Lecture 6Context and Culture

Applied LinguisticsEnglish Department

FKIP – Sriwijaya University2014

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Context of CultureContext of CultureContext of SituationContext of Situation

Genre and Register Theory in Genre and Register Theory in PracticePractice

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Context of Culture (Register + purpose)

Context of Situation(Register)

Metafunctions(Lexico-Grammar)

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How is Context in Text?How is Context in Text?

Con-text

Context of Culture (genre) is in text

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Texts have textureTexts have texture

► Sequential ImplicationSequential Implication► Grammatically Grammatically

coherentcoherent► Situational coherence Situational coherence

(texture)(texture)► Generic coherence Generic coherence

(Structure)(Structure)► Cohesion (Semantic Cohesion (Semantic

tie. Eg. Lexical tie. Eg. Lexical Chains)Chains)

► Referential cohesionReferential cohesion

TextText+ texture

- texture

Emergenttext

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Recess TextRecess TextFreewriteFreewrite

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TextureTexture““We do not ordinarily meet with language We do not ordinarily meet with language that is not textured. What we call ‘non-that is not textured. What we call ‘non-sense’ is something we disagree with; but sense’ is something we disagree with; but it is perfectly adequate as discourse…it is perfectly adequate as discourse…People go to great lengths to interpret as People go to great lengths to interpret as text anything that is said or written, and text anything that is said or written, and are ready to assume any kind of are ready to assume any kind of displacement – some error in production, displacement – some error in production, or in their own understanding- rather than or in their own understanding- rather than admit that they are faced with a non-admit that they are faced with a non-text…this is an unconscious process; we text…this is an unconscious process; we are not aware of making such adjustments are not aware of making such adjustments when we listen or read.”when we listen or read.”

MAK HallidayMAK Halliday (An introduction to (An introduction to Functional Grammar 1994 p.334)Functional Grammar 1994 p.334)

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What Happened What Happened

to Recess?to Recess?

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…In the name of standards, of making sure young children acquire what are billed as ‘skills for the global economy’ schoolchildren across the country have no playtime. Atlanta made front-page headlines by building an elementary school with no playground. In 1998, a front-page story in the New York Times featured a picture of an appealing little kindergartner in Atlanta, Toya Gray, who confided to the reporter that she’d like to “sit on the grass and look for ladybugs.”…The times zeroed in on the fact that in the name of standards and excellence, Toya’s school, a new structure, was built very deliberately-without a playground…The then Atlanta superintendent of schools, Benjamin O. Canada, explained the policy, “We are intent on improving academic performance. You don’t do that by having kids hanging on the monkey bars.”…From Chicago to Virginia, school districts have abolished recess. And even in districts where recess is still on the books, increasingly, children who score poorly on standarized tests are forced to forgo the play break…Ironically, as plenty of experts will testify, by taking away children’s free time, schools are making it more difficult for them to pay attention.

P. 2

Statement of Problem and Position

Evidence of Problem

Restatement of problem

Restatement of Position

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How is Context in Text?How is Context in Text?

Con-text

Context of Situation (Register) is in Text

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ExerciseExercise

► Write a small excerpt:Write a small excerpt:

Situation:Situation:Two small children are in the Two small children are in the playground talking about toys. playground talking about toys.

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How do these texts create How do these texts create meaning?meaning?

This vehicle is driven by aThis vehicle is driven by a

CourteousCourteous

ProfessionalProfessional

DriverDriver(White color (White color background)background)

Should you agreeShould you agree

Please contactPlease contact

8888888888 8888888888

(Blue color background)(Blue color background)

How am I driving?How am I driving?

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Social activity

Dear ______ We want to have recess but we need to ask you first. Students learn better when they have a break. If you want us to learn better, then please consider giving us a break. We have very little time to talk to Our friends. When we had recess earlier in theSpring we only went outside for 10Minutes. When we came back in and got Straight to work. We’ve really bored since we can no go

Grammar

Discourse

Language in Social Context

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Register: Variation According to Register: Variation According to UseUse

Genre

field tenor mode

FieldField (presentin(presenting ideas, g ideas, the world)the world)ExperientiExperientialal

Ideational choicesIdeational choices

·        ·        Noun phrases nominal groupNoun phrases nominal groups s (participants)(participants)

·        Verbs (material, behavioral, ·        Verbs (material, behavioral, mental, verbal, relational processes)  S. mental, verbal, relational processes)  S. p. 53p. 53

··        Prepositional phrases, adverbial         Prepositional phrases, adverbial adjuncts, and other resources for adjuncts, and other resources for expressing time, place, manner expressing time, place, manner (circumstance)(circumstance)

··               Use of conjunctions, pronouns etc. Use of conjunctions, pronouns etc.

for making logical relationships.for making logical relationships. TenorTenor (taking a (taking a stance/expresstance/expressing sing speakersspeakers’’ relationships)relationships)

InterpersonInterpersonalal

Interpersonal choicesInterpersonal choices

··        Mood (statements,         Mood (statements, questions, demands)questions, demands)

··        Modality (modal verbs,         Modality (modal verbs, and adverbs)and adverbs)

··        Intonation        Intonation

··               Other resources for Other resources for evaluative and attitudinal evaluative and attitudinal meaning (appraisal, humor, meaning (appraisal, humor,

etc.)etc.)

