Changinggenderednormsaboutwomen

DrSamanWaqar

“Thegoalofachievingequalitybetweenwomenandmenisbasedonprinciplesofhumanrightsandsocialjustice.Empowermentofwomenismorethanaprerequisiteforachievingpeoplecentereddevelopment…..Theabolitionofpovertycannotbeachieveduntilmenandwomenhaveequalaccesstotheresourcesandservicesnecessarytoachievetheirindividualpotentialandfulfiltheirobligationstohousehold,communityand,morebroadlysociety……..’’

Gender• Referstothesociallydefinedrolesandresponsibilitiesofmen,womenandboysandgirls.Maleandfemalegenderrolesarelearnedfromfamiliesandcommunitiesandvarybycultureandgeneration.

Genderequality• Meanstheabsenceofdiscrimination,onthebasisofaperson’ssex,inopportunities,intheallocationofresourcesorbenefitsorinaccesstoservices.

Genderednorms• Arepowerful,pervasiveattitudesaboutgender-basedsocialrolesandbehaviorsthataredeeplyembeddedinsocialstructures.

• Gendernormsoperatewithinfamilies,communities,neighborhoodsandwidersociety,interactingtoproduceoutcomeswhicharefrequentlyinequitableandproducingdynamicsthatareoftenriskyforwomenandgirls.

• Risksincludeviolenceagainstwomenandgirls,discrimination,denialofeducation,illiteracy,poverty,economicandsocialinjustice,honorkillings,sexualassaults,femalefeticide,restrictionsonwomen’sphysicalmobilityandeducation,andpoliticaldisenfranchisement.

GlobalMagnitude

• 70%oftheworld’s1.3billionpeoplelivinginpovertyarewomen.

• Womenrepresenttwothirdsoftheworld’s960millionnon-literatepeople.

• Inmostdevelopingcountries,boysenrolmentinschoolexceedsthatofgirls.

• Approximatelytwothirdsofthe130millionchildrenofschoolagewhodonotorcannotgotoschoolaregirls.

• Globally,violenceagainstwomencausesmoredeathsanddisabilityamongwomenaged15to44thandocancer,malaria,trafficaccidentsorwar.

• Genderednormsinhealthmanifestinhouseholdsandcommunitiesonthebasisofvaluesandattitudesabouttherelativeworthorimportanceofgirlsversusboysandmenversuswomen;aboutwhohasresponsibilityfordifferenthousehold/communityneedsandroles;whohastherighttomakedifferentdecisions;whoensuresthathousehold/communityorderismaintainedandwhohasfinalauthorityinrelationtotheinnerworldofthefamily/communityanditsouterrelationswithsociety.

• Genderbiasedvaluestranslateintopracticesandbehaviorthataffectpeople’sdailylives,aswellaskeydeterminantsofwellnessandequitysuchasnutrition,acknowledgementofhealthproblems,health-seekingbehavior,andaccesstohealthservices.

• Healthequityandwellnesscanbeaffectedthroughthepreferredsexofchildren,andpracticessurroundingcomingofageandmenarche,adolescence,marriage,childbirth,widowhoodanddivorce.

HowSexandGenderIdentityDevelop

1. Sexisgeneticallydeterminedatconception.2. Hormonessecretedbyglandsdirectedby

thegeneticconfigurationproducephysicaldifferences.

3. Societydefines,prescribes,andreinforcesthegender-roleaspectofsexualidentity.

ContributingFactorsBiologicalContributions• Everyhumanstartswiththepotentialofbecomingeithermaleorfemale.

EnvironmentalContributions• Onceababyisborn,societybeginstoteachtheinfantitspropergenderroleandreinforceitssexualidentity

GenderDifferences• Whenmenandwomenchoosegenderrolesforthemselves,especiallywithinarelationshiplikemarriage,theirchancesforsuccessandfulfillmentincrease.

ExploitationCausedByGenderIdeology• Malegenderbias

Apreferencefoundinsomesocietiesforsonsratherthandaughters.

• FemaleinfanticideThekillingoffemalechildren

• NutritionaldeprivationAformofchildabuseinvolvingwithholdingfood;canretardlearning,physicaldevelopment,orsocialadjustment

• HonorKillingsAeuphemismreferringtoapracticefoundinvariouscultureswherebywomenareputtodeathatthehandsoftheirownfamilymembersbecausetheyarethoughttohavedishonoredthefamily.

• DowryDeathThekillingofawifebyherin-lawsifthewife’sparentsfailtopayadditionaldowry.

• ViolenceAgainstWomenPhysicalviolenceagainstwomen,continuestobeaprobleminmanypartsoftheworld.

The‘genderrevolutions’

a.Contraceptiverevolution:• Improvementsinsafetyofcontraception.• IntroductionofhormonalcontraceptionandfarmoreefficientIUCDs.

