Post on 24-Apr-2018
Supplemental MaterialsOne Hundred Years of Work Design Research: Looking Back and Looking Forward
by S. K. Parker et al., 2017, Journal of Applied Psychologyhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1037/apl0000106
Online Resource 1: Glossary of Terms
Autonomous work group (also semi-autonomous work group, self-managing team): A group of
interdependent members who have collective autonomy over aspects of their work, such
as when and how to carry out tasks and which tasks are allocated to which members.
Challenge demands (or challenge stressors): Stress-inducing work demands that also have the
potential to promote mastery, personal growth, or future demands. Examples include
workload, time pressure, and responsibility.
Empowerment (psychological): A motivational construct that captures individuals’ experience of
meaning, impact, self-determination, and competence.
Empowerment (structural): Structures, policies, and practices that delegate power and authority to
employees.
Hindrance demands: Stress-inducing demands that have the potential to thwart growth, learning,
and attainment of goals. Examples include including organizational politics, role
ambiguity, and role conflict.
Interdependence: Degree to which individuals need to work closely with others to carry out their
job or work role.
Job autonomy: Degree to which the job provides discretion over daily work decisions, work
methods, and work scheduling, such as when and how to do tasks.
Job demands: Aspects of jobs that require high levels of, or sustained, physical, mental, or
emotional effort (e.g., time pressure, emotional demands).
Job enlargement: Expanding the content of jobs to include additional tasks.
Job enrichment: Increasing the motivational value of work, such as enhancing autonomy over work
planning and execution by giving responsibility for decisions normally undertaken by
supervisors.
Job rotation: Rotating employees from one job to another job.
Job feedback. Degree to which job incumbent obtains clear information about his/her effectiveness
whilst performing their work tasks/ job.
Job identity (or task identity): Degree to which a job requires completion of a “whole” job, from
beginning to end.
Job resources: Aspects of the job that help achieve goals, personal development, and help deal with
job demands (e.g., job autonomy, social support).
Job significance (or task significance): Degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives
or work of others.
Job variety (or task variety): Degree to which a job involves a variety of activities.
Relational work design: Designing roles to provide greater opportunities for employees to interact
with others, such as the beneficiaries of the work.
Roles: Expected patterns of behavior that arise from social processes and interactions.
Role conflict: Incompatible demands from different role senders.
Role ambiguity (or low role clarity): Lack of clarity about role expectations.
Scientific management: A system (introduced by Fredrick Taylor) in which managers analyze tasks,
break them into simplified elements, train employees to perform the elements, and then
closely monitor employee compliance with simplified tasks.
Skill utilization: Extent to which the job allows the incumbent an opportunity to use their skills,
abilities, and talents.
Skill variety: Extent to which a job involves using a number of different skills.
Social support: Provision of emotional or instrumental help, typically from a peer or supervisor.
Sociotechnical systems (STS) theory and principles: Idea that the technical and social aspects of
work should be jointly optimized when designing work, with principles such as that work
should provide variety, allow learning, include autonomous decision-making, offer social
support, be relevant, and lead to a desirable future for incumbents.
Online Resource 2: Mapping the Work Design Literature
First, we sought to obtain an appropriate set of work design articles that was used in both the next
steps. Second, we identified influential articles. Third, we conducted scientific mapping. Each of
these steps is elaborated next.
1. Data set of work design articles
To obtain a total data set of work design articles, an initial set of results was obtained using
a set of search terms in the Psycinfo and Web of Science database. We used Psycinfo (which
includes many psychology journals) as well as Web of Science to ensure comprehensive coverage
and to ensure a match with Humphrey et al. (2007). The resulting set of records was very large
(>50,000 abstracts in Web of Science). Only 500 and 200 records at a time (Web of Science and
Psycinfo, respectively) can be exported from the databases to separate files, which then have to be
aggregated into a single file. Given this limitation, >50,000 records was not a workable quantity.
Accordingly, some search terms were modified to make them more work specific.
