Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 8: Learning and Conditioning

Behaviorism

John Watson B.F. Skinner

Observable behavior Learning by association Reinforcement and punishment

Behaviorism

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select- doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant, and yes- beggar man and thief” --John Watson

Learning

Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior that can be attributed to experience

The Role of Learning

Do some psychological characteristics result from learning?

Classical Conditioning

We learn when one event becomes associated with another

Stimulus-response chains

Stimulus/Response

Stimulus: the presentation of something (i.e. food, a noise, music, a puppy)

Response: a reaction to the stimulus

Classical Conditioning

The behavioral technique of pairing a naturally occurring stimulus and response chain with a different stimulus in order to produce a response which is not naturally occurring

Example: naturally occurring stimulus and response: loud noise and flinching

We can pair a different stimulus with a loud noise to conditioning an unnatural response

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov: Dogs: to study digestion

Salivation would occur when meat powder was placed in the dogs’ mouths

Classical Conditioning

Salivation started to occur before the meat powder was given

The dogs would salivate when Pavlov entered the room

Classical Conditioning

The dogs started to associate Pavlov’s entrance with food

Can the dogs be conditioned to associate a ringing bell with food?

Classical Conditioning:How does it work?

Unconditioned Stimulus: a naturally occurring stimulus; it brings about a natural (as opposed to learned) response

Example: food: a stimulus that would produce a naturally occurring response

We don’t need to learn to respond to food

Classical Conditioning:How does it work?

Unconditioned response: a response that occurs naturally and does not have to be learned

i.e. salivating to food: a natural response

Classical Conditioning:How does it work?

Conditioned stimulus: the stimulus brings about a response due to learning.

Example: a bell (the conditioned stimulus) brings about salivation due to learning; this wouldn’t occur naturally

This takes many repeated pairings with the unconditioned stimulus (the meat)

Classical Conditioning:How does it work?

Conditioned response: the response that is not naturally occurring, but has been learned or conditioned.

Putting it together....

US (meat powder) ------ UR (salivation to meat)

CS (bell)- US (meat powder) ---UR (salivation to meat)

We repeat this pattern many times.....

Then:

CS (bell) ----- CR (salivation to the bell)

John Watson:Little Albert study

Conditioned the child to fear a bunny

Loud noise Fear (toward the noise) Bunny Fear (toward the bunny)

Little Albert study

US: loud noise

UR: fear (toward noise)

CS: bunny

US: fear (toward bunny)

Classical Conditioning:Little Albert study

US (loud noise) -------- UR (fear of noise)

CS (bunny) ---- US (loud noise) -- UR (fear of noise)

CS (bunny) --- CR (fear of bunny)

To Review....

Classical conditioning involves learned through association

We can learn to fear, or respond in some way to previously neutral stimuli

Higher order conditioning

Extending the conditioning process by a step

Example: clap, ring the bell, then salivation occurs

we don’t need to present food because the bell has already conditioned the response

Clapping would eventually cause salivation

Extinction

We can weaken the conditioned response (salivation to the bell) by removing the reinforcement

If we never introduce food again, the dogs will eventually stop salivating to the bell

Spontaneous Recovery

Even after extinction, the learned response may come back suddenly

There may be food this time

Stimulus Generalization

A similar stimulus to the CS (the bunny) might trigger the response

We can condition fear of the rabbit, and then we can condition fear of other, similar stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination

Learned ability to respond differently to different stimuli

If certain stimuli are no longer associated with the noise, the fear reaction will not be elicited

i.e. introduce the mouse but no noise, eventually Albert will fear the bunny, but not the mouse

Real-life application

Phobias: intense, unrealistic fear reactions to a stimulus or situation

Conditioned emotional response: we learn to fear certain stimuli

Vicarious classical conditioning: if we see something aversive happen to someone else

Treatment: Systematic Desensitization

Slow exposure to the stimulus, paired with relaxation techniques

Support for this in the research

In contrast: Flooding: introducing us to the stimulus all at once

Operant Conditioning

We associate responses with their consequences

Acts that are reinforced will be repeated

Acts that are not reinforced, or punished, will not be repeated

Operant vs. Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning:

Active In regard to voluntary

responses

Classical Conditioning:

Passive: it just happens

“Language” of operant conditioning

Positive = add Negative = take away

Positive/negative are not necessarily good/bad

Reinforcement

Any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur

Positive Reinforcement

Providing a reward (reinforcer) to increase the probability that the response will occur again

We add (positive = add) something good Candy for raising your hand in class Praise for washing the dishes Gold stars for doing your homework

Negative Reinforcement

Response is followed by an end to discomfort or a removal of an unpleasant event (negative = removal/taking away something)

We will increase the behavior because it results in the decrease of something unpleasant

Negative Reinforcement

Taking aspirin to alleviate a headache Leaving early to avoid traffic Rat presses a lever to stop a shock

We will continue these behaviors because they result in the end to something unpleasant

Punishment

When a bad or unpleasant event begins We will be less likely to repeat behaviors that

are punished

Punishment

Positive: adding something aversive so a behavior will not be repeated

Negative: taking way something positive so a behavior will not be repeated

**Both are punishments because an unpleasant event is beginning

Activity: reinforcement and punishment

worksheet

Superstitions

We repeat them because the appear to be reinforced

i.e. lucky socks winning a game

Partial Reinforcement

Pattern where only certain responses are reinforced

i.e. slot machine

More resistant to extinction Over time, we may be rewarded, so we keep

trying

Are punishments effective?

Based on: Timing (should be right after the bad behavior) Consistency (punish it every time) Intensity (strength of the punishment)

How can we teach kids without using punishments?

Bandura: Social Learning Theory

Learning through observation and imitation

Bobo doll experiment

Television and Violence

Lots of violent t.v. is correlated with aggression Does not prove causation

Identification with the aggressor?