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Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits
Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits
A STAP Advisory Document December 2019
A STAP Advisory Document December 2019
LEAD STAP AUTHORS: Saleem Ali, Jamidu Katima, and Sunday Leonard
STAP CONTRIBUTOR: Rosina Bierbaum
STAP SECRETARIAT CONTRIBUTOR: Christopher Whaley
SUGGESTED CITATION: Ali, S., Katima, J., Leonard, S.A., 2020. Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits. A STAP Advisory Document. Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel to the Global Environment Facility. Washington, DC.
COPYRIGHT: This work is shared under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivative Works License.
ABOUT STAP: The Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) provides independent scientific and technical advice to the GEF on its strategies, programs and projects. https://stapgef.org
ABOUT GEF: The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was established on the eve of the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to help tackle our planet’s most pressing environmental problems. Since then, the GEF has provided close to $20.5 billion in grants and mobilized an additional $112 billion in co-financing for more than 4,800 projects in 170 countries. Through its Small Grants Programme, the GEF has provided support to nearly 24,000 civil society and community initiatives in 133 countries. http://www.thegef.org
COPY EDITOR: Emily Youers
DESIGN AND LAYOUT: Phoenix Design Aid A/S, Denmark
COVER PHOTO: whiteMocca – Shutterstock ID: 735743386
Harnessing Blockchain Technology for the Delivery of Global Environmental Benefits
A STAP Advisory Document December 2019
2
CONTENTS
1. BACKGROUND.................................................................................................................. 3
2. WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................ 4
3. WHAT CAN BLOCKCHAIN DO FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND WHAT CAN IT NOT DO? .......................................................................................... 6
4. WHAT OPPORTUNITIES DOES BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY OFFER THE GEF? ............ 8
5. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO BLOCKCHAIN? ............. 18
6. STAP’S ADVICE AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 19
ANNEX 1: WEB LINKS TO THE EXAMPLES OF BLOCKCHAIN APPLICATIONS PRESENTED IN FIGURES 2A–2I ................................................................................................................. 21
ENDNOTES ............................................................................................................................ 24
3
1. BACKGROUNDThe Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel (STAP) paper on novel entities1 identified six novel entities and technologies of relevance to the Global Environment Facility (GEF): technology-critical elements, blockchain technology, next generation nanotechnology, gene editing/CRISPR, cellular agriculture, and new engineered bio-based materials.
This paper is the result of STAP’s further work on one of those novel entities – blockchain technology
– and is based on a review of the relevant literature and a STAP workshop that brought together experts on the environmental application of blockchain and members of the GEF Partnership. The paper explains what blockchain is, how blockchain could be used to deliver environmental benefits (particularly for the GEF), points out some of the challenges and barriers to using the technology, and concludes with recommendations to the GEF.
4
2. WHAT IS BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY?
A blockchain is a type of database that is replicated over a peer-to-peer network and allows multiple users in the network to access, share, maintain and update the content of the database in real time, safely and securely, according to an agreed consensus mechanism and without the need for a trusted central authority.2
In a blockchain, data are grouped and organized into linked blocks; each block is secured using a cryptographic digital fingerprint called a “hash”.3 Each hash points to the next block, creating an unbroken chain of continuous data that can only be changed by modifying every block in the network, thus ensuring that the information within the network is secure and cannot be easily manipulated.4 Blockchain uses an “append only” structure (i.e. data can only be added to the database; data cannot be deleted or altered on earlier blocks). This ensures that historical data and transactions are permanently stored and are immutable.5
Blockchain has several unique features that distinguish it from traditional database systems: more accurate record-keeping, greater transparency, increased trust, enhanced security, improved traceability, increased efficiency and speed, and lower-cost transactions.6 Figure 1 shows how blockchain works.
Blockchain technology has been widely used as (i) a system for the secure, transparent and immutable distributed storage of digital identities and records; (ii) a basis for digitally representing and tracking real-world assets, such as commodities, natural resources, ecosystem services and waste (usually referred to as “digital tokens”7); and (iii) a platform for the formation and automated execution of digital relationships, transactions and markets (usually referred to as “smart contracts”8).
Everything Possible – Shutterstock ID: 1100852378
5
Figure 1: How blockchain works. (Source: Piscini et al. 20169)
Each block is identified by a hash, a 256-bit number, created using an algorithm agreed upon by the network. A block contains a header, a reference to the previous block’s hash, and a group of transactions. The sequence of linked hashes creates a secure, interdependent chain.
BLOCK N+1BLOCK N
PENDING
Two parties exchange data; this couldrepresent money, contracts, deeds, medical records,customer details, or any other asset that can be described in digital form.
1Depending on the network’s parameters,
the transaction is either verified instantly or transcribed into a secured record and placed in a queue of pending transactions. In this case, nodes—the computers or servers
Blockchain allows for the secure management of a shared ledger, where transactions are verified and stored on a networkwithout a governing central authority. Blockchains can come in different configurations, ranging from public, open-source networks to private blockchains that require explicit permissions to read or write. Computer science and advanced mathematics (in the form of cryptographic hash functions) are what make blockchains tick, not just enabling transactions but also protecting a blockchain's integrity and anonymity.
in the network—determine if the transactions are valid based on a set of rules the network has agreed to.
BLOCK N+2
When a block is validated, the miners that solved the puzzle are rewarded and the block is distributed through the network. Each node adds the block to the majority chain, the network’s immutable and auditable blockchain.
BLOCK N
Blocks must first be validated to be added to the blockchain. The most accepted form of validation for open-source blockchains is proof of work—the solution to a mathematical puzzle derived from the block’s header.
If a malicious miner tries to submit an altered block to the chain, the hash function of that block,and all following blocks, would change. The other nodes would detect these changes and reject the block from the majority chain, preventing corruption.
Miners try to “solve” the block by making incremental changes to one variable until the solution satisfies a network-wide target. This is called “proof of work” because correct answers cannot be falsified; potential solutions must prove the appropriate level of computing power was drained in solving.
