LECTURE 2 MODELS OF READING 1

8/7/2019 LECTURE 2 MODELS OF READING 1

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MODELS OF READING:MODELS OF READING:

BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP & TOPUP & TOP--DOWNDOWN

TSL 591:TSL 591:

LECTURE 2LECTURE 2HUDSON (CHAP 2)HUDSON (CHAP 2)


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SIGNPOSTSIGNPOST

RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING

READING PROCESSREADING PROCESS MODELS OF READING: BOTTOMMODELS OF READING: BOTTOM--UPUP

TOPTOP--DOWNDOWN

GROUP DISCUSSIONGROUP DISCUSSION GROUP PRESENTATIONGROUP PRESENTATION


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RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING

Research on reading process can beResearch on reading process can betraced back to Cognitivetraced back to Cognitivepsychologists Jamespsychologists James CattellCattell &&

Wilhelm Wundt in the late 1870sWilhelm Wundt in the late 1870s

Reading as a means to study perceptualReading as a means to study perceptualprocesses (eye movement, wordprocesses (eye movement, wordrecognition, etc)recognition, etc)


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RESEARCH ON READINGRESEARCH ON READING ctd.ctd.

1908 : research moved from cognitive1908 : research moved from cognitiveprocessing to behaviorist explanatoryprocessing to behaviorist explanatorytheoriestheories

But, did not contribute much to body ofBut, did not contribute much to body ofknowledgeknowledge

Then taking after Skinnerian psychology,Then taking after Skinnerian psychology,research focused on the reading processresearch focused on the reading process


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READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWPSYCHOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW

Smith (1971) described reading as Smith (1971) described reading as thethe

reduction of uncertaintyreduction of uncertainty..

That is, as we progress through a text, ourThat is, as we progress through a text, our

choices of what to select are constrained,choices of what to select are constrained,

often heavily both by features within theoften heavily both by features within the

text itself and those external to it.text itself and those external to it.


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Smith (1971) has categorized this act ofSmith (1971) has categorized this act ofreduction of uncertainty under 4 headings:reduction of uncertainty under 4 headings:

1. graphic information (1. graphic information (e.ge.g spelling)spelling)2. phonetic information (e.g. sounds)2. phonetic information (e.g. sounds)3. syntactic information (e.g. grammar)3. syntactic information (e.g. grammar)4. semantic information (meaning in communication)4. semantic information (meaning in communication)

For example:For example:

The captain ordered the mate toThe captain ordered the mate to

drop an _________drop an _________



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Goodman (1967)Goodman (1967) looked at reading aslooked at reading as

a psycholinguistic guessing gamea psycholinguistic guessing game

Readers make use of 3 cue system representedReaders make use of 3 cue system representedby 3 levels of language within the text:by 3 levels of language within the text:

1.1. graphophonicgraphophonic (visual & phonetic features)(visual & phonetic features)

2. syntactic (possible kind of word order)2. syntactic (possible kind of word order)3. semantic (meaning of words)3. semantic (meaning of words)First, readers make use of their knowledge of the visual &First, readers make use of their knowledge of the visual &phonetic features of English; then they draw on knowledge ofphonetic features of English; then they draw on knowledge ofsyntactic constraints, e.g. possible word order in English.syntactic constraints, e.g. possible word order in English.

Finally, readers are aware of semantic constraints related toFinally, readers are aware of semantic constraints related to



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GraphophonicGraphophonic cuescues hints based on soundhints based on sound--

symbol correspondences that help readerssymbol correspondences that help readersdecode and comprehend a text.decode and comprehend a text.

E.g.E.g. schemescheme vs.vs. schooschool. The blendl. The blend schsch at theat the

beginning of each word is graphically the same,beginning of each word is graphically the same,but the rest of the word is different. Perhaps thebut the rest of the word is different. Perhaps theeasiest mnemonic (memory device) for this typeeasiest mnemonic (memory device) for this typeof information is that all the information is in theof information is that all the information is in theform of graphics or visual representations toform of graphics or visual representations towhich sounds are associated.which sounds are associated.


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Syntactic cuesSyntactic cues -- hints based on syntax that helphints based on syntax that helpa reader decode and comprehend a text.a reader decode and comprehend a text.

