Introduction to Sociology SOC-101 Unit 10 – Sex, Gender, and Age.
-
Upload
collin-parker -
Category
Documents
-
view
223 -
download
0
Transcript of Introduction to Sociology SOC-101 Unit 10 – Sex, Gender, and Age.
Issues of Sex and Gender Gender stratification refers to the unequal (or
differing) access to power, prestige, and property possessed by men and by women
Sex and gender reflect different bases for stratification
Sex Biological characteristics distinguishing males and
females Primary sex organs (organs related to reproduction) Secondary sex organs (physical distinctions not related
to reproduction)
Issues of Sex and Gender Gender
A social characteristic, and its impact varies from one society to another
It refers to the behaviors and attitudes the group considers proper for its males and females.
The sociological significance of gender is that it serves as a sorting device by which society controls its members and thus is a structural feature of society
Issues of Sex and Gender There is disagreement as to what produces
gender differences in behavior. Some researchers argue that biological factors
(two X chromosomes in females, one X and one Y in males) result in differences in the behavior of males (more aggressive and domineering) and females (more comforting and nurturing)
The dominant sociological position is that gender differences result from sex being used to mark people for special treatment Males and females then take on the relative positions
that society assigns to them
Issues of Sex and Gender Alice Rossi suggested that women are better
prepared biologically than men for “mothering” Nature provides biological predispositions that are
overlaid with culture preferences Medical accidents and studies such as the one
involving Vietnam veterans suggest that the relationship between biology and social learning is a complex one Example: one child in 1963 was forced to have a sex
change operation after a botch circumcision burned off his penis Child was raised as a girl and behaved like a girl
Example: study of Vietnam Veterans showed that men who had higher testosterone were more aggressive and tend to have more problems than men with lower levels
Gender Inequality Around the world, gender is the primary division
between people Every society sets up barriers to deny women equal
access They are therefore referred to as a minority even
though they outnumber men Although the origin of patriarchy (male
dominance) is unknown, one theory points to the social consequences of human reproduction As a result of pregnancy and breast-feeding, women
were limited for much of their lives and they assumed the tasks associated with the home and child care
Gender Inequality Men took over those tasks requiring greater speed
and longer absences such as hunting animals This enabled men to make contact with other tribes and
to wage war Male prestige resulted from their accumulation of
possessions through trade and war with other groups Little prestige was given to women’s routine tasks, in
part because they were not perceived as risking their lives for the group
Eventually men took over society, using their weapons, possessions, and knowledge to guarantee that they held more social power than did women
Gender Inequality There is no way to test this theory because
the answers lie buried in history There may be many different causes other than
the biology of human reproduction Marvin Harris argued that in prehistoric times,
each group was threatened with annihilation by other groups They had to recruit members to fight enemies in
dangerous, hand-to-hand combat Bigger and stronger men were coaxed into this
bravery by promises of rewards—sexual access to females
Gender Inequality Frederick Engels suggested that male
dominance developed in society with the emergence of private property However, he did not explain the connection
Today, male dominance is a continuation of millennia-old patterns
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women’s rights resulted from a prolonged and
bitter struggle. U.S. women could not vote, own property, or
serve on a jury until the 20th century Males did not willingly surrender these privileges,
but used social institutions to maintain their position
Feminism The view that biology is not destiny and that
gender stratification is wrong and should be resisted
This met with strong opposition
Gender Inequality in the U.S. The first wave of the women’s movement had
a radical and conservative branches Radicals wanted to reform all social institutions Conservative branch concentrated on winning the
vote for women and thus dominated Both branches of the movement more or less
disappeared after suffrage was achieved The second wave began in the 1960s
Its goals ranged from changing women’s work roles to changing policies on violence against women
While women enjoy more rights today, gender inequality still exists
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Researchers have found sex discrimination in
the area of medicine and health care Physicians sometimes dismiss the complaints of
female patients as not serious This neglect could be a matter of life and death One example is in the area of diagnosing and treating
heart disease Physicians regard women’s reproductive organs as
“potentially disease producing” and largely unnecessary after childbearing years They frequently recommend their removal Surgeons make a lot of money from the unnecessary
removal of these organs
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Despite evidence of the educational gains made by
women some traditionally male-female distinctions persist In college, males and females are channeled into different
fields 90% of library science associate degrees are awarded to
females 95% percent of associate degrees in construction trades are
awarded to males The proportion of females decreases in postgraduate
work, though this too is slowly changing There is also gender stratification in both the rank and
pay within higher educational institutions. Women at all levels are paid less than their male counterparts
Changes are taking place The proportion of professional degrees earned by women has
increased in recent years
Gender Inequality in the U.S. There have been significant changes in the
workforce as the number of working women has increased However, discrimination against women is still very
visible In 1900, one in five workers was female; today it is
almost one in two Women who work full-time average only 72 percent
of what men are paid despite their level of educational achievement This is true even when they have more qualifications than
their male counterparts Half of this pay gap results from women entering the work
force in lower-paying jobs
Gender Inequality in the U.S. The “glass ceiling” describes an invisible
barrier that women face in the work force Men, who dominate the executive suites,
stereotype potential leaders as people who look like themselves
In addition, women lack mentors as male executives are reluctant to get close to female subordinates because they fear gossip and sexual harassment charges, or they believe that women are weak
In recent years women who are highly motivated, fiercely competitive, and play by “men’s rules,” have begun to crack the glass ceiling
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Until the 1970s, women did not draw a
connection between unwanted sexual advances on the job and their subordinate positions at work But as women began to discuss the problem, they
named it and came to see unwanted sexual advances by men in powerful positions as a structural problem