The final search terms that we used were: Job/work design, job enlargement, job/work
enrichment, job/work characteristic, task attribute, job perception, enriched job, taylorism, job
simplification, simplified jobs, mechanistic job design, motivating work, deskilling, job variety,
task variety, skill variety, job feedback, job autonomy, job control, job significance, task
significance, job identity, job scope, job/work complexity, job demand, role demand, role overload,
work overload, work load, work demands, cost-responsibility, role clarity, role ambiguity,
autonomous work team/group, autonomous work group, self-managing teams/groups, semi-
autonomous team/group, group work design, self-leading team, self-leading groups, team design,
job crafting, i-deals, role innovation, virtual work/team, job share, flex time, JCM, Herzberg two-
factor theory, motivator-hygiene theory, structural/team empowerment, quality circles, scientific
management, task/job interdependence, work interdependence, social contact, emotional demands,
time pressure, attentional demand, cognitive demand, problem solving demand, role conflict, job
meaningfulness, work meaningfulness, experienced responsibility, knowledge of results, physical
demands, task revision, sociotechnical systems, job quality, job diagnostic, job descriptive index,
multiskilling, job/work content, job/work conditions, job/work dimensions, job/work social support,
task identity, psychological states. This search resulted in a more workable set of records of
approximately 25,000 records. These records were screened to eliminate duplicate records from the
set, to remove clearly irrelevant records, and to delete the following types of records: books,
conference proceedings, and non-English publications. The resulting set was 17,874 records.
Next, we created a more focused data set by concentrating only on records from 70
psychology and management journals. Specifically, we chose OS/OB/HRM/IR journals listed in the
Harzing list, plus any additional journals listed in Peters et al. (2014) or in Zickar and Highhouse
(2001). The resulting 5,708 records were the psychology/management work design articles that we
used in to identify the most influential articles (Table 1 in the article) and which we used in the
main scientific mapping exercise (Figure 2 in the article).
We also created from the psychology/management data set a further subset of articles: those
published in the Journal of Applied Psychology. These records were used in the JAP scientific map
(Online Resource 2).
2. Identification of the Most Influential Articles
As noted above, to identify the most important work design articles, we focused on 5,708 journal
articles on the topic of work design within the field of management and psychology. We narrowed
this list further by including only those articles published before 2010 that had at least 100 citations
(Web of Science), and those articles between 2010 and 2015 identified as “highly cited” papers.
From this list of >500 articles, we identified those “influential articles that took the field in new
directions.” In making these judgements, although we considered citations, we did not rely on
citations alone. First, citations are biased from a temporal perspective, underestimating the impact
of early papers (when the field was smaller and so papers were cited less) and more recent papers
(which have not had time to be cited). Second, citations can be biased from a cultural perspective.
Consequently, we selected articles as influential articles to be those that we judged, using both
citations and our own professional expertise, to be an article or book that has shaped or extended
work design research in a significant way. We excluded from the list:
- measure development studies, unless they explicitly took the field in a new direction;
- reviews and meta analyses, unless they explicitly took the field in a new direction;
- practical applications of work design;
- applications of work design theory to other management/ psychology research (e.g., work
design as one antecedent among many in predicting a particular outcome); and
- important books or book chapters (these were excluded because of their very large number,
which would have expanded the list considerably).
The identification of the most influential articles naturally involves a degree of judgement that
cannot be readily quantified. The process of selection involved the first author making an initial
recommendation of approximately 70 articles, using a combination of citations and her own
judgment. Both the second and third author inspected the list and identified whether they agreed or
disagreed, and each author identified any additional articles they believed should be included. We
then settled on 35 articles for which we had clear and shared agreement.
3. Scientific Mapping
We used VOSviewer (see http://www.vosviewer.com/) to conduct scientific mapping on the 5,708
articles in the psychology/management field (see above). VOSviewer has validated procedures for
term extraction and selection, visual mapping of relatedness, and clustering of terms. Consistent
with Lee et al. (2014), we used the default settings in the software, which generally represents “the
best practice in the science mapping literature.”
The first step in the mapping process involved identifying “noun phrases” (groups of nouns
and preceding adjectives) that occur in the abstract or title of at least 10 articles. Generic nouns like
“reader” or “journal” were removed, as they do not help distinguish topics. Other terms relevant to
the method of data analysis (e.g., “regression”), approach (e.g., “cross-sectional study”) were also
removed. In addition, synonyms were grouped together, including different spelling of the same
term. For example, organizational citizenship behavior, citizenship, citizenship behavior with the
various spellings were coded as “citizenship behavior.” The relevance of the terms was then
computed, and the relatedness was assessed using the association strength measure, which refers to
the ratio between the number of co-occurrence of two terms relative to the expected number of co-
occurrences of the two terms. Association strength measures were used as input for the VOS
mapping technique, which is a two-dimensional depiction of term relatedness.