• Changesinacceptancelevels.

b.Educationalrevolution:• Generalimprovementsineducationforall.• Women’sincreasedaccesstobetter,longereducation.

• Now,inmanypartsoftheworld,womenarebettereducatedthanmen.

• Feedsintogenderempowerment.

c.Workrevolution• Questioningthesolebreadwinnerhouseholdmodelandthegenderdivisionoflabourthataccompaniedit.

• Increasing,andimprovingfemalelabourforceparticipation.

•Educationandfertility•Incomeandfertility•HDIandfertility

Negativerelationships

Butan‘incomplete’revolution?

a.Incomplete‘public’revolutions• Inmanysettings:– Femaleeducationpoorer.–Discriminationathomeandatwork.– Socialandculturalbarrierstoempowerment.–Underinvestmentinfemaleopportunities.–Women’svaluelower.

• Ofteninnegativefeedbackwithpooreconomicgrowthandotherdevelopmentissues.

• Highfertilityandstalledfertilitydeclineinmanysettings

• Incursionsofwomen’s(reproductive)rightsandopportunities

• Violenceagainstwomen• Sexselectionbias–Abortions,infanticide– Squeezeonmarriage

Consequences

b.Incomplete‘private’revolutions• Eveninthemostdevelopedcountries,changesinwomen’sdomesticroleshavenotcaughtupwithchangesintheirpublicroles.

• Opportunitycostsofchildbearing.

Participationinlabourforce

• Newandgrowingopportunities– ‘Thelifeoptionsofyoungwomenhavewidened’.

• Incomeinequalitydecreasing.• Highlycompetitiveeconomiesandgovernments.

The‘package’ofmaritalroles

• Childbearingandrearing.• Carefortheelderly.• Thewatchfulgazeofthe‘in-laws’• Heavyhouseholdtaskload.• Responsibilityforeducationalsuccessofchildren– Includingextra-curricularactivities.

• Possibleco-residencewithparents-in-law.

Explaininggenderdifferencesinhealth

a.Artefactexplanation•Someresearchersarguethatthedifferencesbetweenmenandwomenarean"artefact,"ratherthenreal• Someresearchersarguethatwomen'shealthstatusisnotanyworsethanmen's,womenaremorelikely:– totakenoticeoftheirsymptoms.– areinclinedtoseeaphysician.– seektreatment.– aremorewillingtorespondtohealthsurveys.

b.BiologicalandGeneticcausation• Biologicalandgeneticdifferences(sexchromosomesandhormones)havealsobeenusedtoexplainmorbidityandmortalitydifferencesbetweenmenandwomen.• Itisalsoarguedthatfemales,duetotheirbiologicalandgeneticconstitution,reproductiveanatomy,andphysiology,maybeendowedwithresistancetocertaindiseases.

c.Socialcausationexplanation•Socialandeconomicinequalitiesandsociallyconstructedgenderroleshaveimportantconsequencesformen'sandwomen'slivesandproducevariationsinhealthandillnesspatterns.•Thisinequalityproducenegativehealthoutcomesandpoorhealthstatusforwomen.•Malesocializationandlifestylesexposementoriskier,aggressive,anddangerousbehavior,forinstance,menhavehighermortalityduetomotorvehicleaccidents.

•Menarealsomorelikelytoindulgeinexcessivesmoking,drinking,andsubstanceabuse,withnegativehealthconsequences.•Ontheotherhanddomesticworkresponsibilityandacaringroleinthefamily,combinedwiththeincreasingparticipationofwomeninthepaidworkforce,maycontributetoelevatedstresslevelsamongwomen.

ExplainingGenderDifferences–TheoreticalPerspectives

a.DifferentialexposuretheoryThistheoryemphasizestheextenttowhichmenandwomenareexposedtoparticularstressors.

b.DifferentialvulnerabilitytheoryThisfocusesonmen'sandwomen'sresponsestothosestressors.

Differentialexposuretheory• Accordingtothis,womenexperiencehardshipsandstressorstoagreaterextentthandomenbecauseoftheirdisadvantagedpositionrelativetomenintheworkforceandtheinequitabledivisionofworkinthehousehold.

• Marriedwomeninparticularexperienceworkoverloadduetoworkoutsidehomeandathome.Thisoverloadproducehigherpsychologicaldistress.

• Thistheoryarguesthat,theeffectsofparticularstressorsdifferformenandwomenforavarietyofreasons.

• Forinstance,menandwomenmayattachdifferentmeaningsandsignificancetopaidworkandfamilyrolesbecauseofdifferentnormativeexpectationsaboutworkandfamilyresponsibilities.

Differentialvulnerabilitytheory• Socioculturalbeliefsandnormativeexpectationsmayaffectmen'sandwomen'sselfevaluationsasparentsandspouses.