(meaning of words)(meaning of words) -- perceive the relationshipsperceive the relationshipsamong words and phrases, sentences, andamong words and phrases, sentences, andparagraphs. They use their knowledge of theseparagraphs. They use their knowledge of theserelationships and of the language structurerelationships and of the language structure

(syntax) to help them understand the meaning of(syntax) to help them understand the meaning ofa text.a text.

E.g. "E.g. "Once upon aOnce upon a. . .". . ."

knowledge of the structure of English helps usknowledge of the structure of English helps uspredict that the next word will be "time." Thatpredict that the next word will be "time." Thatprediction is confirmed when they see the letterprediction is confirmed when they see the letter"t" at the beginning of the next word."t" at the beginning of the next word.


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Semantic cuesSemantic cues -- hints based on meaning thathints based on meaning thathelp readers decode and comprehend a text.help readers decode and comprehend a text.

Readers associate meaning with a sequence ofReaders associate meaning with a sequence of

symbols (such as a word).symbols (such as a word).

Here are some examples of semantic cues,Here are some examples of semantic cues,where the meanings of certain words depend onwhere the meanings of certain words depend on

the other words that surround them:the other words that surround them:Can youCan you runrun the store?the store?

Can youCan you runrun in the election?in the election?

Can youCan you runrun in the race?in the race?


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First, readers make use of their knowledge of theFirst, readers make use of their knowledge of thevisual & phonetic features of English; then they drawvisual & phonetic features of English; then they drawon knowledge of syntactic constraints, e.g. possibleon knowledge of syntactic constraints, e.g. possible

word order in English. Finally, readers are aware ofword order in English. Finally, readers are aware ofsemantic constraints related to knowledge of thesemantic constraints related to knowledge of themeanings of words and what kind of words collocatemeanings of words and what kind of words collocatewith otherswith others

Proficient readers use all three information systemsProficient readers use all three information systemsin a balanced way to construct meaning.in a balanced way to construct meaning.



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Psycholinguistic view neglected the social naturePsycholinguistic view neglected the social nature

of the reading process.of the reading process.

Sociolinguistic factorsSociolinguistic factors the way writtenthe way writtenlanguage use is affected by factors both in thelanguage use is affected by factors both in the

immediate communicativeimmediate communicative situation betweensituation between

reader and writer and in the widerreader and writer and in the widerinstitutionalinstitutional

and socioculturaland sociocultural context.context.

READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW


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Kress (1885:44)Kress (1885:44) -- Although from the Although from theindividuals point of view, his or her reading isindividuals point of view, his or her reading isjust a personal opinion, that personal opinion isjust a personal opinion, that personal opinion is

socially constructedsocially constructed

Thus, in taking a process view of reading, it isThus, in taking a process view of reading, it isimportant to see it as involving not justimportant to see it as involving not justpsychological processes, but also social factorpsychological processes, but also social factorrelated to our membership of interpretativerelated to our membership of interpretativecommunities.communities.

READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEWSOCIOLINGUISTICS POINT OF VIEW


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Textual crossTextual cross--reference; texts themselvesreference; texts themselvesinteract on the principle of intertextuality.interact on the principle of intertextuality.

The production and reception of a given textThe production and reception of a given textdepends on the writers and readers knowledgedepends on the writers and readers knowledgeof other texts.of other texts.

It may also be helpful to know how a particularIt may also be helpful to know how a particulartext relates to other texts by the same authortext relates to other texts by the same authorand other contemporary genres.and other contemporary genres.

READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSINTERTEXTUALITYINTERTEXTUALITY


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All texts contain traces of other textsAll texts contain traces of other texts

frequently cannot be readily interpretedfrequently cannot be readily interpreted

or at least fully appreciatedor at least fully appreciated withoutwithoutreference to other texts.reference to other texts.

e.g. Academic reading materialse.g. Academic reading materials

READING PROCESSREADING PROCESSINTERTEXTUALITYINTERTEXTUALITY


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IN SHORT, READING PROCESS ISIN SHORT, READING PROCESS IS

Interactive in several ways:Interactive in several ways:

1. Interaction between the levels of1. Interaction between the levels oflanguage within the textlanguage within the text

2. Interaction between reader and writer2. Interaction between reader and writer

3. Intertextuality3. Intertextuality


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READING MODELSREADING MODELS

A reading model is a graphic attempt toA reading model is a graphic attempt todepict how an individual perceives a word,depict how an individual perceives a word,

processes a clause, and comprehends aprocesses a clause, and comprehends atext. (text. (Singer andSinger and RuddellRuddell 19851985))