The change resulted from reinterpreting women’s experiences and giving them a name
Gender Inequality in the U.S. As more women move into positions of
authority over men, the problem of sexual harassment is no longer exclusively a female problem
Ongoing court cases have resulted in changes as to what is and is not included within the legal definition of sexual harassment The Court has ruled that sexual harassment laws
also apply to homosexuals who are harassed by heterosexuals on the job
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women are more likely to be victims of
violence than men Every year in the United States, 0.59 of every
10,000 females is raped The typical rapist is under the age of 30 Of increased concern today is the widespread
incidence of date rape Studies show that only 5 percept of date rape cases at
universities are reported
Males are more likely to commit murder than females, and males commit 89 percent of the murders involving women victims
Gender Inequality in the U.S. Women are also disproportionate victims of family
violence and of genital circumcision Feminists use symbolic interactionism to
understand violence against women They stress that U.S. culture promotes violence by
males as it teaches men to associate power, dominance, strength, virility, and superiority with masculinity
Men use violence in an attempt to maintain a higher status
To solve violence we must first break the link between violence and masculinity Could be done through educational programs in schools,
churches, homes, and the media
The Changing Face of Politics Despite the gains U.S. women have made in
recent elections, they continue to be underrepresented in political office, especially in higher office
Trends from the 1990s indicated that women participated in political life in greater numbers than in the past Indicators that things will change include:
More women going into careers in law and business Traveling and establishing wider networks of support Fact that child care is increasingly seen as the mutual
responsibility of both parents
The Changing Face of Politics As women play a more full role in society, the
structural obstacles to women’s participation will give way Relationships between men and women will
change and some of the distinctions between the sexes will disappear
The goal is greater appreciation of sexual differences coupled with increased equality of opportunity
Aging in Global Perspective Every society must deal with the process of
people aging The Tiwi (Australia) have a custom of
“covering up” aged women who have become too feeble to look after themselves They dig a hole, place the elderly woman in it,
cover her body with dirt, and leave her to die In their culture, when the woman is later found
dead, it is from natural causes—she has died because she is too old and frail to dig herself out of the hole and survive
Aging in Global Perspective In Abkhasia (Caucasus region), the people
commonly live to be 100, or even older Possible reasons for their longevity include:
Diet and eating customs (overeating is considered dangerous)
Lifelong physical activity (they don’t begin to slow down until age 80)
Social integration (the elderly are active, valued, contributing members of the society, never isolated from family and community)
This reveals an important sociological principle Aging is socially constructed Attitudes towards aging are rooted in society and
therefore differ from one social group to the next
Aging in Global Perspective In industrialized nations, life expectancy
increases because of a more plentiful food supply, a safer water supply, and the control of certain diseases As the elderly population increases, so does the
cost of meeting their particular needs This has become a major social issue in the Most
Industrialized Nations as the young members face a growing tax burden to pay for benefits to the elderly
In the Least Industrialized Nations, there are no social security taxes and families are expected to take care of their own elderly
Aging in Global Perspective The graying of America refers to the
proportion of older persons in the U.S. population Almost 13 percent of the population has achieved
age 65 The maximum length of life, the life span, has not
increased
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Robert Butler coined the term “ageism” to
refer to prejudice, discrimination, and hostility directed at people because of their age
In U.S. society today, the general image of old age is negative, but researchers have found that at one time, old age had some positive meanings Few made it to old age, so those who did were
respected In the days before Social Security provided for
retirement, the elderly worked and were seen as wise and knowledgeable about work skills
The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective Industrialization eroded traditional bases of
respect With improved sanitation and health care, living to
an old age was no longer unique The mystique that the elderly possess superior
knowledge was stripped away by mass education The aging baby boom generation, because of
their numbers and their better financial standing, will very likely contribute to more positive symbols of aging
The Functionalist Perspective Functionalists examine age from the standpoint of
how those persons who are retiring and those who will replace them in the work force make mutual adjustments
Elaine Cumming and William Henry developed disengagement theory to explain how society prevents disruption to that society when the elderly retire The elderly are rewarded (pensions) for giving up
positions rather than waiting until they become incompetent or die This allows for a smooth transition of positions
This is criticized because it assumes that the elderly disengage and then sink into oblivion
The Functionalist Perspective Activity theory
Examines people’s reactions to this exchange of one set of roles for another
Older people who maintain a high level of activity tend to be more satisfied with life than those who do not
Level of activity is connected to key factors such as social class, health, and individual orientation
The Conflict Perspective Conflict theorists examine social life as a struggle
between groups for scarce resources Social Security legislation is an example of that
struggle In the 1920s–30s, two-thirds of all citizens in the
United States over 65 had no savings and could not support themselves Francis Townsend enrolled one-third of all Americans
over 65 in clubs that sought a national sales tax to finance a monthly pension for all Americans over age 65
To avoid the plan without appearing to be opposed to old-age pensions, an alternative, Social Security, was enacted by Congress
The Conflict Perspective Conflict theorists state that Social Security
was not a result of generosity, but rather of competition among interest groups
Since equilibrium is only a temporary balancing of social forces, some form of continuing conflict between the young and the old appears inevitable
The huge costs of Social Security have become a national concern One out of every four tax dollars goes to support
the Social Security and Medicare programs
The Conflict Perspective Some argue that the needs of the elderly and
of children are on a collision course Data indicate that as the number of elderly poor
decreases, the number of children in poverty increases
It has been argued that the comparison is misleading because the money that went to the elderly did not come from money intended for the children
Framing the issue in this way is an attempt to divide the working class, and to force a choice between the needs of children and those of the elderly