Sociology 125Lectures 18 & 19

Gender

November 4 & 6, 2014

I. GENDER & NATUREI. GENDER & NATURE

1.Definitions of Sex & GenderSex = a biological distinction based on roles in the

process of biological reproduction

Gender = a social distinction between roles and expectations linked to sex.

• Gender is the social transformation of a biological difference – sex – into a social difference.

• Gender norms are the rules of appropriate behavior and roles for men and women.

1.Definitions of Sex & GenderSex = a biological distinction based on roles in the

process of biological reproduction

Gender = a social distinction between roles and expectations linked to sex.

• Gender is the social transformation of a biological difference – sex – into a social difference.

• Gender norms are the rules of appropriate behavior and roles for men and women.

2. What is Natural?

The intensity of caregiving behaviorHighLow

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

2. What is Natural?

Women

The intensity of caregiving behaviorHighLow

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

2. What is Natural?

WomenMen

The intensity of caregiving behaviorHighLow

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

2. What is Natural?

WomenMen

The intensity of caregiving behaviorHighLow

Gender gap in caregiving

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

II. Hypothetical distributions of caregiving in a world with weak gender norms

Women

Gender gap in caregiving

Men

HighLow Low High

2. What is Natural?

The intensity of caregiving behavior The intensity of caregiving behavior

I. Existing distribution of caregiving in a world with strong gender norms

II. Hypothetical distributions of caregiving in a world with weak gender norms

Women Men

Gender gap in caregiving

Men Women

Gender gap in caregiving

HighLow Low High

2. What is Natural?

The intensity of caregiving behavior The intensity of caregiving behavior

II. THE EMPIRICAL II. THE EMPIRICAL STORY: MASSIVE STORY: MASSIVE

TRANSFORMATIONS IN TRANSFORMATIONS IN THREE GENERATIONSTHREE GENERATIONS

Seven important elements of transformations of gender relations

1.Legal Rights2.Labor force participation3.Occupational Structure & Income4.Power5.Family structure6.Domestic division of labor7.Sexuality

1. Legal Rights

Legal Rights gained by women in 20th Century

• Right to vote (1920)• Right to own passport (early 1930s)• Equal right to divorce (gradually since 1940s)• Reproductive rights (1973, but eroding) • Equal rights to university admission (1960s)• Equal rights to all jobs (1960s)• Equal rights to participate in sports (1972)• Equal right to participate in all military roles (by 2016?)

2. Labor Force Participation

2. Labor Force Participation Rates of Married Women with Children, 1880-2011

3. Occupational Structure & Income

% of People in Selected Traditionally Male Professions % of People in Selected Traditionally Male Professions who are Women, 1930, 1960, 1990, 2000, 2011who are Women, 1930, 1960, 1990, 2000, 2011

% Enrollments in Medical & Law Schools who are women, 1949-2012% Enrollments in Medical & Law Schools who are women, 1949-2012

1970 2011Secretary 98.1% 95.4%

RN 97.8% 91.1%

Dental Assistant 98.6% 95.8%

Carpenter 1.6% 2.1%

Airline pilot 1.6% 4.9%

auto mechanic 1.6% 1.3%

% of Women in Selected Highly Gender-Segregated Jobs

Women’s wages = 63% of men’s wages

Women’s wages = 84% of men’s wages

Men’s and Women’s median wages, 1973-2011

4. Power

% of corporate officers and CEOs who are women

Women elected officials, 1979-2013Women elected officials, 1979-2013

Women in national legislatures, 2013 (%)

5. Family Structure

% of Households that consist of a Married Couple

% of Women ages 30-34 who have Never Married, 1940-2010

6.9%6.9%

14.3%14.3%

31.8%31.8%

6. Domestic Division of Labor

Time devoted per week on routine housework by mothers and fathers in homes with children

Ratio 4.0:1

Ratio 2.5:1

Ratio 1.9:1

Time spent per week on child care for fathers and mothers in homes with children

mothers fathers

7. Sexuality

Public Support for Same-Sex Marriages, 1996-2014

Age gradient in support for same-sex marriage

8. Cultural Degendering

III. EXPLAINING III. EXPLAINING TRANSFORMATIONTRANSFORMATION

The QuestionThe Question

Women have always tried to increase their Women have always tried to increase their autonomy and reduce their subjection. autonomy and reduce their subjection. But throughout most of history these But throughout most of history these struggles have produced at best struggles have produced at best minimal change. minimal change.

Why do these struggles produce big Why do these struggles produce big changes sometimes and not others? changes sometimes and not others? Why in second half of the 20Why in second half of the 20thth century century was there such massive was there such massive transformation?transformation?

The AnswerThe Answer

While women have tried throughout While women have tried throughout history to increase their autonomy and history to increase their autonomy and reduce their subordination, they could reduce their subordination, they could only succeed in doing this on a large only succeed in doing this on a large scale once social conditions had scale once social conditions had changed in ways that made existing changed in ways that made existing gender power relations fragile.gender power relations fragile.

Three basic processes

1.Decline in a coherent interest among men to defend male domination

2.Erosion of institutional system of female domesticity which eroded women’s interest in traditional gender relations

3. Increase in capacity for challenge by women

1.The decline of coherent male interests in male domination

Central explanation: The rapidly increasing economic demand for literate

labor by male employers undermined male interest in excluding women.