ModeMode (language/(language/

structuring the structuring the text) text)

TextualTextual

Textual choicesTextual choices

·        Cohesive ·        Cohesive devices devices (conjunctions, (conjunctions, connectors, etc.)connectors, etc.)

·        Clause-·        Clause-combining combining strategiesstrategies

·       ·        Thematic Thematic

organizationorganization 14

FieldField

the writer's/speaker relationship to the the writer's/speaker relationship to the subject matter.subject matter.

Common sense/everyday Technical/specialized

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TENORTENOR

the the relationship between the writer and relationship between the writer and the readerthe reader..

PowerPowerequal unequal

Contactfrequent occasional

Affective Involvementhigh low

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ModeMode

the the means of communication; means of communication; the the kind of text that is being made..kind of text that is being made..Casual Conversation telephone e-mail fax radio Novel

Visual contactAuralfeedback

Visual contactAuralfeedback

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Context of Situation always Context of Situation always occurs within the context of occurs within the context of

CultureCulture► Text 1 (Letter)Text 1 (Letter)Field: Finals of the Soccer World CupField: Finals of the Soccer World CupTenor: Friend to friendTenor: Friend to friendMode: Written to be readMode: Written to be read

► Text 2 (Conversation)Text 2 (Conversation)Field: Finals of the Soccer World CupField: Finals of the Soccer World CupTenor: Friend to friendTenor: Friend to friendMode: interactive telephone conversationMode: interactive telephone conversation

► Text 3 (Newspaper Article)Text 3 (Newspaper Article)Field: Finals of the Soccer World CupField: Finals of the Soccer World CupTenor: Specialist to general audienceTenor: Specialist to general audienceMode: Written to be readMode: Written to be read 18

As we could see. . .As we could see. . .

►Texts vary in a number of ways Texts vary in a number of ways according to their social purpose according to their social purpose (genre) and their situation (style). The (genre) and their situation (style). The genre determines the structure of the genre determines the structure of the text, whereas register determine the text, whereas register determine the style, language patterns and style, language patterns and vocabulary used within the text. vocabulary used within the text.

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► Context is in textContext is in text► Knowledge of context (culture and Knowledge of context (culture and

situation) tells us significant information situation) tells us significant information about how language will be used. Analysis about how language will be used. Analysis of the grammar in a text, will tell us about of the grammar in a text, will tell us about the context.the context.

► This reciprocal illumination of context and This reciprocal illumination of context and text allows language educators to target text allows language educators to target their teaching specifically to the particular their teaching specifically to the particular needs of students by analyzing the context needs of students by analyzing the context of situation relevant to the student’s needs, of situation relevant to the student’s needs, goals, and rights. In this way, teaching goals, and rights. In this way, teaching language can become a true ‘evidence-language can become a true ‘evidence-based instruction’ as interventions respond based instruction’ as interventions respond to specific students, in specific sociopolitical to specific students, in specific sociopolitical settings and not to generic interpretations settings and not to generic interpretations of mandated, of mandated, prescriptedprescripted curricula. curricula.

To Conclude

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Dr. Edward HallDr. Edward Hall

►Anthropologist and cross-cultural researcherAnthropologist and cross-cultural researcher►Distinguished cultures on the basis of the Distinguished cultures on the basis of the

role of context in communicationrole of context in communication►Context:Context: the whole situation, background, or the whole situation, background, or

environment connected to an event, a environment connected to an event, a situation, or an individual.situation, or an individual.

►““It was taken It was taken out of contextout of context”: without the ”: without the words or circumstances and so not fully words or circumstances and so not fully understandable.understandable.

