Post on 08-Apr-2018
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MODELS OF READING:MODELS OF READING:
BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP & TOPUP & TOP--DOWNDOWN
TSL 591:TSL 591:
LECTURE 2LECTURE 2HUDSON (CHAP 2)HUDSON (CHAP 2)
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SIGNPOSTSIGNPOST
RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESS MODELS OF READING: BOTTOMMODELS OF READING: BOTTOM--UPUP
TOPTOP--DOWNDOWN
GROUP DISCUSSIONGROUP DISCUSSION GROUP PRESENTATIONGROUP PRESENTATION
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RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING
Research on reading process can beResearch on reading process can betraced back to Cognitivetraced back to Cognitivepsychologists Jamespsychologists James CattellCattell &&
Wilhelm Wundt in the late 1870sWilhelm Wundt in the late 1870s
Reading as a means to study perceptualReading as a means to study perceptualprocesses (eye movement, wordprocesses (eye movement, wordrecognition, etc)recognition, etc)
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RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING ctd.ctd.
1908 : research moved from cognitive1908 : research moved from cognitiveprocessing to behaviorist explanatoryprocessing to behaviorist explanatorytheoriestheories
But, did not contribute much to body ofBut, did not contribute much to body ofknowledgeknowledge
Then taking after Skinnerian psychology,Then taking after Skinnerian psychology,research focused on the reading processresearch focused on the reading process
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READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
Smith (1971) described reading as Smith (1971) described reading as thethe
reduction of uncertaintyreduction of uncertainty..
That is, as we progress through a text, ourThat is, as we progress through a text, our
choices of what to select are constrained,choices of what to select are constrained,
often heavily both by features within theoften heavily both by features within the
text itself and those external to it.text itself and those external to it.
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Smith (1971) has categorized this act ofSmith (1971) has categorized this act ofreduction of uncertainty under 4 headings:reduction of uncertainty under 4 headings:
1. graphic information (1. graphic information (e.ge.g spelling)spelling)2. phonetic information (e.g. sounds)2. phonetic information (e.g. sounds)3. syntactic information (e.g. grammar)3. syntactic information (e.g. grammar)4. semantic information (meaning in communication)4. semantic information (meaning in communication)
For example:For example:
The captain ordered the mate toThe captain ordered the mate to
drop an _________drop an _________
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
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Goodman (1967)Goodman (1967) looked at reading aslooked at reading as
a psycholinguistic guessing gamea psycholinguistic guessing game
Readers make use of 3 cue system representedReaders make use of 3 cue system representedby 3 levels of language within the text:by 3 levels of language within the text:
1.1. graphophonicgraphophonic (visual & phonetic features)(visual & phonetic features)
2. syntactic (possible kind of word order)2. syntactic (possible kind of word order)3. semantic (meaning of words)3. semantic (meaning of words)First, readers make use of their knowledge of the visual &First, readers make use of their knowledge of the visual &phonetic features of English; then they draw on knowledge ofphonetic features of English; then they draw on knowledge ofsyntactic constraints, e.g. possible word order in English.syntactic constraints, e.g. possible word order in English.
Finally, readers are aware of semantic constraints related toFinally, readers are aware of semantic constraints related to
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
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GraphophonicGraphophonic cuescues hints based on soundhints based on sound--
symbol correspondences that help readerssymbol correspondences that help readersdecode and comprehend a text.decode and comprehend a text.
E.g.E.g. schemescheme vs.vs. schooschool. The blendl. The blend schsch at theat the
beginning of each word is graphically the same,beginning of each word is graphically the same,but the rest of the word is different. Perhaps thebut the rest of the word is different. Perhaps theeasiest mnemonic (memory device) for this typeeasiest mnemonic (memory device) for this typeof information is that all the information is in theof information is that all the information is in theform of graphics or visual representations toform of graphics or visual representations towhich sounds are associated.which sounds are associated.
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Syntactic cuesSyntactic cues -- hints based on syntax that helphints based on syntax that helpa reader decode and comprehend a text.a reader decode and comprehend a text.
(meaning of words)(meaning of words) -- perceive the relationshipsperceive the relationshipsamong words and phrases, sentences, andamong words and phrases, sentences, andparagraphs. They use their knowledge of theseparagraphs. They use their knowledge of theserelationships and of the language structurerelationships and of the language structure
(syntax) to help them understand the meaning of(syntax) to help them understand the meaning ofa text.a text.