2. The Crisis of Female Domesticity

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Traditional social supports for domesticity = a coherent system

• Stable marriage/personal relations fostered domesticity

• blocked work opportunities increased the attractiveness of domesticity

• A family wage made domesticity economically feasible

• dense social networks supported domesticity (neighbors, churches, communities, etc.)

• cultural norms and sexism reinforced identities and expectations

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

Collapse of the system of coherent domesticity beginning in the 1960s

• decline of stable marriage means women cannot count of support of husbands

• expansion of work opportunities increased the viability of alternatives to domesticity

• decline of the family wage made domesticity economically difficult

• erosion of dense social networks makes domesticity more isolated and difficult

• challenge to cultural norms and traditional sexism contributes to new identities

3. The Women’s movement & Feminism

V. THE WORLD TODAY: V. THE WORLD TODAY: DILEMMAS AND DILEMMAS AND

PROSPECTSPROSPECTS

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely

• to decline

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely to

• decline

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlik

• ely to decline

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely to decline

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely to decline.

• Degendering of traditional roles unlikely to be reversed

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Dramatic decline in family size unlikely to be reversed: permanent erosion of lifetime domesticity as an ideal

• Traditional marriage stability unlikely to be restored

• Women’s labor force participation unlikely to be reversed

• Women’s participation in powerful and influential positions unlikely to decline

• Degendering of traditional roles unlikely to be reversed

1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF 1. IRREVERSIBILITY OF FUNDAMENTAL CHANGESFUNDAMENTAL CHANGES

• Gender equality expands opportunities and freedom of choice for women in general, BUT

• Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality.

• Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well.

Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men.

Losses = more competition for higher-level jobs; end of gender-based privileges.

2. The problem of Winners & Losers

• Gender equality expands opportunities and freedom of choice for women in general, BUT

• Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality.

• Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well.

Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men.

Losses = more competition for higher-level jobs; end of gender-based privileges.

2. The problem of Winners & Losers

• Gender equality expands opportunities and freedom of choice for women in general, BUT

• Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality.

• Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well.

Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men.

Losses = more competition for higher-level jobs; end of gender-based privileges.

2. The problem of Winners & Losers

• Gender equality expands opportunities and freedom of choice for women in general, BUT

• Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality.

• Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well.

Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men.

Losses = more competition for higher-level jobs; end of gender-based privileges.

2. The problem of Winners & Losers

• Gender equality expands opportunities and freedom of choice for women in general, BUT

• Gender equality imposes costs on some women and erodes some of the security that comes with traditional female dependency. Certain ways of life, valued by many women and men, are threatened by gender equality.

• Men have contradictory interests with respect to gender inequality: men have much to gain from gender equality, but some losses as well.

Gains for men = opening up of choices around parenting & work; the cult of masculinity blocks the full development of personhood in men.

Losses = more competition for higher-level jobs; end of gender-based privileges.

2. The problem of Winners & Losers

World #1 World #2

• Average wages of men and women are about the same

• Good quality childcare is provided by the government or employers free or at low cost

• Generous paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies and early infant care

• Average wages of women are 75-80% of wages of men

• No childcare is provided by government or employers; private daycare is expensive or of poor quality

• no paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies or early infant care

3. Imagine two possible worlds3. Imagine two possible worlds

World #1 World #2

• Average wages of men and women are about the same

• Good quality childcare is provided by the government or employers free or at low cost

• Generous paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies and early infant care

• Average wages of women are 75-80% of wages of men

• No childcare is provided by government or employers; private daycare is expensive or of poor quality

• no paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies or early infant care

3. Imagine two possible worlds3. Imagine two possible worlds

World #1 World #2

• Average wages of men and women are about the same

• Good quality childcare is provided by the government or employers free or at low cost

• Generous paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies and early infant care

• Average wages of women are 75-80% of wages of men

• No childcare is provided by government or employers; private daycare is expensive or of poor quality

• no paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies or early infant care

3. Imagine two possible worlds3. Imagine two possible worlds

World #1 = Sweden World #2 = United States

• Average wages of men and women are about the same

• Good quality childcare is provided by the government or employers free or at low cost

• Generous paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies and early infant care

• Average wages of women are 75-80% of wages of men

• No childcare is provided by government or employers; private daycare is expensive or of poor quality

• no paid parental leave for caregiving emergencies or early infant care

3. Imagine two possible worlds3. Imagine two possible worlds

Paid Parental Leaves in Various Countries

1. Pay Equity: equal pay for comparable work

2. Quality public provision of childcare in neighborhoods and workplaces

3. Generous paid parental leaves

4. Three reforms

1. Pay Equity: equal pay for comparable work

• Removes one source of gender inequality

• Caregiving work becomes more attractive to men

• Increases women’s bargaining power in the home over domestic division of labor

4. Three reforms

2. Public provision of high quality childcare

•Opens choices for work/family balance

•Reduces class inequalities in opportunities for women

•Makes bargaining within families over division of labor easier

4. Three reforms

3. Paid parental leave: three forms

•Maternal leaves

•Parental leaves giving to families to divide

•Mother & Father parental leaves given to individuals

4. Three reforms

The Family Ideals and Fallback Positions of Young Men and Women