Contexts: High and LowContexts: High and LowLow-Context High-Context

Information and meaning are explicitly stated in the message

Individual “internalizes” meaning and information, so that less is explicitly stated

Values Individualism Values Group Sense

Values direct verbal interaction and is less able to read nonverbal expressions

Values indirect verbal interaction and is more able to read nonverbal expressions

Contexts: High and LowContexts: High and LowLow-Context High-Context

Tends to use “logic” to present ideas

Tends to use more “feeling” in expressions

Tends to emphasize highly structured messages, give details, and place great stress on words

Tends to give simple, ambiguous, noncontexting messages

Emphasizes linear logic Emphasizes spiral logic

Low-Context IdeasLow-Context Ideas

► In a low-context culture, Hall argues, “Most In a low-context culture, Hall argues, “Most of the information must be in the of the information must be in the transmitted message in order to make up transmitted message in order to make up for what is missing in the context.”for what is missing in the context.”

►To members of a low-context culture, To members of a low-context culture, speakers in a high-context culture seem to speakers in a high-context culture seem to talk around a subject and never get to the talk around a subject and never get to the point.point.

Clash or Low and High in Clash or Low and High in The Joy Luck ClubThe Joy Luck Club

►Mothers expect daughters to learn from and obey their Mothers expect daughters to learn from and obey their elders (as they did).elders (as they did).

►Mothers do not feel they need to “explain.” Mothers do not feel they need to “explain.” ►Mother’s fears, warnings, instructions or examples are not Mother’s fears, warnings, instructions or examples are not

fully supported by the context of American culture, and so fully supported by the context of American culture, and so the daughters have difficulty understanding.the daughters have difficulty understanding.

►Daughters feel they do not understand their mothers Daughters feel they do not understand their mothers because information is omitted; mothers think information because information is omitted; mothers think information can be inferred and does not need explanation. can be inferred and does not need explanation.

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Understand Cultural DifferencesUnderstand Cultural Differences

►Cultural differences have huge impacts Cultural differences have huge impacts in the business worldin the business world International business dealingsInternational business dealings Working locally with an international work forceWorking locally with an international work force

►Culture profoundly affects how people Culture profoundly affects how people communicatecommunicate And communication is the basis of all business And communication is the basis of all business

activitiesactivities►The Silent LanguageThe Silent Language

Culture is often outside of people’s conscious Culture is often outside of people’s conscious awarenessawareness

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What is Culture?What is Culture?

►How does it impact business activities?How does it impact business activities?►How can cultural differences hamper How can cultural differences hamper

international business?international business?►How can an understanding of cultural How can an understanding of cultural

differences improve international differences improve international business?business?

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What is Culture?What is Culture?

►A lens – a frame of referenceA lens – a frame of reference Through which we view and interpret Through which we view and interpret

human interactionhuman interaction

►90% of communication is nonverbal90% of communication is nonverbal Nonverbal communication is heavily Nonverbal communication is heavily

culturally influencedculturally influenced

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Key ConceptsKey Concepts

►Speed: fast and slow messagesSpeed: fast and slow messages►ContextContext►SpaceSpace►TimeTime► Information FlowInformation Flow► InterfacingInterfacing

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Fast and slow messagesFast and slow messages

►How quickly is the meaning of a How quickly is the meaning of a message understood?message understood? Art is slow; a cartoon is fastArt is slow; a cartoon is fast Television is faster than printTelevision is faster than print

►Messages are sent and received at Messages are sent and received at different speeds depending upon different speeds depending upon cultureculture

►People are messagesPeople are messages How long does it take to “know” a person?How long does it take to “know” a person?

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ContextContext

►How much of the relevant information is How much of the relevant information is in the message, and how much is already in the message, and how much is already understood by sender and receiver?understood by sender and receiver?

►High context situationsHigh context situations a message can contain lots of meaning a message can contain lots of meaning

without much information contentwithout much information content

►Low context situationsLow context situations The message must contain all relevant The message must contain all relevant

informationinformation

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SpaceSpace

►TerritorialityTerritoriality What space and how much of it is “mine”?What space and how much of it is “mine”? Size and location of an officeSize and location of an office

►Personal spacePersonal space How close is too close?How close is too close? This is very culturally dependentThis is very culturally dependent

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TimeTime

►How people view time is very culturally How people view time is very culturally dependentdependent

►Monochromatic vs. polychromaticMonochromatic vs. polychromatic How many things are done at once?How many things are done at once?