E.g. "E.g. "Once upon aOnce upon a. . .". . ."
knowledge of the structure of English helps usknowledge of the structure of English helps uspredict that the next word will be "time." Thatpredict that the next word will be "time." Thatprediction is confirmed when they see the letterprediction is confirmed when they see the letter"t" at the beginning of the next word."t" at the beginning of the next word.
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Semantic cuesSemantic cues -- hints based on meaning thathints based on meaning thathelp readers decode and comprehend a text.help readers decode and comprehend a text.
Readers associate meaning with a sequence ofReaders associate meaning with a sequence of
symbols (such as a word).symbols (such as a word).
Here are some examples of semantic cues,Here are some examples of semantic cues,where the meanings of certain words depend onwhere the meanings of certain words depend on
the other words that surround them:the other words that surround them:Can youCan you runrun the store?the store?
Can youCan you runrun in the election?in the election?
Can youCan you runrun in the race?in the race?
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First, readers make use of their knowledge of theFirst, readers make use of their knowledge of thevisual & phonetic features of English; then they drawvisual & phonetic features of English; then they drawon knowledge of syntactic constraints, e.g. possibleon knowledge of syntactic constraints, e.g. possible
word order in English. Finally, readers are aware ofword order in English. Finally, readers are aware ofsemantic constraints related to knowledge of thesemantic constraints related to knowledge of themeanings of words and what kind of words collocatemeanings of words and what kind of words collocatewith otherswith others
Proficient readers use all three information systemsProficient readers use all three information systemsin a balanced way to construct meaning.in a balanced way to construct meaning.
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
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Psycholinguistic view neglected the social naturePsycholinguistic view neglected the social nature
of the reading process.of the reading process.
Sociolinguistic factorsSociolinguistic factors the way writtenthe way writtenlanguage use is affected by factors both in thelanguage use is affected by factors both in the
immediate communicativeimmediate communicative situation betweensituation between
reader and writer and in the widerreader and writer and in the widerinstitutionalinstitutional
and socioculturaland sociocultural context.context.
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
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Kress (1885:44)Kress (1885:44) -- Although from the Although from theindividuals point of view, his or her reading isindividuals point of view, his or her reading isjust a personal opinion, that personal opinion isjust a personal opinion, that personal opinion is
socially constructedsocially constructed
Thus, in taking a process view of reading, it isThus, in taking a process view of reading, it isimportant to see it as involving not justimportant to see it as involving not justpsychological processes, but also social factorpsychological processes, but also social factorrelated to our membership of interpretativerelated to our membership of interpretativecommunities.communities.
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW
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Textual crossTextual cross--reference; texts themselvesreference; texts themselvesinteract on the principle of intertextuality.interact on the principle of intertextuality.
The production and reception of a given textThe production and reception of a given textdepends on the writers and readers knowledgedepends on the writers and readers knowledgeof other texts.of other texts.
It may also be helpful to know how a particularIt may also be helpful to know how a particulartext relates to other texts by the same authortext relates to other texts by the same authorand other contemporary genres.and other contemporary genres.
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSINTERTEXTUALITYINTERTEXTUALITY
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All texts contain traces of other textsAll texts contain traces of other texts
frequently cannot be readily interpretedfrequently cannot be readily interpreted
or at least fully appreciatedor at least fully appreciated withoutwithoutreference to other texts.reference to other texts.
e.g. Academic reading materialse.g. Academic reading materials
READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSINTERTEXTUALITYINTERTEXTUALITY
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IN SHORT, READING PROCESS ISIN SHORT, READING PROCESS IS
Interactive in several ways:Interactive in several ways:
1. Interaction between the levels of1. Interaction between the levels oflanguage within the textlanguage within the text
2. Interaction between reader and writer2. Interaction between reader and writer
3. Intertextuality3. Intertextuality
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READING MODELSREADING MODELS
A reading model is a graphic attempt toA reading model is a graphic attempt todepict how an individual perceives a word,depict how an individual perceives a word,
processes a clause, and comprehends aprocesses a clause, and comprehends atext. (text. (Singer andSinger and RuddellRuddell 19851985))
3 types of models:3 types of models:
1.1. BottomBottom--upup
2.2. TopTop--downdown
3.3. InteractiveInteractive
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BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP MODEL OF READINGUP MODEL OF READING
Gough (1972):Gough (1972):
reading as a process that startsreading as a process that starts
with the printed material itselfwith the printed material itself
reading is seen as a linear processreading is seen as a linear process
PrintPrint
Every letter discriminatedEvery letter discriminated
Phonemes and Graphemes matchedPhonemes and Graphemes matched BlendingBlending PronunciationPronunciation MeaningMeaning
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BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP MODEL OF READINGUP MODEL OF READING
ctd.ctd. starts with basic skills such asstarts with basic skills such as
decoding the letters,decoding the letters,
and the combination of the lettersand the combination of the letters
to form words.to form words.