BLOCK N
2
3 4
6
7
5
6
3. WHAT CAN BLOCKCHAIN DO FOR THE ENVIRONMENT AND WHAT CAN IT NOT DO?
Blockchain cannot solve environmental problems on its own. Blockchain is an enabling technology that can help with the secure monitoring and tracking of environmental data and natural resources, thereby facilitating their effective management and enabling sustainable outcomes.
Environmental uses of blockchain typically require pairing it with a complementary technology, for example environmental sensors, satellite remote sensing, Internet of Things devices, artificial intelligence, biometrics, smart meters, QR Codes, or radio-frequency identification chips.
Environmental applications of blockchain:
• Improved environmental monitoring, reporting and verification. Blockchain can provide accurate record-keeping, as well as trust and transparency in recording and tracking environmental information and in monitoring compliance with multilateral environmental agreements,10 such as the Paris Climate Agreement. For example:
— The Yale OpenLab Open Climate project11 aims to track the global carbon budget, monitor climate pledges and actions, and provide a platform for the international carbon market and the mobilization of climate finance.
— The Regen Network blockchain12 records ecosystem health and can be used, for example, to verify improvements or regeneration after an intervention.
• Sustainable resource management. Using blockchain to create a monetary value for natural resources and ecosystem services could encourage more sustainable consumption and production and create value in things that are currently wasted or undervalued.13 For example:
— The Plastic Bank14 blockchain platform pays people for collecting and recycling plastic waste, thereby changing their perception of plastic waste from garbage to resource and simultaneously reducing ocean plastic pollution.
— The GainForest blockchain15 provides incentives for farmers to maintain forests at risk of deforestation by paying them for every period that the forest is preserved.
• Sustainable and transparent supply chains. Blockchain makes it is possible to track products from their origin through every stage and transaction to their final destination.16 This can improve the transparency, credibility, efficiency and safety of commodity production and supply chains. Traceability will allow consumers to identify whether a product is from a sustainable source. A blockchain-based supply chain can also be used to reward sustainable behaviours directly.17 For example:
— Unilever is implementing a blockchain project to track and validate its tea supply chain. This will provide preferential pricing to farmers who use sustainable farming methods to produce more tea without increasing the land take.18
• Transformation of carbon and other environmental markets. Blockchain can help facilitate environmental markets (e.g. carbon emissions trading) by creating digital tokens to represent environmental improvement activities (e.g. tree planting, soil conservation actions, sustainable agriculture activities, renewable energy generation) that individuals or organizations can directly pay for to offset their environmental footprints. For example:
— The CarbonX19 and ClimateCoin20 are blockchain networking platforms for individuals and companies to offset their
7
carbon emissions and to create demand for their low-emission products and services.
— The blockchain-based Nori Carbon Removal Marketplace21 allows companies to offset their carbon emissions by paying farmers to restore soil health and pull carbon from the atmosphere.
— The OXÏ-ZEN Programme22 makes it possible for carbon emitters to offset their emissions through payments to entities who mitigate carbon emissions by planting trees or conserving forests.
— The Earth Bank of Codes23 collects and makes available data on biological assets. This allows scientists and innovators to tackle biopiracy and ensure a fair and equitable sharing of the economic benefits, in alignment with the objectives of the Nagoya Protocol.
• Sustainable urban and rural development. Blockchain can be used to:
— Prepare a historical and immutable record of land and asset ownership.24 Examples include the Bitland25 and ChromaWay26 blockchains, in use in Ghana and Sweden, respectively.
— Improve the efficiency of waste management processes and incentivize recycling, for example Plastic Bank,27 the End of Waste Foundation28 and Recereum,29 which are using blockchain to track waste, connect waste owners with entities that need the waste, and promote recycling and resource efficiency.
— Support the implementation of decentralized systems for energy, water and other public utility management, which can help promote sustainable production and use; for example, FlexiDAO,30 WePower31 and WaterChain.32
— Implement peer-to-peer renewable energy trading systems, both in rural and urban areas,33 which could increase the uptake of renewable energy; for example, SunContract34 and the Exergy Brooklyn Microgrid.35
— Support smart transportation and parking systems, as well as peer-to-peer electric vehicle charging stations and vehicle sharing;36 for example, Omnitude uses GPS data, passenger information and journey tracking on a blockchain platform to deliver real-time transport solutions in Malta.37
— Increase transparency and reduce bureaucracy in urban planning, city management and governance.38
• Innovative and sustainable environmental financing models. Blockchain can be used to create new financing structures and business models. It can be used for crowdfunding or impact investing39 and to broaden opportunities for sustainable investment.40 Its transparent and decentralized nature makes it easier to track investment and see whether the desired impacts are delivered. This may be particularly important in developing countries where regulatory standards for impact investment may have led to a perception that such investments are high risk. Blockchain may also help ensure that funding goes directly to the intended recipients. For example:
— The IXO Foundation uses blockchain coupled with remote sensing and satellite imagery to monitor a tree-planting scheme and conservation efforts and to track associated impacts.41 The blockchain platform also allows people to donate and receive real-time updates about the impacts of the scheme.
8
4. WHAT OPPORTUNITIES DOES BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY OFFER THE GEF?The environmental applications discussed in section 3 show that blockchain can be useful in delivering the GEF’s objectives. To illustrate this, the objectives of the focal areas and Impact Programs of the GEF were mapped against a (non-exhaustive) list of existing and proposed blockchain uses. Figures 2a–2i present the outcome of this mapping
exercise. The figures show that many proposed and existing blockchain applications are relevant to the objectives of the GEF, and the GEF can learn from them to improve its delivery of global environmental benefits. Annex 1 contains web links to the examples of blockchain applications in the figures.
Alexey Godzenko – Shutterstock ID: 715107421
9
Figu
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ain U
se• M
arketp
lace f
or in
cent
ivizin
g and
rewa
rding
farm
ers fo
r pres
erving
soil c
arbon
, e.g.