• Womenaremorelikelythanmentoexperienceroleconflictandtoseetheirworkandfamilyrolesascompetingratherthanintegral,andthustheyexperiencemoreguiltandstressthanmen.

• Theconsequencesofhouseworkandemploymentdifferformenandwomenandproducedifferenthealthoutcomes.

• Patternsofhealthandillnesshaveeverythingtodowithwomen'slives,work,employmentopportunities,lifeexperience,andsocialandeconomiccircumstances.

• However,itshouldbenotedthatsocial,economic,andotherdisadvantagesdonotaccruetoallwomenequally.

• Aswomenarenotahomogeneousgroupamongthemselves,rather,arediversifiedandstratifiedbyclass,race,andethnicity.

• Thesocialpatterningofhealthanddiseasearealsodifferentiallyexperiencedbyvarioussubgroups.

• Racialminoritywomenoftenexperienceillhealthbecauseofunhealthyworkenvironmentsandharsherworkingconditionsinareassuchasfarmlabor,textilesandsewing,anddomesticwork.

OtherTheories

a.Genderschematheory• Referstothetheorythatchildrenlearnaboutwhatitmeanstobemaleandfemalefromthecultureinwhichtheylive.Accordingtothistheory,childrenadjusttheirbehaviortofitinwiththegendernormsandexpectationsoftheirculture.

• Malesandfemalesareseenaspolaropposites,withmalespossessingexclusivelyinstrumentaltraits(aggressiveness,dominance,competitiveness,self-confidence)andfemalespossessingexclusivelyexpressiveones(beingemotional,talkative,nurturing)

b.CognitiveDevelopmentalTheory

• Genderidentityispostulatedasthebasicorganizerandregulatorofchildren'sgenderlearning.Childrendevelopthestereotypicconceptionsofgenderfromwhattheyseeandheararoundthem.

• Oncetheyachievegenderconstancy-- thebeliefthattheirowngenderisfixedandirreversible-- theypositivelyvaluetheirgenderidentityandseektobehaveonlyinwaysthatarecongruentwiththatconception.

Sociallearningtheory• Thistheorypositsthatportionsofanindividual'sknowledgeacquisitioncanbedirectlyrelatedtoobservingotherswithinthecontextofsocialinteractions,experiences,andoutsidemediainfluences.

Frameworkforhealthpromotingactionsandcapacitybuilding.

• Downstreaminterventionsarethosefocusedonchangeorsupportforindividuals;

• Midstreaminterventionsarethosethatfocusatpsychosociallevelsincludingsocialmarketing,whetherinorganizationsorcommunities.

• Upstreaminterventionstakeapopulationfocusandarealsointendedtochangemechanismstosupportnotionssuchasjustice,rightsandsocialchange.Upstreaminterventionsinvolvepolicyapproachesthatcanaffectlargepopulationsthroughregulation,increasedaccess,oreconomicincentives.

Levelsofpublichealthinterventions

• Universalinterventions- approachesaimedatlargegroupsorthegeneralpopulation,andoftenfocusedonriskfactorsorchangingnorms.Examplesmightincludecurriculadeliveredtoallpupilsinaschoolorcommunity-widecampaigns,orchangesinpolicyorlegislation.

• Selectedortargetedinterventions-approachesaimedatthoseconsideredtobeataheightenedrisk,usuallypayingattentiontosocial,economicandenvironmentalfactors

andmayincludestrategiestoincreaseaccesstoservicesincludinghealth,educationandsocialsupport.

• Indicatedinterventions- approachesaimedatthosewhohaveademonstratedproblem,forexample,programsforperpetratorsofviolenceagainstwomen.

• Itisnecessarytobuildacultureofwomen’srightsthatarticulatetheintrinsicvalueofgirlsandwomenandtheirrightstofreedomsandopportunities.

• Todenywomenopportunitiesforlandownership,education,orsocialandeconomicparticipationistocreatecapabilitydeprivationwhichisaformofsocialexclusion.

• Theprocessesthroughwhichwomenarewhollyorpartiallyexcluded,activelyorpassively,fromfullparticipationinlabormarkets,educationalsystems,and/orsocialparticipation,arediscriminatoryandadenialofrights.

• Inturn,freedomfromdiscriminationandeconomicparticipationarekeydeterminantsofmentalhealthandwellbeing.

• Tochangegendernormsatthelevelofhouseholdandcommunity,effectiveprogramdesignrequiressimultaneousmultileveldesign,thatiscarefullytargetedtoinfluencetheunderlyingdeterminantsoftheproblem.Singlelevelprogramshavelittleeffectonchanginggendernorms.

• Withoutgendersensitiveandrightssensitivecountrylevelprotocolsandindicatorstoguidepolicies,programsandservicedelivery,interventionsoperateinavacuum.