and S only 4 levels are
the same – Between Q and S 5 of the levels
are the same, but – Between Q and R 5 of the levels
are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer:
Not A
Not B
Not D
C
Replication, Transcription, and Translation
Showing Replication and How Mutations Start
• When the DNA strands are separated and copied, the altered base will pair with an incorrect base and cause a mutation. In the example below a "modified" G now pairs with T, instead of forming a normal pair with C.
When nitrogen bases don’t match with its partner, a
MUTATION occurs!Mutation – a change in DNA sequence
Different types of MutationsPoint (Frameshift) – change with one codon (or all that follows)
Translocation – DNA moved to a different place
Inversion – DNA being placed backwards
Duplication – extra codons being replicated
Chromosomal – missing chromosome or having too many
Point and Frameshift• Point Mutation
A point mutation is a simple change in one base of the gene sequence. This is equivalent to changing one letter in a sentence, such as this example, where we change the 'c' in cat to an 'h':
• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.• Point Mutation The fat hat ate the wee rat.
• Frame-shift mutationone or more bases are inserted or deleted
• adding or removing one letter changes each subsequent word. • An example of a frame-shift mutation using our sample sentence is when
the 't' from cat is removed, but we keep the original letter spacing:
• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.• Frame Shift The fat caa tet hew eer at.
Inversion
• InversionIn an inversion mutation, an entire section of DNA is reversed. A small inversion may involve only a few bases within a gene, while longer inversions involve large regions of a chromosome containing several genes.
• Original The fat cat ate the wee rat.
• Inversion The fat tar eew eht eta tac.
YOUR TURN!
Original strand of DNA
TACGTTAACGGC
What is a Karyotype
• Chromosomes paired up to aligned from longest to shortest
• Chromosome pair 1 – 22 are autosomes – normal body
• Chromosome pair 23 are somatic - sex chromosomes – determines the sex of the baby
Examples of Karyotypes
Or you could see it like this
Can you determine the sex of this person?
What is wrong with this Karyotype?
What is wrong with this Karyotype?
What is Next?
• Every cell in your body divides or reproduces. Inside of each cell is DNA that is being replicated, transcribed, and translated to give your body its characteristics that make you different from everyone else.
• How do cells divide or reproduce?
Cell Division or Reproduction
• Mitosis - produces 2 daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell, known as diploid. This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue.
http://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm • Meiosis - produces 4 daughter cells that have
1/2 the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually. Gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.
http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
Cell Reproduction
• The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of cell division and Interphase is the process of growing and functioning.
• During mitosis the cell separates into two new identical sister cells.
DRAW THIS
Mitosis Meiosis
46
46 46
46
46 46
23 23 23 23
2 daughter cells are identical to parent cells
Diploid = same # of chromosomes
Normal body cells – repair and grow
4 daughter cells that are haploid to the parents
Sex cells – gametes (sperm and egg)
26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis?
• F 11
• G 19
• H 38
• J 76Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is
H
When cells reproduce out of control
• Tumors are formed. This is what is called cancer.
• It may or may not be malignant (kind that spreads).
Genetics – How traits are inherited
• Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel, he experimented with pea plants.
• Do you look like mom, dad, or grandparents?
Important Genetic Vocabulary
• Dominant – gene that will be expressed, Capital letter (B=brown)
• Recessive – gene that is hidden unless it is homozygous, Lowercase letter (b=blonde)
• Heterozygous – two different alleles, dominant will take over (Bb=brown will take over)
• Homozygous – two identical alleles (BB=brown or bb=blonde)
Punnett Squares
D D
d Dd Dd
d Dd Dd
d d
D Dd Dd
d dd dd
D d
D DD Dd
d Dd dd
D d
D DD Dd
D DD Dd
Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive
Heterzygous & Heterozygous
Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous
Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant
Phenotype is what you see
• Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait.
• How do you know the phenotype?
• LOOK!!
Genotype – actual combination of alleles
• Only 3 possibilities• BB = Homozygous
Dominant• Bb = Heterozygous • bb = Homozygous
recessive • Must look at
inheritance pattern to find out.
Let’s Do One Together
B = brown eyes
b = blue eyes
A homozygous brown eyed man mated with a homozygous blue eyed woman, what will their offspring look like?
Genotype BB =_____
Bb = _____
bb = _____
Phenotype Brown eyed _____
Blue eyed _____
Now It’s Your Turn
R = red petals
r = white petals
Gregor Mendel mated two flowers. A heterozygous red flower with a white flower. What will the genotypes and phenotypes be?
Did you get it Right?
GenotypesRR = 0/4 or 0%Rr = 2/4 or 50%rr = 2/4 or 50%
PhenotypesRed petals = 2/4 or 50%White petals = 2/4 or 50%
You don’t have to put this, just make sure you know
Pedigree shows the Family Tree
Colorblindness Inheritance
Male ParentFemale Parent
Carrier
Male Colorblind Male Normal Female ?Female ?
Male Female
Male
Male Female
Male Colorblind Female
Parents: Father has; Mother is a Carrier