, Nor
i Carb
on Re
mov
al
Mark
etplac
e • B
lockc
hain-
enab
led ve
rifica
tion o
f eco
logica
l out
com
es, s
uch a
s dec
rease
d lan
d deg
radati
on, e
.g., R
egen
Netw
ork
• I
ncen
tivizi
ng an
d sup
porti
ng su
staina
ble ag
ricult
ure b
y sm
allho
lder fa
rmers
, e.g.
, Agr
iLedg
er, Ag
Unity
,
GainF
ores
t, IBM
Afric
a & H
ello T
ractor
, Rain
Trust
Agro
-Bloc
kcha
in, Sh
amba
Reco
rds,
Unile
ver p
ilot fo
r tea
supp
ly ch
ain
• Bloc
kcha
in-po
wered
data
recor
ding o
f soil
cond
itions
and f
arming
prac
tice t
o info
rm ag
ricult
ure fi
nanc
ing,
inc
rease
d pro
ducti
on, a
nd su
staina
ble fa
rm m
anag
emen
t, e.g.
, HAR
A Tok
en
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed s
ustai
nable
fores
t man
agem
ent, e
.g., B
VRio
Resp
onsib
le Tim
ber E
xcha
nge P
latfor
m,
Ch
ainW
ood,
Hang
zhou
Yi Sh
u Bloc
kcha
in Te
chno
logy
• Bloc
kcha
in-su
ppor
ted su
staina
ble m
ining
prac
tice b
y trac
king t
he so
urce
of m
ineral
s, e.g
., IBM
Trus
tCha
in,
Fo
rd’s
coba
lt pilo
t pro
ject
• Bloc
kcha
in-su
ppor
ted ag
ri-foo
d sup
ply ch
ain tr
ackin
g and
trac
eabil
ity, e
.g., A
griLe
dger,
Ambr
osus
Block
chain
, Bex
t360
Bloc
kcha
in Su
pply
Chain
, Orig
inTrai
l, Pro
vena
nce B
lockc
hain
Poult
ry Su
pply
Chain
,
Ripe.i
o Bloc
kcha
in of
Food
, Sku
chain
Supp
ly Ch
ain, T
E-FOO
D Fo
odCh
ain, U
nilev
er pil
ot for
tea s
upply
chain
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eCr
eate
an en
ablin
g env
ironm
ent to
supp
ort v
olunt
ary La
nd
Degr
adati
on N
eutra
lity ta
rget
imple
men
tation
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
base
d lan
d ten
ure r
egist
ry an
d adm
inistr
ation
,
e.g., B
enBe
n, Big
chain
DB, B
itfury,
Bitlan
d, Ch
rom
aWay
,
Cons
enSy
s, Ep
igrap
h
• Inc
entiv
izing
and s
uppo
rting
susta
inable
agric
ultur
e by
sm
allho
lder fa
rmers
, e.g.
, Agr
iLedg
er, Ag
Unity
, Gain
Fores
t,
IBM
Afric
a & H
ello T
ractor
, Rain
Trust
Agro
-Bloc
kcha
in, Sh
amba
Reco
rds,
Unile
ver p
ilot fo
r tea
supp
ly ch
ain
13
Figu
re 2
e: B
lock
chai
n ap
plic
atio
ns re
leva
nt to
the
GEF
’s in
tern
atio
nal w
ater
s fo
cal a
rea.
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eStr
engt
hene
d blue
econ
omy o
ppor
tunit
ies• C
reatin
g sus
taina
ble he
althy
coas
tal an
d mari
ne
ecos
ystem
• Cata
lyzing
susta
inable
fishe
ries m
anag
emen
t• A
ddres
sing p
ollut
ion in
mari
ne en
viron
men
t
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eIm
prov
ed m
anag
emen
t in th
e Area
s Bey
ond
Natio
nal J
urisd
iction
• Red
ucing
harm
ful fis
hing a
nd ov
erexp
loitat
ion of
fish s
tocks
, com
batti
ng Ill
egal,
Unr
epor
ted,
Un
regula
ted fis
herie
s, an
d stre
ngth
ening
regio
nal
fis
herie
s man
agem
ent o
rgan
izatio
n
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
base
d pro
vena
nce t
rackin
g of fi
sh an
d
other
seafo
ods,
e.g., F
ishco
in, Sa
wtoo
th Bl
ockc
hain,
WW
F Bloc
kcha
in Su
pply
Chain
Trac
eabil
ity Pr
oject
• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led oc
ean p
lastic
prev
entio
n, e.g
., Pla
stic B
ank a
nd Re
cycle
ToCo
in • B
lockc
hain-
enab
led m
onito
ring o
f illeg
al fis
hing
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
base
d pro
vena
nce t
rackin
g of fi
sh an
d
other
seafo
ods,
e.g., F
ishco
in, Sa
wtoo
th
Blo
ckch
ain, W
WF B
lockc
hain
Supp
ly Ch
ain
Tra
ceab
ility P
rojec
t • B
lockc
hain-
supp
orted
mon
itorin
g of il
legal
fishin
g
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led w
ater m
onito
ring a
nd
man
agem
ent, e
.g., B
lockc
hain
Wate
r Plat
form
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed d
ecen
traliz
ed w
ater m
anag
emen
t sy
stem
s for
incre
ased
effic
iency
, e.g.
, Wate
rCha
in• B
lockc
hain-
supp
orted
real-
time m
onito
ring o
f na
tural
haza
rds
• Tok
en sy
stem
for c
lean d
rinkin
g wate
r and
smart
wa
ter m
eters,
e.g.,
AQUA
Righ
ts
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eEn
hanc
ed w
ater s
ecur
ity in
fresh
water
ecos
ystem
s• A
dvan
cing i
nform
ation
exch
ange
and e
arly w
arning
• Enh
ancin
g reg
ional
and n
ation
al co
opera
tion o
n sh
ared f
reshw
ater s
urfac
e and
grou
ndwa
ter ba
sins
• Im
prov
ing w
ater, f
ood,
energ
y and
envir
onm
ental
se
curit
y
14
Figu
re 2
f: Bl
ockc
hain
app
licat
ions
rele
vant
to th
e G
EF’s
chem
ical
s an
d w
aste
foca
l are
a.N
ote:
SA
ICM
= S
trat
egic
App
roac
h to
Inte
rnat
iona
l Che
mic
als
Man
agem
ent.