►One thing: monochromaticOne thing: monochromatic►Many: polychromaticMany: polychromatic

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TimeTime

►Polychronic culturesPolychronic cultures Lots of information is presentLots of information is present Very tolerant of interruptionsVery tolerant of interruptions Very fluid and flexibleVery fluid and flexible

►Monochronic culturesMonochronic cultures CompartmentalizedCompartmentalized Schedules and agendas very importantSchedules and agendas very important

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Time: Orientation to Past, Time: Orientation to Past, Present and FuturePresent and Future

►Cultures differ in the importance they Cultures differ in the importance they place on past, present and futureplace on past, present and future For example: in some cultures, current For example: in some cultures, current

proposals must be positioned in terms of proposals must be positioned in terms of their historical relationshipstheir historical relationships

►Respect given to age and seniority is Respect given to age and seniority is also relevant herealso relevant here

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Time as CommunicationTime as Communication

►Time-related behavior “says” a lotTime-related behavior “says” a lot But it’s all different by cultureBut it’s all different by culture

►Examples of time as communicationExamples of time as communication How far ahead are appointments How far ahead are appointments

scheduled?scheduled? How much importance is placed on a How much importance is placed on a

schedule?schedule? How is waiting time interpreted?How is waiting time interpreted? What does setting end dates imply?What does setting end dates imply?

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Time as CommunicationTime as Communication

►Other culturesOther cultures Schedule and agendas are viewed as Schedule and agendas are viewed as

goals, not bindinggoals, not binding Promptness is not as important as Promptness is not as important as

completing a human interactioncompleting a human interaction►As a result, interruptions will delay As a result, interruptions will delay

appointmentsappointments

Forcing someone to wait is not intended Forcing someone to wait is not intended as an insultas an insult

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Information FlowInformation Flow

► How fast does information make its way through an How fast does information make its way through an organization?organization?

► In highly networked, high context culturesIn highly networked, high context cultures Very fastVery fast Information is not “hoarded”Information is not “hoarded”

► In other culturesIn other cultures Information flow is slow because communication Information flow is slow because communication

is more compartmentalizedis more compartmentalized► Email is changing this, but…Email is changing this, but…

Email is a low-information-content mediumEmail is a low-information-content medium

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ContextContext

►Low context culturesLow context cultures US and CanadianUS and Canadian Northern EuropeanNorthern European

►High context culturesHigh context cultures Mediterranean (Arab, Greek, Southern Mediterranean (Arab, Greek, Southern

European)European) JapaneseJapanese AfricanAfrican Latin AmericanLatin American

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SpaceSpace

►TerritorialityTerritoriality What space and how much of it is “mine”?What space and how much of it is “mine”? Size and location of an officeSize and location of an office

► US: Executives have large, isolated spacesUS: Executives have large, isolated spaces► Japan: Executives often don’t have private officesJapan: Executives often don’t have private offices

►Personal spacePersonal space How close is too close?How close is too close? This is very culturally dependentThis is very culturally dependent North American, North EuropeanNorth American, North European

► Don’t get too close!Don’t get too close! Mediterranean, Latin, African: closeMediterranean, Latin, African: close

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TimeTime

►How do monochromatics view How do monochromatics view polychronicism?polychronicism? ChaoticChaotic NoisyNoisy Inefficient (is anything getting done?Inefficient (is anything getting done? Creates anxietyCreates anxiety

►How do polychromatics view How do polychromatics view monochronicism?monochronicism? Slow, sterile, boring, uncreativeSlow, sterile, boring, uncreative Creates frustrationsCreates frustrations

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Time: Orientation to Past, Time: Orientation to Past, Present and FuturePresent and Future

►Cultures differ in the importance they Cultures differ in the importance they place on past, present and futureplace on past, present and future

►US culture is very present and near-US culture is very present and near-future orientedfuture oriented

► In some cultures (German, French) In some cultures (German, French) historical context is very importanthistorical context is very important

►Some Asian, Arab cultures are very Some Asian, Arab cultures are very past-orientedpast-oriented

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Time as CommunicationTime as Communication

►Highly scheduled culturesHighly scheduled cultures North America, Northern EuropeanNorth America, Northern European Lots of importance placed on punctualityLots of importance placed on punctuality Time communicates importanceTime communicates importance Poor schedule adherencePoor schedule adherence

►Interpreted as arrogance or incompetenceInterpreted as arrogance or incompetence

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InterfacingInterfacing

►What happens when different cultures What happens when different cultures meet?meet?

►Least difficult interfacingLeast difficult interfacing Low context to low contextLow context to low context Germans and AmericansGermans and Americans Canadians and ScandinaviansCanadians and Scandinavians

►Most difficultyMost difficulty High context to low contextHigh context to low context High context to high contextHigh context to high context

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So What Do You Do?So What Do You Do?

►Don’t judge cultureDon’t judge culture No culture is more or less valuable or efficient No culture is more or less valuable or efficient

than any otherthan any other

►Understand your own cultural frameworkUnderstand your own cultural framework►Be interested – study – the cultures you Be interested – study – the cultures you

work withwork with►Move slowly and softlyMove slowly and softly

Ask, listen, observeAsk, listen, observe

►Be brave and have fun!Be brave and have fun!

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Any Questions?

If not, End of Lecture