MOTIVATION AND THEORIES OF

MOTIVATION

A PRESENTATION BY: SANJANA BHARADWAJ, III SEMESTER, BB.A.LL.B MU13BBALLB13

INTRODUCTION TO MOTIVATIONIN LITERAL SENSE:

The psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal; the reason forthe action; that which gives purpose, and direction to behaviour.

Motivation is one of the forces that lead to performance.

Motivation is defined as the desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading togoal-directed behaviour.

FEATURES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is an internal feeling

Motivation produces goal directed behaviour

Motivation contains systems orientation

Motivation can either be positive or negative

Motivation is different from job satisfaction

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION

oProductive use of resources

oIncreased efficiency and output

oAchievement of goals

oDevelopment of friendly relationships

oStability in workforce

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The theories of motivations aredivided into three maincategories:1.Content Theories2.Process theories3.Reinforcement theory

CONTENT THEORIES

1. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

2. ALDERFER’S ERG MODEL

3. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

4. THEORY X AND THEORY Y

5. THEORY Z

6. MATURITY - IMMATURITY THEORY

7. HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY THEORY

2. ALDERFER’S ERG MODEL

Existence Needs

It includes all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air,

clothing, safety, physical love and affection).

Relatedness Needs

Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with

significant others like family, friends, co-workers and

employers. This also means to be recognized and feel secure as

part of a group or family.

Growth Needs

Internal esteem and self-actualization; these impel a person to

make creative or productive effects on himself and the

environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self). This

includes desires to be creative and productive, and to complete

meaningful tasks.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY

David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "TheAchieving Society."

Identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a needfor achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power.

According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which iswhy this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory).

Regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have threemotivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominantmotivating driver.

ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION THEORY (contd..)

Power need (n Pow): this is the need to dominate,

influence and control others. Power speaks about the

ability to manipulate or control the activities of others to

suit one’s own purposes.

Affiliation need (n Aff): the need for affiliation is a

social need, for companionship and support, for

developing meaningful relationship with people.

Achievement need (n Ach): this is a need for challenge,

for personal accomplishment and success in competitive

situations.

THEORY X AND THEORY Y

Douglas McGregor, anAmerican socialpsychologist, proposedhis famous X-Y theory inhis 1960 book 'TheHuman Side OfEnterprise‘

THEORY Z

Theory Z is an approach to management based upon a combination of American and Japanese management philosophies.

Theory Z was first identified as a unique management approach by William Ouchi in the 1981 book, Theory Z: How American Companies Can Meet the Japanese Challenge.

It is characterised by: ◦ long-term job security,

◦ consensual decision making,

◦ slow evaluation and promotion procedures,

◦ and individual responsibility within a group context

Sometimes considered a blend of the model Theory X and Theory Y, with more of a leaning towards Theory Y.

6. MATURITY - IMMATURITY THEORY Chris Argyris explored the concept of organizational learning.

According to Argyris, seven changes should take place in thepersonality of individuals if they are to develop into maturepeople over the years.

1. First, individuals move from a passive state as infants to a state of increasing activity as adults.

2. Second, individuals develop from a state of dependency upon others as infants to a state of relative independence as adults.

3. Individuals behave in only a few ways as infants, but asadults they are capable of behaving in many ways.

MATURITY - IMMATURITY THEORY (Contd.)

4. Individuals have erratic, casual, and shallow interests as infantsbut develop deeper and stronger interests as adults.

5. The time perspective of children is very short, involving only thepresent, but as they mature, their time perspective increases toinclude the past and the future.

6. Individuals as infants are subordinate to everyone, but they moveto equal or superior positions with others as adults.

7. As children, individuals lack an awareness of a "self," but as adultsthey are not only aware of, but they are able to control "self."

HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, also known as themotivation-hygiene theory orintrinsic/extrinsic motivation.

II. PROCESS THEORIES

A. The Equity Theory

B. The Expectancy theory

C. The goal setting theory.

D. Porter and Lawler Model

A. The Equity Theory

John Stacey Adams' equity theory helpsexplain why pay and conditions alone do notdetermine motivation. It also explains whygiving one person a promotion or pay-risecan have a demotivating effect on others.