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eEli
mina
te/res
trict/
cont
rol e
miss
ions o
f Stoc
kholm
chem
icals;
elim
inate
emiss
ions a
nd re
lease
of
merc
ury i
n acti
vities
and p
roce
sses;
enco
urag
e pub
lic-pr
ivate
partn
ership
; sup
port
SAIC
M ob
jectiv
es
Prog
ram
s
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
base
d trac
eabil
ity an
d trac
king i
n che
mica
l sup
ply ch
ains,
e.g., C
hem
chain
• Bloc
kcha
in-en
abled
mon
itorin
g of c
hem
ical u
se in
agric
ultur
e• B
lockc
hain-
facilit
ated r
egula
tory e
nforce
men
t and
custo
ms c
ontro
l, e.g.
, CAD
ENA b
lockc
hain,
Trad
elens
• Was
te m
anag
emen
t sys
tem su
ppor
ted by
bloc
kcha
in, e.
g., 4N
ew W
aste-
to-En
ergy B
lockc
hain,
Agor
a Tec
h Lab
, End
of W
aste
Foun
datio
n, Pla
stic B
ank,
Rece
reum
, Rec
ycleT
oCoin
,
Swac
hhco
in
• Trac
king o
f was
te, in
parti
cular
e-wa
ste an
d its
docu
men
tation
up to
final
desti
natio
n, e.g
., Was
teLed
ger
• Bloc
kcha
in-en
abled
circu
lar an
d sha
ring e
cono
my,
e.g., B
undle
s pay
-per-u
se w
ashin
g mac
hine,
Circu
larise
, Circ
ulor O
racle
Block
chain
for S
upply
Chain
Trac
king,
La’Zo
oz, P
lastic
Bank
, Pro
vena
nce,
Trade
Lens
• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led tr
ackin
g of m
ineral
reso
urce
s like
gold,
coba
lt, dia
mon
ds, e
.g., C
irculo
r Orac
le Blo
ckch
ain fo
r Sup
ply Ch
ain Tr
ackin
g, Em
ergen
t Tec
hnolo
gy Re
spon
sible
Gold,
Force
field
Meta
ls Tra
de Bl
ockc
hain
Cons
ortiu
m, E
verLe
dger,
Trac
r bloc
kcha
in
Elim
inate
or re
duce
indu
strial
ch
emica
ls un
der S
tockh
olm, M
inam
ata,
SAIC
M an
d Mon
treal
Proto
col
Addr
ess a
nd re
duce
use o
f Sto
ckho
lm an
d Mina
mata
-relat
ed
agric
ultu
ral c
hem
icals
Soun
d man
agem
ent o
f che
mica
ls an
d was
te in
Leas
t Dev
elope
d Cou
ntrie
s an
d Sm
all Is
land D
evelo
ping
Stat
es
Supp
ort c
onve
ntion
s-rela
ted
enab
ling a
ctivit
ies
15
Figu
re 2
g: B
lock
chai
n ap
plic
atio
ns re
leva
nt to
the
GEF
’s Fo
od S
yste
ms,
Lan
d Us
e, a
nd R
esto
ratio
n Im
pact
Pro
gram
.
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eCr
eate
efficie
nt an
d effe
ctive
food
value
ch
ains f
or m
ultipl
e ben
efits
GEF7
Obj
ectiv
eRe
mov
e defo
restat
ion fro
m su
pply
chain
sGE
F7 O
bjec
tive
Expa
nd re
storat
ion of
degr
aded
land
s
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
base
d inc
entiv
izing
and s
uppo
rt of
su
staina
ble ag
ricult
ure b
y sm
allho
lder fa
rmers
, e.g.
,
AgriL
edge
r, AgU
nity,
GainF
ores
t, Hell
o Trac
tor, R
ainTru
st
Agro
-Bloc
kcha
in, Re
gen N
etwor
k, Sh
amba
Reco
rds,
Un
ileve
r pilo
t for t
ea su
pply
chain
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed r
ecor
ding o
f pes
ticide
use i
n agr
icultu
re • B
lockc
hain-
base
d pro
vena
nce t
rackin
g of fo
od va
lue ch
ain,
e.g
., Bee
fCha
in, Be
efLed
ger, W
WF B
lockc
hain
Supp
ly
Chain
Trac
eabil
ity Pr
oject
for Tu
na fis
h • M
arketp
lace f
or in
cent
ivizin
g and
rewa
rding
farm
ers fo
r
pres
erving
soil c
arbon
, e.g.
, Nor
i Carb
on Re
mov
al
Mark
etplac
e
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• M
arketp
lace f
or in
cent
ivizin
g and
rewa
rding
farm
ers fo
r
pres
erving
soil c
arbon
, e.g.
, Nor
i Carb
on Re
mov
al
Mark
etplac
e • B
lockc
hain-
enab
led ve
rifica
tion o
f eco
logica
l out
com
es,
su
ch as
decre
ased
land
degr
adati
on, e
.g., R
egen
Netw
ork
• Inc
entiv
izing
and s
uppo
rting
susta
inable
agric
ultur
e by
sm
allho
lder fa
rmers
, e.g.
