Natural Laws Rule the Universe

thus…

Natural Laws Rule Humanity

The Astronomer -- Vermeer

The 18th CenturyEnlightenment

Power Point adapted from http://www.loyno.edu/~seduffy/enlightenment.htm

Medieval Sciences—Older Views

•Aristotelian physics: four elements

•Ptolemaic view of universe

•Medicine: four humours of the body

•Genetics: inherited learning

•Philosophy: deductive thinking

Ptolemaic System•Older system: Ptolemy’s (c. 90-168) Almagest (150 AD)•Earth center of universe•Crystalline Spheres•Gods, angels in outer spheres

Astronomy

• Nicolas Copernicus, (1473-1543), On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, 1543: heliocentric arrangement.

• Not accepted until work of– Tycho Brahe (1546-1601):

(observation tables)Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) (elliptical orbits), and

– Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

(telescope, 1609)

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

•Astronomia Nova “The New Astronomy,” 1609Looking at recorded sightings of MarsAll planets moving in elliptical orbits

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• 1609 telescope• 1632 Dialogues on the

Two Chief Systems of the World (forced by Church to recant)

• Universe subject to mathematical laws

• Nature inherently logical

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

•Overhauled principles of physicsPrincipia Mathematica, 1687Three Laws of Motion, Principles of inertia, gravity

•English Astronomer Royal in 1719

•Admirer of Newton, got Principia printed

•Employed Newton’s rules for calculating the position of the moon and planets

Edmond Halley “Halley’s Comet”

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Father of modern psychology, sociology

• Essay Concerning Human Understanding

• All knowledge is derived by experience

• Two Treatises on Government (1689) — Natural rights

• Letter Concerning Toleration (1689)

The Enlightenment

18th Century

Philosophy of the Enlightenment

• philosophes,”

• Stress on reason, optimism, civic reform

• Religious tolerance and political equality

• Faith in science and education

• Believed in improvement and experimentation

• Secular and cosmopolitan

18th Century Changes

• Stable food supply• Industrial Revolution

(ca. 1750s-1850s)• Commercial

revolution • Social mobility • New strains on

government

Science v. Religion

• End to witch trials, ca. 1700

• Criticism of the French Monarchy and the French Church

• Deism• Toleration, hatred of

superstition

Voltaire (1694-1778)

•Grandfather of the Enlightenment•Defender of religious toleration•Critic of French church and state•Favored enlightened monarchies

David Hume (1711-1776)

•Scottish Philosopher

•An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 1748An Enquiry Concerning the principles of morals 1751“Laws of nature,” no appeal to religion

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

• Spirit of the Laws, 1748

• Balance of Powers theory

• Admired British system, critic of French

• Inspired American Constitution

Adam Smith

•Wealth of Nations, 1776•Challenge to Mercantilism•Laissez-faire economist

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

•Social Contract, 1762•The “Noble Savage”•Civilization corrupting influence•Theory of the “General Will”•Inspiration of French Revolution

“Enlightened Despots”

• Joseph II of Austria (1780-1790)

• Frederick II of Prussia (1740-1786)

• Catherine II of Russia (1762-1796)

• Reduced power of clergy, aristocrats

• Centralization, legal reform, education

Consequences of the Enlightenment

• Urban Reforms• Educational reforms• Abolition Movement• Challenges to the

Church• Spur to Revolution:

– American, French, Haitian