It then proceeds with a more complexIt then proceeds with a more complex
processing which runprocessing which runs through a series ofs through a series ofclauses to phrases to sentences to paragraphsclauses to phrases to sentences to paragraphsand finally, to the text as a wholeand finally, to the text as a whole
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BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP MODEL OF READINGUP MODEL OF READING
ctdctd.. It starts with the letters being recognizedIt starts with the letters being recognized
first featurefirst feature--byby--feature by a visual system,feature by a visual system,
and then transferred to a sound (phonemic)and then transferred to a sound (phonemic)system for recognition and held until the nextsystem for recognition and held until the nextletter is processed in the same way.letter is processed in the same way.
Consequently, when words areConsequently, when words are recognisedrecognised, they, they
are held in working memory until they areare held in working memory until they areprocessed for underlying meaning and finallyprocessed for underlying meaning and finallyunderstood as sentences and text as a wholeunderstood as sentences and text as a whole(Purcell(Purcell--Gates, 1997: 2).Gates, 1997: 2).
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Letters
Words
Sentences
Paragraphs
Text
Meaning
BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP MODEL OF READINGUP MODEL OF READING
ctd.ctd.
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TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OF READINGDOWN MODEL OF READING
the text is the main aspectthe text is the main aspect
of the reading processof the reading process
toptop--down models see thedown models see the
involvement of the readers priorinvolvement of the readers priorknowledge in the reading process.knowledge in the reading process.
In other words, the reader is less textIn other words, the reader is less text--bound.bound.
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TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OFDOWN MODEL OF
READINGREADING ctd.ctd. starts with the reader making predictionsstarts with the reader making predictions
about the text.about the text.
His or her predictions are guided by his or herHis or her predictions are guided by his or herprior knowledge.prior knowledge. Rather than decoding each symbol, or evenRather than decoding each symbol, or even
every word, the reader forms hypotheses aboutevery word, the reader forms hypotheses aboutthe text and then samples them to determinethe text and then samples them to determine
whether or not the hypotheses they made arewhether or not the hypotheses they made arecorrect.correct.
If the hypotheses are incorrect, the reader reIf the hypotheses are incorrect, the reader re--hypothesize and so the same process continues.hypothesize and so the same process continues.
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TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OF READINGDOWN MODEL OF READING
ctdctd.. knowledge of the linguistic form andknowledge of the linguistic form and
knowledge of the world is close and that itknowledge of the world is close and that it
has direct implications on the readinghas direct implications on the readingprocessprocess
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KnowledgeExperiencesEmotions
Readers Intentions
Meaning
TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OF READINGDOWN MODEL OF READING
ctdctd..
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The words themselves do not haveThe words themselves do not havemeaningmeaning
The reader brings personal meaning to theThe reader brings personal meaning to thetext from background experiencestext from background experiences
Reading begins with the readersReading begins with the readersknowledge, not print.knowledge, not print.
TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OF READINGDOWN MODEL OF READING
ctdctd..
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GROUP DISCUSSION (30 minutes)GROUP DISCUSSION (30 minutes)
In groups of not more than 4, discuss:In groups of not more than 4, discuss:
Strengths and weaknesses of each readingStrengths and weaknesses of each reading
modelmodel
Now that is done, draw a mind map toNow that is done, draw a mind map to
illustrate the outcome of your discussionsillustrate the outcome of your discussions
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GROUP PRESENTATION (10GROUP PRESENTATION (10
minutes)minutes) Present to the class your mind mapPresent to the class your mind map
Add info to your own mind map whenAdd info to your own mind map whennecessary during other groupsnecessary during other groupspresentationpresentation