, Agr
iLedg
er, Ag
Unity
,
GainF
ores
t, Hell
o Trac
tor, R
ainTru
st Ag
ro-B
lockc
hain,
Rege
n Netw
ork,
Sham
ba Re
cord
s, Un
ileve
r pilo
t for t
ea
su
pply
chain
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed d
ata re
cord
ing of
soil c
ondit
ions a
nd
far
ming
prac
tice t
o info
rm ag
ricult
ure fi
nanc
ing an
d
susta
inable
farm
man
agem
ent
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
supp
orted
agri-
food s
upply
chain
track
ing an
d trac
eabil
ity, e
.g., A
griLe
dger,
Ambr
osus
Bloc
kcha
in, Be
xt360
Bloc
kcha
in
Supp
ly Ch
ain, O
riginT
rail, P
rove
nanc
e
Block
chain
Poult
ry Su
pply
Chain
, Ripe
.io
Blo
ckch
ain of
Food
, Sku
chain
Supp
ly Ch
ain,
TE
-FOOD
Bloc
kcha
in, U
nilev
er pil
ot for
tea
su
pply
chain
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed s
ustai
nable
fores
t
man
agem
ent, e
.g., B
VRio
Resp
onsib
le
Timbe
r Exc
hang
e Plat
form
, Cha
inWoo
d,
Hang
zhou
Yi Sh
u Bloc
kcha
in Te
chno
logy
16
Figu
re 2
h: B
lock
chai
n ap
plic
atio
ns re
leva
nt to
the
GEF
’s Su
stai
nabl
e Ci
ties
Impa
ct P
rogr
amN
ote:
EV
= e
lect
ric v
ehic
le.
Prog
ram
Com
pone
nts
GEF S
usta
inab
le Ci
ties I
nves
tmen
t Cat
egor
ies
Prom
oting
inno
vativ
e bu
sines
s mod
els fo
r int
egrat
ed so
lution
s and
inv
estm
ents
at cit
y-lev
el
Stren
gthe
ning t
he G
lobal
Platfo
rm fo
r Sus
taina
ble Ci
ties
for kn
owled
ge ex
chan
ge an
d lea
rning
Supp
ortin
g evid
ence
-base
d sp
atial
plann
ing –
natio
nal,
region
al an
d loc
al
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Bl
ockc
hain
Use
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed l
and
tenur
e reg
istry
and
adm
inistr
ation
, e.g.
, Be
nBen
, Bigc
hainD
B, Bit
fury,
Bitlan
d, Ch
rom
aWay
, Con
senS
ys,
Epigr
aph
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed p
ublic
, co
rpor
ate, c
ivil a
nd as
set
regist
ry, e.
g., Bi
tfury,
Ub
itquit
y
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Bl
ockc
hain
Use
• Bloc
kcha
in-en
abled
finan
ce pl
atfor
ms f
or
rai
sing f
unds
and
inv
estm
ents
for
en
viron
men
tal
su
staina
bility
, e.g.
,
Crow
dwiz’
s WizF
und,
Su
n Exc
hang
e
• P
eer-t
o-pee
r pers
onal
or
corp
orate
carb
on
tra
ding,
e.g., C
arbon
X,
Clim
ateCo
in, Ea
rth
Do
llar
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
supp
orted
intel
ligen
t tran
spor
t and
logist
ic sy
stem
s, e.g
., Bloc
kcha
in in
Trans
port
Allian
ce,
M
OBI b
lockc
hain,
NetO
bjex,
Omnit
ude &
Malt
ese
Go
vern
men
t, Volt
P2P D
elive
ry Pla
tform
• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led pe
er-to-
peer
distri
butio
n and
mark
et for
rene
wable
energ
y tho
ugh s
mart
cont
racts,
e.g., E
xerg
y Bro
oklyn
Micr
ogrid
, Pow
er Le
dger,
SunC
ontra
ct, W
ePow
er
• Trac
king o
f rene
wable
energ
y sou
rce an
d ene
rgy d
ata
m
anag
emen
t, e.g.
, Flex
iDao
, WeP
ower
• Sm
art EV
charg
ing sy
stem
s, e.g
., Elaa
dNL,
Exerg
y EV
ch
arging
, Matr
ix Ch
arging
Syste
m, P
owerL
edge
r,
Share
& Ch
arge
• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led ca
r sha
ring e
.g., L
a’Zoo
z.• B
lockc
hain-
supp
ort h
ouse
hold
waste
to en
ergy,
e.g.,
4N
ew W
aste-
to-En
ergy
Exist
ing o
r Pro
pose
d Blo
ckch
ain U
se• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led co
mm
unity
parti
cipati
on w
hich
ca
n enh
ance
urba
n plan
ning a
nd im
prov
e dec
ision
mak
ing, e
.g., P
olys V
oting
Bloc
kcha
in
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed l
and t
enur
e reg
istry
and
ad
mini
strati
on, e
.g., B
enBe
n, Big
chain
DB, B
itfury,
Bitlan
d, Ch
rom
aWay
, Con
senS
ys, E
pigrap
h
• Bloc
kcha
in-ba
sed s
mart
grid
and e
nerg
y loa
d
man
agem
ent s
ystem
• W
aste
man
agem
ent s
ystem
supp
orted
by bl
ockc
hain,
e.g., 4
New
Was
te-to-
Energ
y Bloc
kcha
in, Ag
ora T
ech
La
b, En
d of W
aste
Foun
datio
n, Pla
stic B
ank,
Re
cereu
m, R
ecyc
leToC
oin, S
wach
hcoin
• B
lockc
hain-
enab
led ci
rcular
and s
harin
g eco
nom
y, e.g
.,
Bund
les pa
y-per-
use w
ashin
g mac
hine,
Circu
larise
,
Circu
lor O
racle
Block
chain
for S
upply
Chain
Trac
king,
La
’Zooz
, Plas
tic Ba
nk, P
rove
nanc
e, Tra
deLe
ns
Deca
rbon
izing
urba
nizati
on w
ith
infras
tructu
re int
egrat
ion at
natio
nal,
region
al, an
d loc
al sca
les
Build
ing de
ep re
silien
ce
with
smart
syste
ms
and s
lum so
lution
s
Casca
ding fi
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urba
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17
Figu
re 2
i: Bl
ockc
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app
licat
ions
rele
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e G
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Focu
s on g
loba
lly im
porta
nt fo
rests
18
5. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE CHALLENGES AND BARRIERS TO BLOCKCHAIN?
