Post on 22-Dec-2015
Procedures and Data Collection Methods
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Procedures (Methodology)Probably more attention has been given
to this part of research than to any other. It includes experimental design, measurement, statistical analysis and computer programming. It is often the chief section looked at in order to judge whether to fund a proposal. It should contain the following:
Procedures (Methodology) An outline of the overall research design
accounting for each objective – variables to be considered, conditions to be controlled and conditions to be eliminated
Operationalization of the variables, conditions,etc. if this has not already been done.. Usually variables are operationalized in terms of the instruments which are used to measure them. If you are going to use a particular instrument, specify it. If you are going to develop an instrument, state how and give sample items.
Procedures (Methodology) You must state how you are going to protect
human subjects. Letters you are going to send for approval, statements you will have subjects sign, etc. must be shown. Include how you will obtain informed consent and how anonymity will be preserved.
Describe data analysis methods. If possible show how your data tables will be set up. If you are using statistics, be sure to specify your level of significance (Usually p< .05), This must be done before the data are collected.
Procedures (Methodology) Briefly discuss internal and external validity
of the design State any special conditions in the design
that will affect the conclusions or generalizations
Be sure to state what samples are involved, what are the sources of the data, what processes will be used to gather the data and analyze it, what conditions will be controlled
Procedures (Methodology) Pilot studies should be conducted:
If the technique is unfamiliar to the researcher If the instrument is newly constructed If the instrument has not been used with this
population To see if the subjects can handle the instrument To give the staff experience in administration and
analysis As a trial run for the data collection technique To provide some data on which to test analysis
techniques
Data Collection Methods Physiological and Physical Measures
Five sources Physical Chemical Microbiological Anatomical Observation through the senses
Data sources In vivo In vitro
Instrument systems Subject, stimulator, sensor, signal, display, record
Data Collection Methods Use
Physical outcomes – as criteria against which nursing actions can be assessed
Exploration of ways in which nursing actions, including measuring and recording physiological functioning, can be improved
Advantages objectivity, precision, sensitivity
Disadvantages device may change measurement high energy concentration
Data Collection Methods Types
Circulatory Respiratory Neurological Muscular-skeletal GI function GU function Glandular function
Data Collection MethodsObservational Methods
Phenomena amenable to observations Characteristics and conditions of individuals Verbal communication behaviors Non-verbal communication behaviors Activities Skill attainment and performance Environmental characteristics
Data Collection Methods Units of analysis – decide what a unit is
Molar approach – observe large units of behavior and treat as a whole
Molecular approach– observe smaller and highly specific behaviors as units
Observer/observed relationship Concealment/no intervention No concealment/no intervention No concealment/intervention Concealment/intervention
Data Collection Methods Observational methods
Unstructured observation Participant observation – observer lives in the
situation and tries not to interject his views and meanings – takes field notes on
Subjects, setting, behaviors, frequency and duration of events
Use of anecdotes in an illustrative fashion Advantages – deeper understanding Disadvantages –observer bias and influence
Data Collection Methods Structured observations – look at absence,
presence or frequency of a phenomenon Categories
Careful, explicit definitions of behavior or characteristics to be observed
No overlapping categories – mutually exclusive Observer interference – no. and skill of observers
Checklists Talley behaviors (watching called sign analysis) Categorize at regular intervals
Data Collection Methods Rating scales
Observer rates some phenomenon in terms of points along a descriptive continuum
May be used at intervals or to summarize an entire event
Observational sampling Time sampling – select a time period during which
observation will take place Event sampling – select an event to sample,
especially if it is infrequent
Data Collection Methods Training observers – even when researcher does
most of the research him/herself Need a dry run to familiarize with nature of the things to
be observed and the tools to be used Results from observers recordings should be compared
for inter-rater reliability
Advantages Captures and directly records behaviors
Disadvantages Ethical problems, human perceptual errors, demanding
of time and emotions, anticipation, hasty decisions
Data Collection Methods Interview schedules and questionnaires
Their format can be anything from rigid standardization to structure absence
Form of questions Open ended – the subject responds in his/her
own words – less bias but hard to analyze Close ended – the researcher provides fixed
alternatives
Data Collection Methods Close ended questions cont.
Dichotomous – two alternatives Multiple choice – three to five alternatives Cafeteria question – choose responses that most
adequately state your view Rank order questions – rank your responses on a
continuum from most to least Graphic rating scales – bipolar – specify two
opposite ends of a continuum. Respondents give a judgment of something along this ordered dimension
Data Collection Methods Question content
Facts about the respondent Facts about persons known to the respondent Facts about events and conditions known Beliefs about what the facts are: risk of Ca Attitudes, feelings and opinions Reasons for or influences on attitudes, etc. Level of knowledge about policies, practices,
conditions or situations Intentions or statements about future actions
Data Collection Methods How to develop questions
Draw up a table of specifications – types of information you are interested in
Weigh how much emphasis to give each area – this gives you an idea of the number of questions you need to cover the variables
Data Collection Methods Question wording
Clarity – clarify in your own mind, avoid double-barreled questions, state in lay rather than technical terms if respondents are lay, state in the affirmative
Ability of the respondent to reply or give information Use language of the least educated Don’t assume a level of information a person “ought to
have” Define technical words Use filter questions – if answer is no, skip to question— Don’t take for granted that a person remembers something
even though he/she was present when it happened
Data Collection Methods Bias - a serious problem on self-report
instruments Assume that the respondent is honest and
minimize the bias introduced by the researcher. Don’t suggest answers. Don’t identify a position or attitude with a prestigious group. Avoid emotionally-loaded words. Try to counterbalance the “slant” of questions
Response sets – things that bias responses such as social desirability, extreme responses
Data Collection Methods Sensitive or personal information
Try to develop more objective wording or offer a close ended question with a range of alternatives
If dealing with unacceptable behavior – try to create an atmosphere of non-judgment – use alternatives – they are easier to check off than to respond to in an open-ended manner
Use impersonal wording – not I’m pleased Be polite – “Please respond” ask whole
sentences – “What is your sex?”