Tables A and B show summaries of the cluster maps obtained for the scientific mapping of
the psychology/management work design research and the JAP work design research, respectively.
Figure A shows the scientific map generated using the JAP work design articles only. Figures B
and C show density maps for the scientific mapping of the psychology/management work design
research and the JAP work design research, respectively. In the density maps, those topics that have
been investigated most are shown in red.
References
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Table SA Clusters of Research Topics Identified From Scientific Mapping of Work Design Articles in the Psychology and Management Literature
Cluster Label Description of cluster Defining work design terms Outcome terms
1 (red) Sociotechnical
and AWGs
Sociotechnical systems-oriented work design
(e.g., teams), as well as broader, more
contextualized, management-oriented
concepts
Team, work organization, self-
managing team, group work,
empowerment, interdependence, and
autonomous work group
Team
performance/effectiveness,
innovation, competitive
advantage
2 (green) Job
characteristics
model
Job characteristics concepts with emphasis
on motivational outcomes, with some link to
the job analytic perspective.
Job characteristics, feedback, task
variety, task significance, JCM
Job satisfaction
3 (blue) Job demands-
control model
Job demands-control work design with
emphasis on mental/physical health
outcomes
Job demand, job stress, job strain,
health, work load, fatigue, applied
ergonomics, recovery
Job demand, job stress, job
strain, health, work load,
fatigue, applied
ergonomics, recovery
5 (pink) Job demands-
resources
model
Key variables in the job demands/resources
model, with focus on burnout and
engagement as outcomes
Job resources, emotional demands,
work-family interface
Exhaustion, burnout,
engagement
4 (yellow) Role theory Focus on role ambiguity and conflict, but
also role processes
Role ambiguity, role conflict
personality, role perceptions
Self-efficacy, newcomer
socialization
Table SB Clusters of Research Topics Identified From Scientific Mapping of Work Design Articles in the Journal of Applied Psychology
Cluster label Work design terms Outcome terms Link to clusters from Table A1 (green) Job characteristics
modelJob characteristics, job diagnostic survey, skill variety, job feedback, job complexity, job enrichment
Job satisfaction, effort, attitude
This cluster is similar to the job characteristics cluster referred to in Table 1, albeit fewer terms and it includes team.
2 (yellow)
Role theory Role ambiguity, role conflict, role clarity
Organizational commitment
This is similar to, albeit narrower than, the role variables (yellow) cluster
3 (purple) Job demands-control/resources models
Job demand, job control, job resources, job stressor, work load, role overload
Exhaustion, health, job strain, job stress
This cluster combined the job demands-control cluster (blue) and the job demands-resources cluster (pink), although each is narrower
4 (orange)
Work–family interface
Work family conflict Conflict An additional cluster here (in the broader map, these terms are part of the job demands-resources cluster)
Figure SA. Scientific map for JAP articles only (see Table SB for description of clusters).
Figures SB and SC. Density maps of work design articles in Psychology and
Management (top figure) and in the Journal of Applied Psychology (bottom
figure). Red, followed by yellow, indicates area of highest density.
Online Resource 3: Ngram Analyses Showing Work Usage in Google Books
Figure SA. Plot of terms from Google’s Ngram Viewer using the English Corpus, 1800–2008. Search terms were: (job design + work design—
blue line), (Taylorism + scientific management—red line), (job enrichment + job enlargement + job characteristics + job autonomy—green line),
(self-managing teams + autonomous work + sociotechnical systems—orange line), (job demand + job control—purple line), (role conflict + role
ambiguity—maroon line).
Figure SB: Plot of terms from Google’s Ngram Viewer using the English Corpus, 1800–2008. Search terms were (work empowerment +
team empowerment + structural empowerment + employee empowerment)*10—blue line, (teamwork +work teams + team work—red
line), (job demands + work demands)*10—green line.
Figure SC: Plot of terms from Google’s Ngram Viewer using the English Corpus, 1800–2008. Search terms were electronic monitoring,
(attentional demands +cognitive demands + problem solving demands + job complexity + work complexity—red line), (work overload +
role overload—green line), time pressure—orange line, (emotional demands+ emotional labor + emotional labor—purple line) .
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