Inputs: time, effort, loyalty, hard work,commitment, ability, adaptability, flexibility,tolerance, determination, enthusiasm,personal sacrifice.

Outputs: Typical outcomes are job security,esteem, salary, employee benefits,expenses, recognition, reputation,responsibility, sense of achievement, praise,thanks.

B. The Expectancy theory

POSTULATED BY VICTOR VROOM.

It presents a valid, comprehensive and useful approach to management.

It is a choice model.

Built around three concepts:

1. Valence.

2. Expectancy.

3. Instrumentality.

C. THE GOAL SETTING THEORY.

Postulated by Edwin Locke.

According to him, motivation is a result ofrational and intentional behavior.

Suggests that managers and subordinatesshould establish goals on a regular basis.

Goals should be moderately difficult andspecific.

D. Porter and Lawler ModelPOSTULATED BY PORTER AND LAWLER

PROMOTED THE THESIS THAT PERFORMANCES CAUSES SATISFACTION.

EXPLORED THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MOTIVATION, SATISFACTIONAND PERFORMANCE.

PERFORMANCE IN AN ORGANISATION IS FUNCTION OF THREEIMPORTANT FACTORS:

1. DESIRE TO PERFORM.

2. MOTIVATION ALONE WILL NOT LEAD TO PERFORMANCE.

3. A PERSON MUST HAVE REQUSITE SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE TODO A JOB.

PERFORMANCE LEADS TO REWARDS.

III. REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BFSkinner and his associates.

It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of itsconsequences.

This theory focuses totally on what happens to anindividual when he takes some action.

The managers use the following methods forcontrolling the behaviour of the employees:◦1. Positive Reinforcement◦2. Negative Reinforcement◦3. Punishment◦ 4. Extinction

MOTIVATIONAL APPLICATION

;

What Is Employee Involvement?

Employee Involvement Program

A participative process that uses the entire capacity of

employees and is designed to encourage increased

commitment to the organization’s success

Examples of Employee Involvement Programs

Participative Management

A process in which subordinates share a significant

degree of decision-making power with their immediate

superiors

Examples of Employee Involvement

Programs (cont’d)

Representative

Participation

Workers participate in

organizational decision

making through a small

group of representative

employees.

Works Councils

Groups of nominated or

elected employees who must

be consulted when manage-

ment makes decisions

involving personnel

Board Representative

A form of representative

participation; employees sit on

a company’s board of directors

and represent the interests of

the firm’s employees.

Alternative Work Arrangements

Flextime

Employees work during a common core time period each

day but have discretion in forming their total workday from

a flexible set of hours outside the core.

Job Sharing

The practice of having two or more people split a 40-

hour-a-week job

Alternative Work Arrangements, cont.

Categories of Telecommuting Jobs

• Routine information-handling tasks

• Mobile activities

• Professional and other knowledge-related tasks

Telecommuting

Employees do their work at home on a computer that is

linked to their office.

Examples of Employee Involvement

Programs (cont’d)

Quality Circle

A work group of employees who meet regularly to

discuss their quality problems, investigate causes,

recommend solutions, and take corrective actions

Employee Recognition Programs

Intrinsic rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation

– Personal attention given to employee

– Approval and appreciation for a job well done

– Growing in popularity and usage

Benefits of Programs

– Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition

– Inexpensive to implement

– Encourages repetition of desired

behaviors

Drawbacks of Programs

– Susceptible to manipulation by management

From the Wall Street Journal, October 21, 1997. Reprinted by permission of Cartoon Features Syndicate.

Implications for ManagersIn Order to Motivate Employees:

◦ Recognize individual differences

◦ Use goals and feedback

◦ Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them

◦ Link rewards to performance

◦ Define the employees' role

◦ Offer training and development

CONCLUSION 1. Motivation is the work that a manager performs to inspire,

encourage and compel people to accomplish desired goals.Properly motivated employees can produce excellent results byputting facilities to good use.

2. Understanding the complexities involved in motivating people isnot an easy job since human behaviour is unpredictable and is theresult of multiple causes. Three kinds of theories have evolved.