Data Collection MethodsResponse alternatives
Cover all significant alternatives and usually have an “other – please specify”
Don’t have overlapping alternatives – 1-2, 3-5, 5 or more.
Place alternatives in some kind of rational order or, if no order, place alphabetically
Don’t make alternatives too long
Data Collection Methods Question sequence
Should be psychologically meaningful Put open-ended questions first so that
respondents give their own opinions before seeing the wording of other questions
Put demographic information at the end
Data Collection Methods Format
Introduction and instructions What is the purpose the researcher is trying to
accomplish How did the researcher get the name of the
respondent What will be done with the information –
confidentiality, anonymity, copies of results Deadline for returning – how to return Researcher’s name and how to reach Answering implies consent
Data Collection Methods Format cont.
Don’t put too many questions in too small a space
Set off the alternatives from the stem of the question and align them vertically – ask the respondent to circle, check, or use a separate answer sheet
Set off the subsets of a filter question so they are not confusing
Data Collection Methods Steps in construction
Make preliminary decisions as to form and the type of information needed. Set up mock tables to see how to analyze
Draft the questionnaire – monitor the words, look at existing questionnaires, decide on the order of the questions
Pre-testing and revising – discuss the draft with someone knowledgeable, pre-test to determine clarity
Data Collection Methods Administration of the instrument
Questionnaire Distribution – the best way is to give it to the whole
group at one time, then collect it. Next best is to personally deliver it and/or pick it up. The last resort is to mail it – if the response rate is above 50%, the return is probably sufficient. A return envelope helps.
Follow-up reminders – 2-3 weeks after the first mailing send a letter with a second copy of the questionnaire, or a telephone call is made. Kep a log of incoming receipt of mail on a daily basis
Data Collection Methods The interview
Put the respondent at ease so he expresses hones opinions – be neat, punctual, courteous, friendly, unbiased and permissive
Accept all opinions as natural Don’t read the instrument schedule, but follow the
wording precisely If there are many alternatives, hand the respondent a
card with them on Don’t paraphrase or summarize the respondent’s reply If he gives only partial answers or “beats around the
bush” probe, but do so neutrally – “Explain?” “Anything else?”
Data Collection Methods Advantages of questionnaires
Less costly than interviews More anonymity and no interviewer bias
Advantages of interviews Have a high response rate Get people who cannot fill out questionnaires Less ambiguous, deeper Fewer “I don’t knows” Control over the order of presentation Additional non-verbal data can be gathered
Data Collection Methods Scales and psychological measures
Likert scale –several declarative statements expressing a viewpoint on a topic are generated. There should be an equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements - which need to be identified. One concept should have 10-20 items.
Originally there were 5 categories of agreement-disagreement, but many people use seven:
SA – A – SlA - ? – SlD – D – SD . Depending on agreement with the concept being studied, the scoring can be 1 thru 7 or 7 thru 1. No responses are treated as ? or given a value of 4.
Data Collection Methods Semantic Differential
A technique to measure the psychological meaning of concepts or objects to an individual.
The subject rates a concept on a series of seven point bipolar scales such as fair-unfair, good-bad, important-unimportant, strong-weak, beautiful-ugly, worthless-valuable, pleasant-unpleasant, cold-warm, responsible-irresponsible, successful-unsuccessful. Adjectives should apply to the concept. Should have some that are evaluative, some related to potency, some related to activity. The pairs should be randomly reversed
Data Collection MethodsOther scales
Existing psychological scales – attitude scales, personality measures
Intelligence, aptitude and achievement tests
Value scales Interest scales
Data Collection MethodsContent analysis
An objective, quantitative description of a communication or a document
Select variables to be recorded Select the unit of content – words, themes,
entire items, space/time measure Develop a category system for classifying units
of content: yes/no or present/absent Train coders
Data Collection Methods Projective techniques
Pictoral methods – Themic Apperception Test, Rorschach Inkblot Test,
Verbal methods Ambiguous verbal stimulus – person is asked to respond
with first thing that comes to mind (word association) Sentence completion – elicit attitudes
Expressive methods Play technique –drawing, painting, role playing Psychodrama – subjects play themselves Sociodrama – subjects play the part of others
Among the most controversial techniques
Data Collection Methods Indirect measures
Letters to the editor, to the Right to Life Association, to the Music Association, etc.
Responses to vignettes – who is the main character – male/female
Records and available data
Data Collection Methods Q-sort methodology
Sort a deck of 60-100 cards according to specified criteria – most like me/least like me or approve/disapprove
9-11 stacks of cards are placed on a table with the number of cards to be in each stack determined by the researcher. The subject is forced to choose where to place the cards. Items put in one place force or influence where others are placed – called a forced choice or ipsative measure (A Likert scale is a normative measure – each item is independent
Data Collection Methods least approved of most approved of1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
category
2 4 7 10 14 10 7 4 2
number of cards
Data Collection MethodsSociometry
Information is gained about social choice and interaction patterns of individuals in groups
Who do you like, which three people would you like to work with
Sociograms
Data Collection Methods Delphi Technique
Several rounds of questionnaires are sent out. After the first round, the respondents answers, comments, opinions arguments etc. are summarized and analyzed and sent to the group along with a redesigned questionnaire. The respondents re-rate, re-vote or re-rank items or make other responses, comments etc. The idea is to obtain consensus and the rounds keep going until it is reached
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