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LECTURE 9Role of leaders and the parliament with regardto national consensus on public policy issues
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Leadership
DefinitionsThe ability of a superior to influence the
behaviour of subordinates and persuade them
to follow a particular course of action.(Barnard 1938)
Leadership:
is a major way in which people change theminds of others and move organizations forward
to
accomplish identified goals.
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Nature of Leadership
Effective leadership is a key factor in the life andsuccess of an organization.
Leadership is the ultimate act which brings to
success all of the potent potential that is in anorganization and its people.
Leaders propose new paradigms when old ones
lose their effectiveness. Leadership transforms potential into reality.
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Leadership Theories
Over time, a number of theories of leadershiphave been proposed, including:
1. Great Man
2. Trait3. Contingency
4. Situational
5. Behavioural6. Participative
7. Management
8. Relationship
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Great Man Theory
It assume that the capacity for leadership is
inherentthat great leaders are born, notmade. These theories often portray great
leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to riseto leadership when needed. The term "Great
Man" was used because, at the time,
leadership was thought of primarily as a male
quality, especially in terms of military
leadership.
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Trait Theory
Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, traittheories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traitsthat make them bettersuited to leadership. Trait theoriesoften identify particular personality or behaviouralcharacteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like
extraversion(more purified), self-confidence, and courage areall traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.
If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do weexplain people who possess those qualities but are notleaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using traittheories to explain leadership. There are plenty of people who
possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yetmany of these people never seek out positions of leadership.
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Contingency Theory
Contingency theories of leadership focus on
particular variablesrelated to the environment
that might determine which particular style of
leadership is best suited for the situation.According to this theory, no leadership style is
best in all situations. Success depends upon a
number of variables, including the leadership
style, qualities of the followers and aspects of
the situation.
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Situational Leadership
Situational theories propose that leaders choosethe best course of action based uponsituational variables.Different styles of
leadership may be more appropriate for certaintypes of decision-making. For example, in asituation where the leader is the mostknowledgeable and experienced member of agroup, an authoritarian stylemight be mostappropriate. In other instances where groupmembers are skilled experts, a democraticstylewould be more effective.
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Behavioural Theory
Behavioral theories of leadership are based
upon the belief that great leaders are made,
not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great
Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism, thisleadership theory focuses on the actions of
leaders not on mental qualities or internal
states. According to this theory, people
can learnto become leaders through teaching
and observation.
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htmhttp://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm8/13/2019 Leadership Role in State - 9
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Participative Theory
Participative leadership theories suggest that the
ideal leadership style is one that takes the
input of others into account. These leaders
encourage participation and contributions fromgroup members and help group members feel
more relevant and committed to the decision-
making process. In participative theories,
however, the leader retains the right to allow
the input of others.
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Management Theory
Management theories, also known
as transactional theories, focus on the role of
supervision, organization and group
performance. These theories base leadershipon a system of rewards and punishments.
Managerial theories are often used in
business; when employees are successful,
they are rewarded; when they fail, they are
reprimanded or punished. Learn more about
theories of transactional leadership.
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Relationship Theory
Relationship theories, also known as
transformational theories, focus upon the
connections formed between leaders and
followers. Transformational leaders motivateand inspire people by helping group members
see the importance and higher good of the
task. These leaders are focused on the
performance of group members, but also want
each person to fulfil his or her potential.
Leaders with this style often have high ethical
and moralstandards.
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Leadership Qualities
There are some leadership qualities which a leader should
have:
Visionary
Honest Leading from the front
Ideological Approach
Man of Principles
Stead fast
Initiative Takers
Strong Character
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Styles of Leadership and their
CharacteristicsCharismat ic leadersh ip
It is widely believed that charismatic leaders havethe following personal characteristics:
they have extremely high confidence;
they show obedience and strong conviction oftheir beliefs;
they have a compelling sense of vision andpurpose;
they communicate this vision clearly to followersto identify with;
they consistently focus on and pursue their vision;
they know their own strengths and capitalise on
them
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Transact ional leadersh ip :
Style of leadership that is based on the setting of clear objectivesand goals for the followers as well as the use of either punishmentsor rewards in order to encourage compliance with these goals.Transactional leadership styles are more concerned with maintaining thenormal flow of operations.
Transactional leadership can be described as "keeping the ship afloat."
Transactional leaders use disciplinary power and an array of incentives tomotivate employees to perform at their best. The term "transactional" refersto the fact that this type of leader essentially motivates subordinates byexchanging rewards for performance.