In considering blockchain, the GEF should be aware of some of the challenges and barriers to its use. These include:
• Carbon and material footprint. The first blockchain systems, including Bitcoin, have large computational and energy requirements owing to the algorithm used for consensus building.42 Servers to power blockchain also use a range of metals. Newer blockchain systems that use less energy are being developed, but the overall energy and material use should be considered when deciding whether to use blockchain.
• Data collection and security. Ideally, the collection of blockchain data should not involve human data entry, because this is more prone to error and manipulation. Blockchain therefore needs to be paired with automated, secure and accurate data-collection systems. The need for these complementary technologies makes using blockchain more challenging, especially in many developing countries, where access to these technologies may be limited.
• Scalability. Many blockchain applications have not been scaled beyond context-specific, proof-of-concept pilot applications, largely because of the need for high computational power and the limited speed of transactions. These issues would need to be addressed if blockchain were to be used on large-scale environmental problems that required several actors within the blockchain.
• Digital access and literacy in developing countries. The lack of digital literacy and Internet access may make it difficult for some rural communities to participate in blockchain-enabled solutions, for example in supply chains involving smallholder farmers or natural resource management involving local participation. Investment in infrastructure or research to create low-cost alternatives suitable for developing countries may be required.43
Other issues that may impede the adoption of blockchain are the lack of an agreed governance structure and the absence of standards and protocols.
whiteMocca – Shutterstock ID: 735743386
19
6. STAP’S ADVICE AND RECOMMENDATIONS STAP recommends that the GEF consider how blockchain can improve its delivery of global environmental benefits. In particular, STAP recommends the following:
• Consider blockchain pilot projects. Some areas seem particularly ripe for the GEF
to incorporate blockchain. For example:
— Tracking and verifying sustainable charcoal production (Land Degradation focal area; Sustainable Forest Management Impact Program)
— Reducing deforestation in agricultural systems by improving transparency in supply chains and incentivizing producers to implement more sustainable environmental practices (Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact Program; Land Degradation and Biodiversity focal areas)
— Improving the security and accuracy of land tenure systems (Land Degradation focal area; Sustainable Forest Management; Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact Program; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)
— Improving water and energy resource management (Climate Change and International Waters focal areas; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)
— Improving energy access through decentralized renewable energy sources paired with microgrids, which can enable peer-to-peer markets and community trading (Climate Change focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)
— Improving the traceability of energy sources, which can allow differentiation between renewables and fossil fuels (Climate Change focal area)
— Decarbonizing transportation systems (Climate Change focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)
— Improving the traceability and tracking of chemical supply chains (Chemicals and Waste focal area)
— Improving waste management and the circular economy (Chemicals and Waste focal area; Sustainable Cities Impact Program)
• Assess the value proposition of blockchain to be sure it would add value before adoption.
Blockchain can be used in many ways but may not always be necessary or add enough value to justify its use. Investment in blockchain, as an early-stage technology, will involve some degree of risk. The GEF should therefore assess blockchain’s value proposition in the context of a specific investment before proceeding. Using blockchain should be balanced against its potential drawbacks, including its cost and energy requirements, as well as whether it is appropriate to achieve the intended objectives. A reasoned and structured approach is needed to guide blockchain adoption in specific situations.
Possible assessment questions may include:
— Can this project be implemented without blockchain?
— Is blockchain the best available solution to the problem? Are there alternatives? How is blockchain better than the best status quo alternative? By what measure?
— Are decentralization, transparency and traceability essential to achieve the project’s goals?
— Does using blockchain increase the capacity of the project to deliver global environmental benefits?
— Will the blockchain solution require complementary technologies, and are these in place?
— Does the community have the digital readiness and financial literacy to engage with a blockchain application, or is capacity-building a prerequisite for implementation?
— If capacity-building is needed, can it be included in the project? If not, how would the capacity building be achieved?
20
— What are the possible unintended consequences of adopting blockchain, and how will they be managed?
— What are the environmental impacts associated with the blockchain solution? Are they justifiable? What is the net environmental benefit?
— How would the blockchain application manage data privacy and data security?
— Is the blockchain solution scalable, and are the outcomes transformational?
— Does the project have the right ecosystem of stakeholders?
• Explore possible blockchain benefits to existing GEF programmes and processes.
For example:
— Consider existing internal GEF processes or programmes to see if blockchain could improve record-keeping, transparency, trust, security, efficiency or cost, without unintended negative impacts.
— Consider whether and, if so, how blockchain technology could be used in knowledge management and in monitoring and evaluation.
— Consider whether blockchain could be used to monitor the long-term durability of GEF projects.
• Engage with existing initiatives that are developing environmental applications of blockchain.
The GEF can leverage initiatives and programmes already working on blockchain applications in relation to environmental challenges to create blockchain solutions for GEF-specific environmental challenges or to access technical assistance for potential GEF projects that are considering blockchain. Examples of these initiatives include:
— Climate Chain Coalition44 – A collaboration of diverse stakeholders that aims to use blockchain and other digital technologies to mobilize climate finance and improve measuring, reporting and verification of climate actions.
— Yale OpenLab45 – A collaboration that aims to create open source and disruptive projects to address planetary challenges.
— BitHub Africa46 – A blockchain accelerator organization focused on financial and energy access in Africa.
— GIZ Blockchain Lab47 – A blockchain lab with a focus on using the technology to achieve the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
— The World Bank Group’s Technology and Innovation Lab48 – A lab that focuses on using technologies including blockchain to address issues like land administration, supply chain management, health and carbon market trading to reduce poverty.