3 types of models:3 types of models:

1.1. BottomBottom--upup

2.2. TopTop--downdown

3.3. InteractiveInteractive


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BOTTOMBOTTOM--UP MODEL OF READINGUP MODEL OF READING

Gough (1972):Gough (1972):

reading as a process that startsreading as a process that starts

with the printed material itselfwith the printed material itself

reading is seen as a linear processreading is seen as a linear process

PrintPrint

Every letter discriminatedEvery letter discriminated

Phonemes and Graphemes matchedPhonemes and Graphemes matched BlendingBlending PronunciationPronunciation MeaningMeaning


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ctd.ctd. starts with basic skills such asstarts with basic skills such as

decoding the letters,decoding the letters,

and the combination of the lettersand the combination of the letters

to form words.to form words.

It then proceeds with a more complexIt then proceeds with a more complex

processing which runprocessing which runs through a series ofs through a series ofclauses to phrases to sentences to paragraphsclauses to phrases to sentences to paragraphsand finally, to the text as a wholeand finally, to the text as a whole


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ctdctd.. It starts with the letters being recognizedIt starts with the letters being recognized

first featurefirst feature--byby--feature by a visual system,feature by a visual system,

and then transferred to a sound (phonemic)and then transferred to a sound (phonemic)system for recognition and held until the nextsystem for recognition and held until the nextletter is processed in the same way.letter is processed in the same way.

Consequently, when words areConsequently, when words are recognisedrecognised, they, they

are held in working memory until they areare held in working memory until they areprocessed for underlying meaning and finallyprocessed for underlying meaning and finallyunderstood as sentences and text as a wholeunderstood as sentences and text as a whole(Purcell(Purcell--Gates, 1997: 2).Gates, 1997: 2).


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Letters

Words

Sentences

Paragraphs

Text

Meaning


ctd.ctd.


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TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OF READINGDOWN MODEL OF READING

the text is the main aspectthe text is the main aspect

of the reading processof the reading process

toptop--down models see thedown models see the

involvement of the readers priorinvolvement of the readers priorknowledge in the reading process.knowledge in the reading process.

In other words, the reader is less textIn other words, the reader is less text--bound.bound.


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TOPTOP--DOWN MODEL OFDOWN MODEL OF

READINGREADING ctd.ctd. starts with the reader making predictionsstarts with the reader making predictions

about the text.about the text.

His or her predictions are guided by his or herHis or her predictions are guided by his or herprior knowledge.prior knowledge. Rather than decoding each symbol, or evenRather than decoding each symbol, or even

every word, the reader forms hypotheses aboutevery word, the reader forms hypotheses aboutthe text and then samples them to determinethe text and then samples them to determine

whether or not the hypotheses they made arewhether or not the hypotheses they made arecorrect.correct.

If the hypotheses are incorrect, the reader reIf the hypotheses are incorrect, the reader re--hypothesize and so the same process continues.hypothesize and so the same process continues.


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ctdctd.. knowledge of the linguistic form andknowledge of the linguistic form and

knowledge of the world is close and that itknowledge of the world is close and that it

has direct implications on the readinghas direct implications on the readingprocessprocess


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KnowledgeExperiencesEmotions

Readers Intentions

Meaning


ctdctd..


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The words themselves do not haveThe words themselves do not havemeaningmeaning

The reader brings personal meaning to theThe reader brings personal meaning to thetext from background experiencestext from background experiences

Reading begins with the readersReading begins with the readersknowledge, not print.knowledge, not print.


ctdctd..


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GROUP DISCUSSION (30 minutes)GROUP DISCUSSION (30 minutes)

In groups of not more than 4, discuss:In groups of not more than 4, discuss:

Strengths and weaknesses of each readingStrengths and weaknesses of each reading

modelmodel

Now that is done, draw a mind map toNow that is done, draw a mind map to

illustrate the outcome of your discussionsillustrate the outcome of your discussions


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GROUP PRESENTATION (10GROUP PRESENTATION (10

minutes)minutes) Present to the class your mind mapPresent to the class your mind map

Add info to your own mind map whenAdd info to your own mind map whennecessary during other groupsnecessary during other groupspresentationpresentation

LECTURE 2 MODELS OF READING 1

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