A transactional leader generally does not look ahead in strategically guidingan organization to a position of market leadership; instead, these managersare solely concerned with making sure everything flows smoothly today.
transactional leadership is characterized by the following factors:
Contingency rewardswhere the leader rewards followers for attainingcommon goals and objectives. The interaction between leaders andfollowers is positive reinforcement based on the exchange of desired items;
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Contd.......(Transactional
Leadership)
Management by exceptionwhere the leader
intervenes only when mistakes are made or
when problems occur;
Laissez Fairewhere the leadership factor isabsent or not available. Here decisions are
delayed not made or happen by accident.
There is no intervention of any kind.
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A transformational leader goes beyond managing day-
to-day operations and crafts strategies for taking his
company, department or work team to the next level of
performance and success. Transformational leadership
styles focus on team-building, motivation andcollaboration with employees at different levels of an
organization to accomplish change for the better.
Transformational leaders set goals and incentives to
push their subordinates to higher performance levels,while providing opportunities for personal and
professional growth for each employee.
Transformational leadership is characterized by the
following factors:
Charisma - trusted and respected followers want to
Transfo rmat ional leadersh ip
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Contd..........(Transformational
Leadership) Inspirational motivation- the leader uses symbols and
appeals to the followers emotions to reinforceawareness and understanding in the pursuit of shared
goals.
Intellectual stimulation -followers are encouraged to
question their old ways of doing things, their values and
beliefs (including those of the leader and the
organization) and to think of new ways to meet
challenges. Individualized considerations -followers are treated
according to their needs which may be raised to a higher
level. They are helped to meet challenges and to
become more effective in attaining goals.
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Parliament
Parliaments vary in size, in how members are
elected, how long they hold office, in their ways
of relating to political parties and to constituents,
in their relations with executive powers, in theirresponsibilities in lawmaking and budgeting, in
how they oversee executive spending and
activities, and in a dozen other ways.
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The Role of Parliament
The role of parliament in government varies
depending a number of factors. Four factors are
imp: the type of political and electoral system,
formal legislative powers, political will and politicalspace, and technical capacity.
The question of the role of parliament in
government has become even more important to
understand in the past decade as more and morecountries are making a transition to democratic
forms of government. These countries that are
making the transition are faced with a number of
new challenges as well as opportunities.
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Functions of Parliament
There are three functions common to parliamentsin democracies;
1. Representation,
2. Lawmaking
3. Oversight
Parliaments represent the diversity of individuals
and groups in society; as the supremelawmaking institution in a nation they make therules by which society is governed; and theyare designed to oversee executive spending
and performance.
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Representation
chief executives, who represent entire nations,
or bureaucrats and judges, whose
responsibility it is to carry out and interpret the
law impartially toward all citizens, legislatorsare responsible for representing the
differences in society, and for bringing these
differences into the policy-making arena.
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Contd............(Representation)
Democratic parliaments are the most
transparent and accessible of the three
branches of government. Most parliaments
open their plenary sessions to the public andto the press, and a growing number al-low
citizens to attend committee meetings.
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Law Making
Legislatures is to make laws, the rules that
govern society. Effective legislatures not only
represent the differences in society, they must
also reach agreements on policy, taxing and
spending with which groups and individuals
generally agree. This is difficult under the best
of circumstances, but it becomes more so indeeply divided societies and in poor nations
with few re-sources to distribute.
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Oversight
Oversight is one of the legislatures check andbalance functions, through which it seeks toensure that programs are carried out legally,
effectively, and for the purposes for which theywere intended. In practicing oversight,
parliaments look back on government spending
and activities to determine whether money wasspent appropriately, and to ask value formoney questions.
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Contd.......(Oversight)
Legislative oversight tools include:
The question period for ministers
The use of public accounts committees
Investigatory and departmental committees
Auditors general
ac ors n uenc ng ow
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ac ors n uenc ng owlegislatures
carry out their functions Pol i t ical and electo ral systems
Pol it ical systems
The degree of separation or unity between the
legislative and executive branches is perhapsthe major factor in determining legislativestrength and independence. Specifically, thecleaner separation between executive and
legislative powers in presidential systemsencourages presidential legislatures to playmore independent lawmaking and oversightroles than their parliamentary counterparts.
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Parliamentary System
In parliamentary systems, the parliamentarymajority party or coalition selects the chiefexecutive from among its members. Cabinetmembers are also named from theparliamentary majority. This unity between thelegislature and executive is a disincentive forthe legislature to develop a strong committeesystem or deep policy expertise, which couldbe used to challenge the executive. A loss ofsupport or vote of no confidence in thegovernment results in both the governmentand parliament leaving office.
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In presidential systems, by contrast, the
president and legislature are elected
separately, from different constituencies and
often for different terms. The president selects
the cabinet from outside parliament. Termlengths for presidents and parliaments are
fixed and the fates of the legislature and
president are not intertwined as they are in
parliamentary systems. With the governmentthus divided, parliament has incentives to
develop strong, effective committees and to
play a competitive lawmaking role.