21
ANNEX 1. WEB LINKS TO THE EXAMPLES OF BLOCKCHAIN APPLICATIONS PRESENTED IN FIGURES 2A–2I (IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER)
4New Waste-to-Energy Blockchain: https://4new.io
Adaptation Ledger: https://www.adaptationledger.com
Agora Tech Lab: https://www.agoratechlab.com
AgriLedger: http://www.agriledger.io
AgUnity: https://www.agunity.com
Amazon Bank of Codes: https://www.earthbankofcodes.org/
Ambrosus Blockchain: https://ambrosus.com
Aon/Etherisc/Oxfam Crop Insurance: https://etherisc.com
AQUA Rights: https://aquarights.com
BeefChain: https://beefchain.com
BeefLedger: https://beefledger.io
BenBen: http://www.benben.com.gh
Bext360 Blockchain Supply Chain: https://www.bext360.com
BigchainDB: https://www.bigchaindb.com
Bitfury: https://bitfury.com
Bitland: http://landing.bitland.world
Blockchain Climate Risk Crop Insurance: https://www.climatefinancelab.org/project/climate-risk-crop-insurance
Blockchain in Transport Alliance: https://www.bita.studio
Blockchain Water Platform: https://www.blockchainwater.ai
Bundles pay-per-use: https://www.circle-economy.com/case/bundles/#.XdmlTOhKiUk
BVRio Responsible Timber Exchange Platform: https://www.bvrio.com
CADENA blockchain: https://mag.wcoomd.org/magazine/wco-news-87/cadena-a-blockchain-enabled-solution-for-the-implementation-of-mutual-recognition-arrangements-agreements
CarbonCoin: https://carboncoin.cc
CarbonX: https://www.carbonx.ca
Care for the Uncared: https://www.investereum.com/2019/02/09/the-happy-blockchain-animals
ChainWood: https://www.chainwood.eu
Chemchain: https://www.chemcha.in
ChromaWay: https://chromaway.com
Circularise: https://www.circularise.com
Circulor Oracle Blockchain: https://www.circulor.com
Clearway Energy Group & Power Ledger: https://www.powerledger.io/project/clearway-energy-group-united-states
ClimateCoin: https://climatetrade.com
Climate Ledger Initiative: https://www.climateledger.org
ConsenSys: https://consensys.net/blockchain-use-cases/real-estate
22
CrowdWiz WizFund: https://crowdwiz.io
Earth Bank of Codes: https://www.earthbankofcodes.org
Earth Dollar: https://earthdollar.org
Earth Token: https://earth-token.com
Ecosphere+ REDD+ Unchained: https://ecosphere.plus/2018/11/05/redd-unchained-blockchain-and-climate-change-mitigation-2
ElaadNL: https://www.elaad.nl
Emergent Technology Responsible Gold: https://www.emergenttechnology.com/companies/responsible-gold
End of Waste Foundation: https://endofwaste.com
EnergiMine: https://energimine.com
Energi Tokens: https://www.energi.world
Epigraph: http://epigraph.io
Etherisc: https://etherisc.com
EthicHub: https://ethichub.com
EverLedger: https://www.everledger.io
Exergy: https://exergy.energy
Exergy EV charging: https://lo3energy.com
Fishcoin: https://fishcoin.co
FlexiDAO: https://www.flexidao.com
Forcefield Metals Trade Blockchain: https://www.ledgerinsights.com/commodities-blockchain-consortium-forcefield-accenture-ing-anb-amro-anglo-american
Ford’s cobalt pilot project: https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/Ford-IBM-team-up-track-minerals-blockchain/546301
GainForest: https://www.gainforest.app
Givetrack: https://www.givetrack.org
Hangzhou Yi Shu Blockchain Technology: https://cointelegraph.com/news/chinese-county-establishes-blockchain-company-to-develop-forestry-industry
HARA Token: https://haratoken.io
IBM Africa & Hello Tractor: https://www.hellotractor.com/ibm
IBM TrustChain: https://www.trustchainjewelry.com
IUCN Green List standard token: https://gls.porini.foundation
La’Zooz: http://lazooz.org
LO3 Energy: https://lo3energy.com
Matrix Charging system: https://www.ico.li/blockchain-and-e-mobility
MOBI: https://dlt.mobi
Natural Asset Exchange: https://www.naturalasset.exchange
Natural Capital Coalition: https://naturalcapitalcoalition.org/the-natural-capital-blockchain-revolution
NetObjex: https://www.netobjex.com/use-cases
Nori Carbon Removal Marketplace: https://nori.com
Omnitude & Maltese Government: https://omnitude.tech/omnitude-the-maltese-govt
OriginTrail: https://origintrail.io
OXÏ-ZEN Programme: https://www.oxi-zen.io
Plastic Bank: https://plasticbank.com
Polys voting blockchain: https://polys.me
23
Power Ledger: https://www.powerledger.io
Provenance: https://www.provenance.org
Provenance Blockchain Poultry Supply Chain: https://www.provenance.org/case-studies/grass-roots
RainTrust Agro-Blockchain: https://raintrust.io
Recereum: https://recereum.com
RecycleToCoin: https://iywto.com/things/recycle-cans/recycle-to-coin
REDD-Chain: http://cleantech21.org/fileadmin/content/NBE/C21_H4C_REDD-Chain_Sum082018_v04.pdf
Regen Network: https://www.regen.network
Ripe.io Blockchain of Food: https://www.ripe.io
Sawtooth Blockchain: https://sawtooth.hyperledger.org/examples/seafood.html
Shamba Records: https://shambarecords.co.ke
Share & Charge: https://shareandcharge.com
Skuchain Supply Chain: https://www.skuchain.com
SolarCoin: https://solarcoin.org
South Pole/IXO/Gold Standard MRV Blockchain: https://www.goldstandard.org/tags/blockchain
SunContract: https://suncontract.org
Sun Exchange: https://thesunexchange.com
Swachhcoin: http://www.swachhcoin.com
TE-FOOD FoodChain: https://tefoodint.com
Tracr blockchain: https://www.tracr.com
TradeLens: https://www.tradelens.com
Travel4Green: http://t4gpng.org
Ubitquity: https://www.ubitquity.io
Unilever pilot for tea supply: https://www.greenbiz.com/article/unilever-teams-big-banks-blockchain-supply-chain
Veridium: https://www.veridium.io
Verv: https://verv.energy
Volt P2P Delivery Platform: https://ico-tokensale.com/volt
WAGIF LineageCode: https://www.lineagecode.com
WasteLedger: https://www.f6s.com/wasteledger
WaterChain: https://www.waterchain.io
WeatherBlock: http://www.weatherblock.org
WePower: https://wepower.network
WFP Building Blocks: https://innovation.wfp.org/project/building-blocks
WorldCover: https://www.worldcovr.com
WWF Blockchain Supply Chain Traceability Project: https://www.wwf.org.nz/what_we_do/marine/blockchain_tuna_project
Xride: https://laboratories.telekom.com/blockchain-scooter
Yale OpenLab Open Climate: https://openlab.yale.edu/open-climate
24
ENDNOTES
1 Ricardo Barra and Sunday A. Leonard, Novel Entities (Washington, D.C., Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility, 2018).
