Political Administration in the Middle East before the

20th Century

A very brief snapshot

Pre-Ottoman politics

7th century: Rise of Islam and Islamic Empires

Umayyad Empire, 661-750 (capital at Damascus)

Abbasid Empire, 749-1258

(capital at Baghdad) Other dynasties & the

Mongols

Ibn Battuta, a 14th century traveler from Tangiers.

Who were the Ottomans?

Founded & ruled one of the world’s biggest and longest-lived empires

1300-1918 Muslim Turkish dynasty: Osmanlılar

Encompassed territory from Europe to N. Africa Mehmet the Conquerer riding his horse in

front of Aya Sofia church after conquering Constantinople in 1453. Source: http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/album/picturesindex.html

A map of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire

A map of the contraction of the Ottoman Empire

Source: Encyclopedia Brittanica, from http://www.naqshbandi.org/ottomans/maps/

Map of the Ottoman Empire at its height

About the Empire

Loosely administered Muslim empire

Sultan as Caliph, or protector of the Faith (but not seen as divine)

Multi-National, Multi-lingual, Multi-Ethnic Turks, Arabs, Greeks, Kurds, Jews, Armenians, Bulgarians,

Albanians, Croats, Serbs, etc. Until 1850, 50% of the Empire’s population lived in the Balkans State did NOT attempt to create cultural conformity.

Multiple religions within the empire Christians and Jews given special status as “people of the

book”, or Dhimmis

Ottoman Political Administration

The Sultan/Caliph Grand Vizier and the

bureaucracy (Istanbul) Ottoman Army Governors (Local notables)

ruled the provinces By 18th-19th century most

drawn from powerful local families

Ulema –religious elite

A miniature portrait of Sultan Murat III, from the 16th c.

Source:

http://history.binghamton.edu/hist275/Map%20List.htm

The state’s role

  Defend the borders of the empire

Protect the faith (Islam)

  Collect taxes

  Maintain public peace

  

An illuminated page from the Quran by Ahmet Karahisari , from the Topkapi Palace collection.

Socio-political groups in the Ottoman Age

Settled peasants and villagers

Tribes Nomads Prominent local

families Guilds & merchants Local religious orders

and religious leadersPicture of a Bulgarian woman in 19th century finery. Source: Ottoman archives from the Turkish Library.

Socio-political groups

Ottoman officials – governors, judges, financial officials, rural police

Classes: the working classes and the wealthy; the rulers and the ruled

From the Turkish National Library/Ottoman Cultural Heritage by Pictures

A woman of Topkapi Palace, 19th century. The painting is entitled “Palace lady” and is painted by Pierre D. Guilement, from the Dolmabahce Palace Collection.

The status of women

Two worlds (haremlık and selamlık)

Varying status, but generally viewed as subservient to men & in need of protection

Upper-class women tended to veil; working women often did not

Connections between state and society

Taxes Administration-

state-provincial relations Codes of Law

Standards for conduct and dress

Religious institutes and religious frameworks Administered schools,

social welfare programs, courts, etc.

The Grand Husseini Mosque in Amman, Jordan, originally built in the 7th century.

State-minority relations under the Ottomans

Dhimmi status for Christians and Jews Forced conversions discouraged Special protection 2nd class status Head tax on non-Muslim males Periodic persecution

The Millet system Christian & Jewish communities largely self-

governing, with head of community as liaison between the sultan and the community

An evolving Empire:Main phases of Ottoman rule

Classical Period (1300-1683) Rise, expansion and consolidation Political power primarily in hands of the Sultan

Middle Period (1680s-1798) Ottoman integration into the world economy; territorial retraction

Shift in power from sultan to offices of the vizier Provinces virtually autonomous

Long 19th century (1798-1918) Emergence of the modern Ottoman state

State under pressure from Imperialist Europe Redefinition in status of religious minorities and women Newly centralized State: State begins taking over many new tasks

The flight of Hazerfan Ahmet Çelebi from the Tower of Galata. Source: http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/album/picturesindex.html

_

_A painting by Levni of an 19th c. female subject of the Empire.

An Ottoman map of Istanbul, from Topkapi Palace, Istanbul.