Presidential System
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Elec toral systems
MPs in every nation must win elections to getinto, and to stay, in office. But the systemthrough which they compete will affect the waythey relate to constituents, and theirindependence once in office. MPs elected insingle-member districts (also called plurality-majority, or constituency-based), whereconstituents in a geographic area vote directlyfor a candidate and the candidate receivingthe most votes wins, will likely be moreindependent and responsive to constituentsthan MPs elected through proportionalrepresentation systems.
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Parliament of Pakistan
The Parliament of Pakistan, officially termed the
MajliseShoora (Urdu: Majlis-e r);is the federal and supreme legislative body of
Pakistan. It is a bicamera(Bicameralism is anessential and defining feature of the classical
notion of Mixed Government)l federal legislature
that consists of the Senate and the National
Assembly.Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the
Parliament of Pakistan shall consist of president
and the two houses known as the National
Assembly and the Senate.
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National Assembly Lower house of the parliament. The National Assembly has
342 seats, 272 of which are directly elected, 60 are reservedfor women and a further 10 for religious minorities.
Countrys sovereign legislative body. Five-year term on the basis of adult franchise and one-man
one-vote.
The tenure of the National Assembly also comes to an end ifdissolved on the advice of the Prime Minister or by thepresident in his discretion under the Constitution.
The National Assembly makes laws for the Federation inrespect of the powers enumerated in the Federal Legislative
list. Through its debates, adjournment motion, question hourand Standing Committees.
Only the National Assembly, through its Public AccountsCommittee
scrutinizes public spending and exercises control of expenditureincurred by the government.
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Contd....(National Assembly) The National Assembly has an edge over the Senate by legislating
exclusively on money matters. The bill relating to the Federal Legislative List can be originated in
either house. If the house passed the bill through majority vote, itshall be transmitted to the other house. If the other house passes itwithout amendment, it shall be presented to the president for assent.
If the bill, transmitted to the other house, is notpassed within ninety
days or rejected, it shall be considered in ajointsitting to besummoned by the president on the request of the house in which thebill was originated. If the bill is passed in the joint sitting, with orwithout amendments, by the votes of majority of the members of thetwo houses, it shall be presented to the president for assent.
If the bill is presented to the president for assent, he shall assent to
the bill in not later than tendays. If it is not a money bill, thepresident may return the bill to the Majlis-e-Shoora with a messagerequesting that the bill be reconsidered and that an amendmentspecified in the message be considered. The Majlis-e-Shoora shallreconsider the bill in a joint sitting. If the bill is passed again, with orwithout amendment, by vote of the majority of the members presentand voting, it shall be presented to the president and the president
shall give his assent within ten days.
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Contd....(National Assembly) If the Federal Government proclaims State of Emergency in any
province, the power to legislate about that province is vested in theParliament. But the bills passed by the Parliament during the Stateof Emergency, shall cease to be in force after the expiration of sixmonths from the date Emergency is lifted.
In the formation of the Cabinet the major portion (75%), goes toNational Assembly while the rest (25%) are taken from the Senate.
In this respect a resolution for a vote of no-confidence is moved bynot less than 20%of the total membership of the National Assembly.
the removal or impeachment of the president, not less than one-halfof the total membership of either house may give in writing itsintention to do so, to the Speaker National Assembly. if the resolutionis passed by the votes of not less than two thirds of the total
membership of the Parliament, the president shall cease to holdoffice.
The eighteenth amendment revised Article142(d) of the constitutionto explicitly limit the National Assemblys legislative authority tosubjects in the federal list, unless specifically authorized by aprovincial assembly under Article 144.
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Senate The main purpose for the creation of the
Senate of Pakistan was to give equalrepresentation to all the federating units sincethe membership of the National Assembly wasbased on the population of each provincenational cohesion.
Punjab = 23 Sindh = 23 KPK = 23 Balochistan= 23 FATA = 8 Islamabad = 4 TOTAL = 104 .
the Senate elections in accordance with thesystem of proportional representation bymeans of a single transferable vote throughelectoral colleges. The term of the members of
the Senate is 6 years.
C itt t i
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Committee system in
Parliament
Standing Committees
Special Committees
Parliamentary Committees
Non-Ministerial Standing Committees
R l f P li t i P ki t
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Role of Parliament in PakistansDemocratic Transition
Strengthening the Legislature
Parliamentary Committees
Beyond broad constitutional and legal
reforms, the best case for parliamentarysupremacy rests in the day-to-day exercise ofits legislative functions.