2 Garrick Hileman and Michael Rauchs, Global Blockchain Benchmarking Study (Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge Centre for Alternative Finance, 2017); Deloitte, “Blockchain: A technical primer”, Deloitte Insights, 6 February 2018; Miriam Denis Le Sève, Nathaniel Mason and Darius Nassiry, “Delivering blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”, Overseas Development Institute, October 2018.
3 A “hash” is a unique string of letters and numbers created from text using a mathematical formula.4 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Blockchain Primer (Paris, 2019). 5 Blockchains are said to be almost immutable because of the huge effort that is needed to successfully change an entry in the database. To success-
fully change an entry, one would need to change all the historical data on every single node. 6 Matthew Hooper, “Top five blockchain benefits transforming your industry”, Blockchain Pulse: IBM Blockchain Blog, 22 February 2018; Shaan Ray,
“The difference between blockchains & distributed ledger technology”, Towards Data Science, 19 February 2018; Paul Nelson, Primer on Blockchain (Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 2018).
7 Digital tokens (also referred to as “crypto-tokens”) are used to represent a particular fungible and tradable asset or utility. Anyone in possession of the digital token, therefore, has the right to the item and can track and trade it digitally.
8 Smart contracts are digital protocol that help facilitate, authenticate and administer the negotiation and implementation of a contract as agreed by all parties, but without third parties.
9 Piscini et al. 2016. Blockchain: Democratized trust – Distributed ledgers and the future of value. Deloitte University Press. 10 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018). 11 https://openlab.yale.edu/open-climate12 https://www.regen.network13 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering
blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”. 14 https://plasticbank.com15 https://www.gainforest.app16 Christine Leong, Tal Viskin and Robyn Stewart, Tracing the Supply Chain: How Blockchain Can Enable Traceability in the Food Industry (Accenture,
2018); Gerard Sylvester, ed., E-agriculture in Action: Blockchain for Agriculture – Opportunities and Challenges (Bangkok, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; International Telecommunication Union, 2019).
17 Chris Addison et al., Opportunities of Blockchain for Agriculture, Brussels Briefing No. 55 (Brussels Briefings, 2019).18 Heather Clancy, “Unilever teams with big banks on blockchain for supply chain”, GreenBiz, 13 December 2017. 19 https://www.carbonx.ca20 Also referred to as Climatetrade: https://climatetrade.com21 https://nori.com22 https://www.oxi-zen.io23 https://www.earthbankofcodes.org24 Aanchal Anand, Matthew McKibbin and Frank Pichel, “Colored coins: bitcoin, blockchain, and land administration”, Cadasta (16 February 2020);
Alexandru Oprunenco and Chami Akmeemana, “Using blockchain to make land registry more reliable in India”, United Nations Development Pro-gramme blog, 1 May 2018.
25 http://landing.bitland.world26 https://chromaway.com27 https://plasticbank.com28 https://endofwaste.com29 https://recereum.com30 https://www.flexidao.com31 https://wepower.network32 https://www.waterchain.io33 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering
blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”; Merlinda Andoni et al., “Blockchain technology in the energy sector: a systematic review of challenges and opportunities”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 100 (February 2019), pp. 143–174.
34 https://suncontract.org35 https://exergy.energy36 Yong Yuan and Fei-Ye Wang, “Towards blockchain-based intelligent transportation systems”, in Proc. 2016 IEEE 19th International Conference on
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Rio de Janeiro, 1–4 November 2016; Viktor Valastin et al., “Blockchain based car-sharing platform”, paper prepared for 61st International Symposium ELMAR, Zadar, Croatia, 2019. Available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335241161_Block-chain_Based_Car-Sharing_Platform
37 Omnitude, “Omnitude & the Maltese Govt” (16 February 2020). Available at https://omnitude.tech/omnitude-the-maltese-govt38 Alfonso Govela, “Blockchain, a tool for metropolitan governance?” Metropolis Observatory Issue Paper 05 (Barcelona, Metropolis). Available at
https://www.metropolis.org/sites/default/files/metobsip5_en_1.pdf 39 “Impact investing” is the channelling of investments towards socioenvironmental initiatives.40 PwC and WEF, Building block(chain)s for a better planet (PricewaterhouseCoopers and World Economic Forum, 2018); Le Sève et al., “Delivering
blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”.41 Maija Palmer, “Blockchain keeps environmental impact investors in the loop”, Financial Times, 22 September 2018. 42 PricewaterhouseCoopers Global Power & Utilities, Blockchain: An Opportunity for Energy Producers and Consumers (PricewaterhouseCoopers,
2016); Camilo Mora et al., “Bitcoin emissions alone could push global warming above 2°C”, Nature Climate Change, vol. 8 (2018), pp. 931–936; Alex de Vries, “Bitcoin’s growing energy problem”, Joule, vol. 2, No. 5 (16 May 2018), pp. 801–805.
43 Le Sève et al., “Delivering blockchain’s potential for environmental sustainability”.44 https://www.climatechaincoalition.io45 https://openlab.yale.edu46 https://bithub.africa47 GIZ, “Innovative solutions for sustainable development” (16 February 2020). Available at https://www.giz.de/en/worldwide/67045.html48 Yusuf Karacaoglu, Stela Mocan and Rachel Alexandra Halsema, “The World Bank Group’s Technology and Innovation Lab, from concept to develop-
ment”, Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization, vol. 12, No. 1–2 (summer–fall 2018), pp. 18–28.