The thirteenth National Assembly had marked
another historic shift: in the role ofparliamentary committees. Upon introduction inthe house by a minister or a private member,all bills, except finance bills, are referred to a
standing committee for consideration.
B i i th P bli t P li t
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Bringing the Public to Parliament
and Parliament to the Public
The ongoing democratic transition offers an
opportunity to expand the publics knowledge
of and input into the parliamentary process. Parliament should further open its proceedings
not just to citizens scrutiny but also to theirinput. The National Assemblys rules allowcommittees to hold public hearings.
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Contd.......
While Senate rules do not specifically mention
such hearings, they authorise a committee to
invite or summon any person or member
having a special knowledge to give an expertopinion or give evidence in relation to any
matter under its consideration.
Indeed, the upper house has been much more
proactive than the National Assembly in
initiating such proceedings.
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Shaping the Policy Debate
Parliamentarians have to reconcile their roles
as representatives of their constituencies,
parties and committees. As party
representatives, they are legally obliged tofollow its directives when voting on major
legislation, such as the budget and
constitutional amendments. Under the constitution, if they vote against
party directives on a money bill, they are
deemed to have defected from the party and
are thus disqualified.
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Public Expenditures
Although the parliaments power partly lies inits ability to vote on public expenditure, its
control over such expenditure is limited. Money
bills originate in the National Assembly,presented by the finance minister or, in his
absence, any other minister authorised by the
leader of the house. No other business can be
transacted on the day the budget is introduced
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Taming the bureaucracy
While the execution of policy is an executive
prerogative, standing committees have the
power to examine the expenditure and
administration of ministries. This has politicalas well as economic implications. Historically
the junior partner during decades of direct or
indirect military interventions, the bureaucracyis an impediment to reform during democratic.
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The Parliamentary Opposition
Political leaders across party lines have long
acknowledged the potential value of shadow
governments. Shadow ministers act as
watchdogs, monitoring and holding cabinetministers and ministries accountable. Shadow
cabinets give opposition parliamentarians
knowledge and expertise in their portfolios that
will benefit their government if their party
comes to power.
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Contd......
The government, the National Assembly
speaker and the opposition leader are the key
drivers of parliamentary reform. They need to
invigorate the new National Assemblysstanding committees. Since any majorlegislation requires bipartisan support,
committees in both houses should play key
roles in achieving the necessary consensus ondemocratic reforms, as in the transitions firstphase.
Parliaments Human and
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Parliaments Human and
Technical Resources
If parliament is to exercise its oversight role
effectively and table appropriate legislation,
trained and qualified staff, equipped with up-to-
date technological tools, is essential. Poorlytrained committee and secretariat staffs with
limited research experience and without good
access to computers and the internet cannot
provide adequate support. The NationalAssembly, with 342 members, has only four
research associates.
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Federal Legislative List
Defence International and interprovincial trade
External affairs and international treaties Nuclear Energy
Immigration and citizenship Airports, Aircrafts, air navigation, air and
sea travel and shipment, lighthouses
Post and telecommunication Patents, trade marks, copyrights
Central Banking, currency, foreign
exchange
Stock Exchange and futures markets.
Corporate regulation, including banking
and insurance
National Highways and Strategic Roads.
Fishing beyond territorial waters Federal geological surveys and
meteorological organizations
Standards of weights and measures Local Government in cantonment areas
Federal Legislative List (Federation/CCI(Fed-
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g ( (
Provincial)Electricity Provincial police operations
beyond provincial boundaries
Minerals, oil and natural gas Industrial Policy
Railways National planning and national
economic coordination
Major ports Coordination of scientific and
technological research
Census All regulatory authorities under a
federal law
Public debt Standards in higher education and
research, scientific and technical
institutions.
Federal Corporate, entities including the
water and power Development authority
and Pakistan industrial development
corporation
Interprovincial matters and
coordination.
Legal, medical, and other professions
Federal Ministries/divisions
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Federal Ministries/divisions
Abolished after 18thamendment1. Food and Agriculture
2. Health
3. Education
4. Social Welfare and special Education5. Population Welfare
6. Youth Affairs
7. Environment
8. Sports
9. Culture
10. Livestock and diary
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Contd.....
11- Labour and Manpower
12- Minorities
13- Tourism
14- Women Development
15- Special Initiatives
16- Local Government and Rural Development
17- Zakat and Ushers
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conclusion
It has taken 40 years, since the 1973
constitution established a federal parliamentary
system of government, for Pakistan to witness
a transition from one democratically electedparliament to another. This parliament must
ensure the continuation and broadening of the
democratic process. But, as the experiences of
its immediate predecessor demonstrated, thethreats to democracy have not subsided.